PROJECT MENG 2011 Rev Ugwu OO - University Of Nigeria … MENG 2011 Rev... · Chukwuji Christian...

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FACTORS AFFECTING PRODUCTION AND QUALITY

IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

Chukwuji Christian F.M

PG/M.Engr/09/50669

FACTORS AFFECTING PRODUCTION AND QUALITY

IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

Department of Civil Engineering

Engineering

Okey ijere

Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name DN : CN = Webmaster’s name O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka OU = Innovation Centre

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A Dissertation Report by

Chukwuji Christian F.M

PG/M.Engr/09/50669


Postgraduate School

University of Nigeria Nsukka

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Award of

Master of Engineering Degree in Materials and Construction

Engineering

March, 2012

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APPROVAL

This research study has been approved by the supervisor Engr. Prof. O.O.Ugwu

and the Department of Civil Engineering, for Chukwuji Christian. F.M. with

registration number PG/MEng/09/50669

…………………………………………….. ………………………

Engr Prof O.O.Ugwu Date

Supervisor

……………………………………………. ………………………

Engr. J.C. Ezeokonkwo Date

HOD. Department of Civil Engineering

…………………………………………….. ….….…………………

Prof J. C. Agunwamba Date

Dean Faculty of Engineering

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CERTIFICATION

Chukwuji Christian F.M. of Department of Civil Engineering with registration

NO.PG/MEng/09/50669 has satisfactorily completed this research report in partial

fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Master of Engineering in Materials

and Construction Engineering. This report is his original research study and has not

been submitted in part or complete for any other certificate of other universities or

similar institutions

…………………………………………….. ………………………

Engr Prof O.O.Ugwu Date

Supervisor

……………………………………………. ………………………

Engr. J.C. Ezeokonkwo Date

HOD. Department of Civil Engineering

…………………………………………….. ….….…………………

Prof J. C. Agunwamba Date

Dean Faculty of Engineering

DEDICATION

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This research study is dedicated to the glory of Almighty God and to every lover of

the civil engineering profession

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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I acknowledge with thanks my academic and professional colleagues, who in one

way or the other assisted me in carrying out this research study. My special thanks

goes to my supervisor Engr. Professor O. O. Ugwu for his scholarly guidance

throughout the study.

I express my gratitude to all the managers and supervisors of selected indigenous

construction companies in Akwa-Ibom, Bauchi, Benue, Enugu, Kaduna, Oyo, and

Abuja FTC respectively, who with ease gave me the information that I needed for

this research.

I am equally grateful to Misses Charity Diugwu and Blessing Iro who

painstakingly typed this dissertation report.

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ABSRACT

This research was conducted to appraise the factors affecting construction workers

productivity and quality of work in indigenous construction companies in Nigeria.

The observed low productivity, shoddy work and poor finishing by craft workers

employed in these companies inspired the choice of the research topic. The

objective of this research was to ascertain if the managers of construction

companies actually use modern planning methods and adequate motivation in

managing construction workers for high productivity. It also aimed at verifying

whether the indigenous construction companies employ qualify and trained craft

workers that will ensure quality of their work. The research investigated the

productivity and quality problems using field survey method. The survey adopted

closed form structured questionnaires distributed to construction managers, site

engineers, and supervisors of these companies. Seventy randomly selected

indigenous construction companies in the six geo-political zones of the federation

were given the questionnaires and fifty-two returned their filled questionnaires.

The field data collected from the companies were analyzed and tested by non-

parametric statistics method of frequency, percentage, ranking and chi-square at

5% level of significance. The research findings and results further confirmed that

the problems of low productivity and poor quality of work observed in indigenous

construction companies was due to improper planning of workforce, non-

motivation and inadequate training of craft workers. Based on the results, and

analysis of the field survey, fifteen-decision models were recommended to help the

indigenous construction companies solve the problems of low productivity and

poor quality of work.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page … … … … … …. …. … i

Approval … … … … … …. …. … ii

Certification … … … … … …. …. … iii

Dedication … … … … … …. …. … iv

Acknowledgment … … … … … …. …. … v

Abstract … … … … … …. …. … vi

Table of content … … … … … …. …. … vii

List of tables … … … … … …. …. … ix

List of figures … … … … … …. …. … xii

Definition of terms … … … … … …. …. … xii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study … … … … … …. 1

1.2 Statement of problem … … … … … …. 3

1.3 Research questions … … … … … …. …. 3

1.4 Aim and objectives of study … … … … … 4

1.5 Hypothesis … … … … … …. …. … 4

1.6 Significance of study … … … … … …. …. 5

1.7 Scope and delimitation … … … … … …. 5

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Trade classification of construction workers … … … 7

2.2 Craft workers Job and Work Standard … … … … 7

2.3 Work force planning and supervision … … …… … … 9

2.4 Productivity control of work force … … …… … … 26

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2.5 Productivity motivation of construction workers … … … 30

2.6 Effective communication on construction site… … … 32

2.7 Quality control of construction resources… … …… … 34

2.8 Education and training of craftsmen … … …… … 49

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research design … … …… … …… … …… … 62

3.2 Scope of study … … …… … …… … …… 62

3.3 Population of study … … …… … …… … 62

3.4 Sample and sampling technique … … …… … 62

3.5 Instrument of data collection … … …… … …… 63

3.6 Validation of Instrument … … …… … …… 63

3.7 Method of data collection … … …… … …… 63

3.8 Method of data analysis … … …… … …… 63

3.9 Statistical presentation of data … … …… … …… 63

3.10 Analysis of data … … …… … …… … …… 76

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

4.1Results of field Survey … … … …… … …… 86

4.2 Discussion of Results … … …… … …… … 87

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion … … …… … …… … …… … 89

5.2 Recommendation … … …… … …… … …… 90

5.3 Limitations of study… … …… … …… … …… 91 REFERENCES

APPENDICES

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List of tables

Table 2.1 A Typical Workers Output Standard,

Table 2.2 A Typical Man-Hour Output and Cost Contribution of Craft Workers in

a Construction Project.

Table 2.2 Work Programme lot 2: Construction Of 2nd 6km Length + 4 Culverts

Dual Road Construction

Table 2.3: A Monthly Workforce Schedule for a Typical Building Project.

Table 2.2 Work Programme for the construction of 2nd 6km Length + 4 Culverts

dual road

Table 2.3: A Monthly Workforce Schedule for a Typical Building Project.

Table 2.4 Work Instruction Form

Table2.5 Setting out Checklist

Table 2.6 Strip Foundation Checklist

Table 2.7 Piling Checklist

Table 2.8 Pile cap/Ground beam Checklist

Table 2.4 Work Instruction Form

Table2.5 Setting out Checklist

Table 2.6 Strip Foundation Checklist

Table 2.7 Piling Checklist

Table 2.8 Pile cap/Ground beam Checklist

Table 2.9: A typical Labour Time Card for Craftsmen

Table2.10 Foreman’s Daily Labour Report

Table 2.11 Construction manager weekly labour productivity report Chart.

Table 2.12 Frequency of Inspection and Tolerances in Workmanship

Table 2.13 Frequency of tests for quality control on Road Construction

Table 2.14: Standard normal variable associated with various confidence levels

Table 2.15 Typical Inspection Measuring and Testing Equipment on Building Site

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Table 2.16 (A) Internal Quality Audit Form.

Table 2.16 (b) Internal Quality Audit Form

Table 3.1: Questionnaire No 1; Ownership composition of your company

Table 3.2: Questionnaire No 2; Area of specialization of your company

Table 3.3: Questionnaire No3; Age of your company in construction

Table 3.4: Questionnaire No 4; Category of registration of your company.

Table 3.5: Questionnaire No 5; Geographical location of your company

Table 3.6 Questionnaire No 6; What is the employment status of greater number of

your craft workers.

Table 3.7: Questionnaire No 7; What is your company’s project planning set up.

Table 3.8 Questionnaire No 8; Who is the head of project planning in your

company.

Table 3.9 Questionnaire No 9; What type of construction planning method is

adopted in your company.

Table 3.10: Questionnaire No 10; With regard to your present construction

planning method, estimate crafts workers output in your company.

Table 3.11: Questionnaire No 11; If the output of your craft workers is below

average what is the anticipated cause(s).

Table 3.12: Questionnaire No 12;What type of quality control method is adopted in

your company

Table 3.13: Questionnaire No 13; Please estimate your craftsmen quality of work

with your present method of quality control

Table 3.14: Questionnaire No 14: If the quality of work is below average, what

could be the cause(s)

Table 3.15 Quetionnaire15; What method have you been using to determine the

output of your craftsmen

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Table 3.16 Questionnaire No 16; Please indicate the ratio of staff and casual

craftsmen in your company

Table 3.17: Questionnaire No 17; What is the monthly salary for a staff craftsman

in your company

Table 3.18: Questionnaire No 18; What is the daily wage for a casual craftsman

employed in your company

Table 3.19: Questionnaire No19; What Incentive packages have you adopted for

your craft workers

Table 3.20: Questionnaire No 20; Please with the present wages, salaries and

incentive packages paid by your company estimate craft workers output

Table 3.21: Questionnaire No 21; If the output of craft workers is still below

average, what is the anticipated cause(s).

Table 3.22: Questionnaires No 22: What is your recruitment source(s) for craft

workers.

Table 3.23: Questionnaire No 23; What is the minimum qualification for your craft

workers.

Table 3.24: Questionnaire No 24: What is your training or retraining scheme for

craftsmen in your company.

Table 3.25: Questionnaire 25; With the present level of qualification and training

of your craftsmen estimate their efficiency in terms of output and quality of work

Table 3.26 Analysis of data




Table 3.30 Testing of hypotheses 1



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Lists of figures

Figs 2.1 Dual Road Construction Critical Path Network

Fig. 2.2 A typical work grouping chart (section)

Fig. 2.3 Labour Accounting System

Fig. 2.4: Site Communication chart

Fig. 2.5: Normal distribution curve.

Fig. 2.6: Standard normal density curve

Fig 3.1 Graphical analysis of data






Definition of Terms

i. Productivity - is the ratio of output to input.

ii. Worker’s productivity - implies the quantity of work done per man-hour.

iii. Workers productivity standard – is the effort in man-hour needed to

accomplish a unit quantity of work, while working efficiently but allowing

for normal delays and wastage.

iv. Productivity efficiency factor - is the multiplier used to convert production

norms into productivity standard expected under job condition on site.

v. Craftsmen – refers to skilled workers, craft workers or tradesmen working in

building or civil engineering companies.

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vi. Indigenous construction companies – means local construction companies

fully owned and managed by Nigerians

vii Multinational construction companies - means Nigerian registered

construction companies owned and managed by 70% foreigners and 30%

Nigerians

viii Productivity control – is the monitoring of performance and applying

corrective measures in case of deviation from plan

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Productivity at both micro and macro -economic level is a serious issue as far as

the industrial sector is concerned. Construction industry is definitely one of such

industries that make very high economic contributions in every nation. The

industry usually accounts for, between 6-9% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

and over 50% fixed capital formation of both developed and developing nations of

the world, (Chitkara, 2006).

Jeremaih (2012) in Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) documentary

report wrote “Productivity data is the source of real economic growth and major

determinant of a nation’s living standard. A single challenge to many societies is

therefore, how to create a condition for rapid and sustained productivity growth

especially at organizational and industrial levels. It is in realization of the

important role of productivity that many nations of the world have established

National Productivity Organizations (NPOs) as part of the strategies to promote

productivity in individual enterprises and nations. The primary duty of every NPO

is to provide an improved quality of life of the citizenry, promote productivity and

competitiveness. It is in view of the poor productivity growth in Africa that Heads

of States of countries in African Union, at the 16th Ordinary Session, requested

member states to accelerate the implementation of the productivity agenda for

African, which include the establishment of NPOs in each member states. In

Nigeria, the National Productivity Centre (NPC) was established in 2004 and given

the responsibility to research on the productivity of all sector of the economy,

under the supervision of Federal Ministry of Labour and Productivity. Its mandate

include, to formulate and advice on productivity policy that will guide all sectors

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of the economy, design and initiate productivity and quality programmes, annual

productivity measurement criteria, and provide a reliable data bank on productivity

growth of the country etc”.

Construction is a creative and developmental venture. In view of these facts more

emphasis is placed on the productivity and quality of work produced by

construction workers. Incidentally, in the past three decades, after the oil boom of

1970s, the construction industry in Nigeria has been facing serious problem of low

productivity. A case study once indicated that except in Lagos and Abuja the

former and new capital territories of Nigeria respectively, construction workers

have performed poorly in every other state of the federation. The disparity may be

deduced from the efficiency of the multinational construction companies operating

in the two territories. Also, when compared with the manufacturing sector, it was

easy to observe that the productivity problem is more in the construction industry

than in the manufacturing industry, which has continued to report rise in

productivity for nearly two decades now.

Productivity is actually the measure of individual or collective performance of

resource(s) input in an organization or an enterprise. The construction industry

resources are, men, materials, machines and money. Of these resources, the most

vulnerable and grossly mismanaged in the Nigerian construction industry is the

men or construction workers. The present craftsmen, who constitute about 60% of

the direct construction workers in every project site, have not shown marked

improvement in their performance since the exit of master craftsmen in 1970s. The

situation could not be remedied by influx of craftsmen from neighboring countries

of Ghana and Bene Republic.

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Many genuine investors, developers, designers, and construction managers, have

continued to indicate their serious concern on the low output and poor quality of

work of this generation of craftsmen, especially on construction projects executed

by indigenous contractors. They fear that the continuous decrease in productivity

and quality of work by the present crop of construction craftsmen will eventually

cripple the industry and its GDP coupled with the current rate of building collapse

and road failures. However, it is believed that certain factors are critically

responsible for the low productivity and poor quality of work of Nigerian

craftsmen employed in indigenous companies. These factors formed the basis of

this project study.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Construction craft workers’ low productivity and poor quality of work in Nigeria

as professionals have continuously indicated result from many factors. These

limiting factors range from improper planning and control, inadequate training,

lack of motivation, poor welfare management, complexity of work, unavailability

of materials, malnutrition, poor leadership, sickness, absenteeism, labour turnover,

poor communication and supervision, adverse environmental and climatic

conditions etc. All these factors exert varying degrees of limitations and influence

on the output of the craftsmen. In this research, the most critical factors affecting

the productivity and quality of work of these craftsmen employed in Nigerian

indigenous construction companies were investigated.

1.3 Research Questions

i. Can improper planning and poor supervision greatly affect the productivity of

construction workers in our indigenous construction companies?

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ii. Can poor wages and absent of motivational incentives significantly affect the

productivity of construction workers in indigenous construction companies?

iii. Will inadequate education and vocational training greatly affect the quality of

work and output of craft workers in indigenous construction companies?

1.4 Aim and Objectives of Study

The aim of this study is to appraise the three major factors affecting the

productivity and quality of work or otherwise of the craft workers employed in

indigenous construction companies in Nigeria. To achieve this, the following

objectives have been set out:

i. To ascertain whether the construction managers of our indigenous

construction companies have adequate knowledge and application of the

modern planning, supervision and control techniques on labour workforce on

project sites that will ensure higher productivity.

ii. To ascertain how often or otherwise the managers use incentives to motivate

craft workers for higher productivity.

iii. To verify if the present level of education and training of craftsmen employed

in the indigenous construction firms is adequate to ensure quality of work and

high productivity.

1.5 Hypothesis

H01: Improper planning, supervision and control of craft workers activities on

construction site significantly affect their productivity and quality of work in

indigenous construction companies in Nigeria.

H02: Poor wages and inadequate motivational incentives significantly affect the

productivity and quality of work of craft workers in indigenous construction

firms in Nigeria.

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H03: Inadequate education and vocational training of craft workers significantly

affect their quality of work in indigenous construction companies in Nigeria.

1.6 Significance of Study

i. The completed study will highlight the importance for managers of the

indigenous construction companies to continually apply modern planning,

supervision and control techniques in the management of craft work force for

higher productivity.

ii. The study will intimate indigenous contractors the relevance of training and

retraining of craftsmen as a sure way to increase their productivity and quality

of work.

iii. It will give credence to the success associated with adequate incentives

packages to motivate crafts workers for higher productivity and quality of

work in construction projects. Our local contractors have not been using

incentives for motivation, unlike the multinational construction firms.

iv. The study will add to the body of knowledge on the factors that can really

affect productivity and quality of work in Nigerian construction industry.

v. It will encourage building and civil engineering scholars to research further

into other factors that tend to limit or affect the productivity of craftsmen.

vi. Finally the study will provide probable solutions to the worrisome problems

of poor quality of work and low output pledging our local construction firms.

1.7 Scopes and Delimitation

As highlighted in the statement of problem, the influencing factors on quality of

work and productivity of craft workers in our indigenous construction companies

are quite many and more than what can be investigated in this study. However, the

study will focus on the problems of inadequate workforce planning and control of

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craftsmen, non-use of motivational incentives on craftsmen and inadequate

education and training of craftsmen for higher productivity. The geographical

scope of the study is the entire six geo–political zones of Nigeria.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Trade Classification of Construction Craft workers

NIOB-NBCS (2005) defined a craftsman as one who has acquired the skill in one

or two trades and certified by a master craftsman after a period of supervised

training and has the potential to work on a construction project. The institute

further classified construction craftsmen into three groups namely; structural

craftsmen comprising carpenters, masons, steel fixers, and metal fabricators;

finishing craftsmen comprising plasterers, tillers, glazers, painters and decorators;

services craftsmen are plumbers and electricians. Chitkara (2006) in his

classification of construction workers listed tradesmen as fitters, welders, sheet

fabricators, auto-electricians, auto-mechanics, and air condition mechanics.

2.2 Craftsmen Job and Work Standard:

2.2.1 The job of craftsmen

Historically, since the erection of the first house and bridge on earth, craftsmen

have been the life wire of construction work and provision of houses and

infrastructure for human habitation, transportation and other economic uses.

According to NIOB-NBCS (2005), craftsmen are people who directly apply their

human skill and ingenuity on construction work that all together produce complete

building structure of different designs and types, roads and bridge structures. By

training, craftsmen have acquired hand-on-tool vocation, physical vigor and

resilience to perform the practical construction work such as concreting, block and

bricklaying, carpentry work, metal welding and fabrication, steel erection,

painting, decoration, plumbing, auto-mechanics and maintenance etc.

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2.2.2 Work Standards for Craftsmen

Craftsmen productivity standard or norm refers to already recorded productivity

data indicating the extent of effort required in terms of man-hours to accomplish a

unit quantity of specified work or activity. The standard express the direct effort of

craft workers and do not include the indirect effort of supporting staff on site.

According to Adrian (1982), planners and estimators can obtain productivity data

by analyzing workers performance on the previous construction work, or by

carrying out work-study research on their crafts workers. As a fast measure they

can obtain productivity norms from those published by professional institutes and

building research centers. The standards are therefore used to estimate the amount

of labour required for each work activity in the project. An example of workers

output standards is shown in table 2.1.

Table 2.1 A Typical Workers Output Standard, (Chitkara. 2006)

SI. Gang Size Out put per day (8 Hrs) No. Activities Units Skilled Unskilled

1. Excavation in ordinary soil (manually) CM - 2 7.00 2. Backfilling with excavate earth (manually) CM - 3 15.00 3. Concrete mixing and pouring in place CM 2 10 17.50 4. Making, fixing & removing of fair face formwork SM 2 1 10.00 5. Making, fixing & removing of ordinary formwork SM 2 1 11.50 6 Reinforcement making & fixing MT 2 1 0.30 7. B.R.C. fabric cutting & fixing SM 2 1 165.00 8. Bitumen paints (2 Coats) SM - 2 40.00 9. Blockwork & plaster (including scaffolding upto 4) (i) Solid blockwork SM 2 2 15.00 (ii) Hollow blockwork SM 2 2 17.00 (iii) Fairface blockwork SM 2 2 12.00 (iv) Internal plaster (single coat) SM 2 2 30.00 (v) Internal plaster (double coat) SM 2 2 20.00 (vi) External plaster (single coat) SM 2 2 20.00 (vii) External plaster SM 2 2 15.00 (viii) Screed in flooring (upto 75 mm thick) SM 2 2 20.00 (ix) Erection of scaffolding (above 4m upto 15 m nt) SM - 2 35.00 (x) Dismantling of scaffolding SM - 2 100.00 10. Tiling work (A) Ceramic wall tiles SM 1 1 6.00 (B) Ceramic floor tiles with cement back SM 1 1 7.50

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Table 2.1: Contd,

(C) Ceramic tiles with adhesive backing SM 1 1 7.50 (D) Mosaic the work SM 1 1 9.00 (E) Mosaic skirting RM 1 1 27.00 (F) P.V.C tiles work with adhesive SM 1 1 45.00 (G) P.V.C. skirting with adhesive SM 1 1 60.00 (H) P.V.C steps No. 1 1 5.00 (I) Mosaic steps making No. 1 1 5.00 (J) Mosaic steps fixing No. 1 1 6.00 11. Situ flooring SM 1 1 2.50 Situ skirting RM 1 1 8.75 Situ steps RM 1 1 1.50 12. Threshold fixing No. 1 1 12.00 13. Sanitary accessory fixing No. 1 1 10.00 (including cutting of fixed tile if necessary) SM 1 1 10.00 14. Marble work-Floor 15. Painting: (i) 2 Coast of Snowcem SM 1 - 24.00 (ii) 3 Coast of emulsion SM 1 - 12.00 (iii) 4 Coats of enamel paint SM 1 - 10.00

2.3 Workforce Planning and Supervision of Construction Workers :

2.3.1 Workforce Planning Procedure

Bennett (1985) posits that project work planning is primarily focused on

determining the size of workforce, structuring workforce into functional groups

and team and scheduling the entire workforce to match requirement. Chitkara

(2006) also described workforce planning as chiefly identifying the trades and

skills required in a project, establishing and applying productivity standards that

will determine the number of workers needed to perform a given task in a specified

time, scheduling and organizing work force into operation team. The responsibility

for workforce or manpower planning falls in the arms of the Planning Engineer,

the Construction Manager or the Planning Department and each of them may take

the following steps.

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2.3.2 Trades and Skill Identification

Construction involves multi-skill technology for its wide range of related activities.

These skills vary with the nature of job, type of project and corporate policy of the

construction firm. According to Chitkara (2006) the first step in manpower

planning is to identify required trades and skills using the contract documents,

comprising the drawings, specifications and the bill of quantities.

2.3.3 Estimation of Workers Output

Craftsmen output in construction projects are estimated in two ways. First, in terms

of total man-hour input in construction work; an established output standard of

craftsmen on various trades will indicate an average time a craftsman working with

a gang of unskilled labour will spend to produce a certain amount of work. Such

output standard, are usually obtained as indicated in table 2.1. They will be used by

the estimator to determine the total hour input contribution of craftsmen in a

construction project. Secondly, using the same output standard, the estimator will

be able to calculate total cost contribution of craftsmen in a project. A typical man-

hour output and cost contribution of craftsmen in a construction project is shown in

Table 2.2 below. Both contributions are regularly used in work programming and

cash flow management.

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Table 2.2: A Typical Man-Hour Output and Cost Contribution of Craft Workers in a

Construction Project. [Source: Chitkara, 2006]

Duration Direct labour crew B.O.Q Work centre

No Activity Unity Quantity Hours Skilled Unskilled Code Responsible 1 Layout for excavation - - 4 - 2 A1-1 Earthwork 2 Excavation with machine CM 400 8 1 “ “

3 Base preparation SM 360 16 4 10 “ “

4 Anti- termite at base SM 362 4 - 2 A1-4 “

5 Polythene sheeting SM 362 6 - 3 A1-6 “

6 Shuttering for blinding RM 90 8 2 2 A1-7 “

7 Placing concrete M-100 CM 18 18 4 5 A1-6 Concreting

8 Layout for raft - - 4 1 2 A1-8 Rebar

9 Shuttering for raft SM 22.5 8 2 2 “ “

10 Reinforcement for raft MT 6.066 32 10 5 A1-11 “

11 Raft concreting M-250 CM 88.14 5 5 6 A1-8 Concreting

12 Curing raft - - - - 1 “ Backfilling

13 Bitumen coating raft sides SM 362 3 2 3 A1-5 “

14 Layout for plinth wall - - 4 - 2 A1-8 Shuttering

15 Wall shuttering SM 485 48 8 10 “ “

16 Wall concreting M-250 CM 43.78 5 6 “ Concreting

17 Deshuttering - - 16 8 8 “ Shuttering

18 Curing wall - - 8 - 1 “ Backfilling

19 Bitumen coating wall and raft SM 319 3 2 3 A1-5 “

20 Backfilling CM 120 8 - 4 A1-2 “

21 Plinth filling CM 305 16 - 8 A1-3 “

22 Anti- termite under GF slab SM 172 2 - 2 A1-4 “

23 Polythene sheeting SM 225 3 - 2 A1-6 “

24 Shuttering for GF slab SM 11 8 1 1 A1-9 Rebar

25 Weld mesh fixing MT 0.651 8 4 2 A1-10

26 GF concreting M- 250 CM 28.34 2 5 6 A1-9 Concreting

27 Curing GF slab - - 8 - 1 ” Backfilling

Total man-hour 1202 1304

All-in rate per man-hour $ 1.50 $ 1.25

Direct Labour Cost $ 1803 $ 1630

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2.3.4 Construction Methodology

This aspect of planning is critical to the entire work planning. Ayo (2004) posit

that construction methodology is a professionally throughout synthesis of the

construction project activities with the objective to minimize cost and optimize the

use of resources to give a suitable level of production flow. Construction

methodology is a statement of the engineer’s idea of how the construction process

of a building or road project would best be executed. This is normally documented

as method statement for the consultant’s approval before actual construction at site.

The engineer will study each key operation in a project and decide on the most

optimum method of carrying out the operations. He will base his decision on

available designs and contract conditions. For example some operations may

require total mechanization while others may require only manual method or both.

In preparing the method statement, the engineer will consider the following

guidelines

a) Technical personnel available for the project and their experiences

b) Tools, plant and equipment that could be made available for the project either

directly owned or to be hired.

c) Technology that is available in the industry

d) Contract conditions in terms of period, access etc.

e) Site conditions and constraints.

2.3.5 Critical Path Method network Analysis

CPM is one of the three network methods of analyzing and determining the

duration of construction work. It is up to the engineer to choose the method that

will be suitable for his project: CPM network is drawn after the construction

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methodology has been finalized. It is the task of an experience engineer to develop

the CPM network .An example of a CPM of a road project is show in figure. 2.1.

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Fig 2.1 Dual road construction critical path network

E

10

12 3 12

F

10

22 4 22

J

6

32 6 32

8 L

38 9 38

A

4

0 0 0

C

8

4 1 4

D

10

12 2 12

G

12

20 5 22

I

12

32 8 34

L

2

46 10 46

48 1 48

H

12

20 7 22

B

4 EST LST

EST = Earliest Start Time

LST = Latest Start Time

Critical Path Events =

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2.3.6 Work Programme

Work programme according to Bamisile (2004) is a construction project schedule

set data-wise in a logical sequence; it is a timetable for action. It implies

programming of the chosen work plan on a calendar basis and provides the base

against which all progress is measured. The method of presenting work programme

varies depending on the planning technique used and the nature of task to be

performed. Most construction projects are programmed using bar chart method

whereby works are first split into activities and then listed in the order of

construction priority on the left side column, while the time scale is plotted

horizontally on the top and or bottom of the chart. When the work programme is

properly drawn out by an experienced engineer, it will be used to schedule

workforce requirement in various section of the project. A typical work

programme is shown in table. 2.2.

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Table 2.2 Work Programme for the construction of 2nd

6km length + 4 culverts dual road

ACTIVITY

D U R A T I O N

Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Site Clearing

Removal of Trees

General excavation

Grading Culvert 1 & 2 Culvert 3 & 4

Earthwork Drainage Pavement Kerbs

Walkway Clean up

17

2.3.7 Scheduling Construction Workforce

Walker (1984) stated that construction workers on project sites are employed to

perform specific tasks. These workers include supervisors, craftsmen, labourers,

operators, mechanics, drivers etc, and for ease of estimating, planning, accounting

and controlling the workers, they are broadly divided into two categories; the direct

or construction workers and indirect site workers or support manpower. According

to Austen (1984) direct construction workers are those that can be identified with

the execution of an activity of permanent works as listed in the BOQ. They include

foremen, tradesmen and trade helpers. Anderson and Woodhead (1981) clearly

posit that project manpower scheduling must be carried out using the bar chart

programming of construction work. The work programme chart indicates the date

of commencement and completion of each activity of work item, and work content

as contained in the BOQ. The daily average manpower required for each scheduled

activity can be assessed as follows:

MPW required = quantity of work x Labour Productivity standard in man-days ÷

Duration in days

The ratio of the skilled and unskilled labour in construction gang depends on the

characteristics and nature of work. The aggregation of manpower required for the

scheduled activities on the chart indicates the daily strength of workforce,

category-wise required to accomplish the scheduled work according to the project

plan.

Daily workforce required for scheduled work = sum of construction manpower for

the scheduled activity on data.

An example of monthly workforce scheduling is shown in table 2.3

18

Month Shuttering

carpenter

Mason

Conc.

Mason

finishes

Steel fixer Plumber Electrician Operators Trade

helper

Gen.

helper

Total % Cum%

1 18 2 0 10 4 2 2 17 7 62 0.51% 0.51%

2 33 15 0 17 6 5 4 25 32 137 1.14% 1.65%

3 47 13 0 27 6 7 11 37 59 207 1.72% 3.37%

4 48 21 0 32 6 8 12 39 82 248 2.06% 5.42%

5 63 26 8 32 6 8 14 58 105 320 2.65% 8.07%

6 63 26 21 24 6 9 21 95 120 385 3.19% 11.27%

7 98 26 27 35 9 9 24 84 195 507 4.02% 15.47%

8 115 28 30 40 9 9 35 156 162 584 4.84% 20.31%

9 121 31 48 41 12 10 39 173 192 667 5.53% 25.84%

10 156 24 55 50 13 10 39 196 199 742 6.15% 31.99%

11 193 30 62 54 14 13 43 247 170 826 6.85% 38.84%

12 199 33 68 55 14 18 47 278 283 995 8.25% 47.09%

13 202 23 83 61 16 19 50 277 288 1019 8.45% 55.53%

14 202 23 83 61 16 19 50 300 265 1019 8.25% 63.98%

15 197 23 83 60 19 22 46 302 263 1015 8.41% 72.39%

16 186 0 83 60 20 22 47 280 268 966 8.01% 80.40%

17 153 0 83 60 20 22 46 280 286 950 7.88% 88.28%

18 104 0 83 47 20 22 38 212 258 784 6.50% 94.78%

19 72 0 70 27 20 22 29 143 247 630 5.22% 100.00%

Total 2270 244 887 793 236 256 597 3199 3481 12063 100.0%

Table 2.3: A monthly workforce schedule for typical building project

19

2.3.8 Work Grouping of Workforce

In a typical site, workforce is grouped according to work breakdown or activities.

Each work breakdown is assigned a team leader who may be an engineer, a

builder, a foremen or supervisor, leading technical and tradesmen to work in a job

section. With the work grouping, every craftsman is traceable to a task force or

gang. A taskforce will operate without much interference from the other groups.

Fig. 2.2 A typical work grouping chart (section)

The manpower strength of every work task depends on the nature and size of the

task. It usually ranges from 10 to 30 workforces.

2.3.9 Supervision process

Effective site supervision must follow a laid down process which, sometimes will

be according to a company’s policy. Work supervision is the sole job of the

engineer or the construction manager and his assistants, the supervisors or

foremen. Every section of construction work must have adequate number of

craftsmen, artisans and labourers at work. This group of workers, usually in large

Head Carpenter Carpenter

Head Mason Masons

Head Fitter Fitters

Head Labour Labours

Construction Manager (Substructure)

Supervisor/Foreman

20

number, especially in complex building projects must be properly supervised to

ensure that they carry out their various jobs according to production drawings and

specification. The engineer and the supervisors are expected to use the following

criteria for effective work supervision;

i) Engage tested and proven artisans, craftsmen, suppliers, and subcontractors

in all aspect of site production operations.

ii) Strictly follow all the construction methodology.

iii) Ensure that works are carried out in accordance with the construction

programme.

iv) Use appropriate instruction sheet to direct and control how each operation is

to be carried out on site.

v) Use check list for the continuous inspection of each operation as it is being

carried out. It is the duty of the engineer to prepare the instruction sheets

and the check lists. Samples of instruction sheets and checklists are

shown in tables 2 4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7 and 2.8 below

21

Table 2.4 Work Instruction Form (Bamisile 2004)

ABC LIMITED: WORK INSTRUCTION

PROJECT…………………………………. GRIDLINE/REF…………………….

STAGE OF WORK…………………………. TRADE/ELEMENT………………….

CHECKLIST REF…………………..

DESCRIPTION OF WORK OPERATIONAL METHOD

MATERIALS REQUIRED

LABOUR REQUIRED

PLANT/EQUIPMENT

Operation Start Date………………………..

Prepared

By………………….Date………….

Duration of Operation……………………….

Approved by…………………Date…………

22

Table2.5 Setting out Checklist (Bamisile 2004)

ABC LIMITED: SETTING OUT CHECKLIST

PROJECT……………………………………………………………………….

LOCATION/BLOCK NO………………………………………………………

S/N WORK ITEMS CHECK DATE REMARK& SIGN

1

2

3 4

5 6 7 8

Confirm site dimension

Set Backs-Front -Back

-Right side -Left side

Profile lines Measurements- Length

-Width -Diagonal -Recesses

-Projections

Squarness General Arrangements

Angles Curves (If necessary)

General comments………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………. …

Setting out Approved (name)……………………….. Sign ………………. Date…….

23

Table 2.6 Strip Foundation Checklist (Bamisile 2004)

ABC LIMITED: STRIP FOUNDATION CHECKLIST

PROJECT…………………………………………………………

LOCATION/BLOCK NO…………………………………………..


1.0

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

1.7

2,0

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

3.0

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

4.0

4.1

EXCAVATION

Width of excavation

Depth of excavation

Suitability of formation level

No soft spot SE&QS Informed of Variation Blinding Depth of concrete footing REINFORCEMENT (IF ANY)

Type of bar

Bat sizes

Bar centres

Cover (top, side,& bottom)

Starter bar position & level

CONCRETING

Pockets Pocket (box outs) Mixing Placement & compaction Finished level Cube taken & late date recorded POST POUR Curing

General comments…………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………….

Foundation Approved by (name)………………… . .Sign………………….. Date…………

24

Table 2.7 Piling Checklist (Bamisile 2004)

ABC LIMITED PILING CHECKLIST

PROJECT…………………………………………………………

LOCATION/BLOCK NO………………………………GRIDLINE………………………….


1

2 3

4

5

6

7

8 9 10

11

Test Piling Installation of inclinometer (if necessary) Diameter of bore

Depth of drilling

Reference to datum

Lining

Reinforcement

Concrete mix

-Placement & compaction -Sample of cube test

-slump measured Pile cap formation levels Pile test

Recorded pile test results

General comments………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Piling Approved by(name)……………………………Sign ……………….Date……………

25

Table 2.8 Piling Cap Checklist (Bamisile 2004)

ABC LIMITED PILING CAP CHECKLIST

PROJECT…………………………………………………………

LOCATION/BLOCK NO………………………………GRIDLINE………………………….


1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

Excavation level correct

Formation n level suitable

Excavation size correct

Consultant SE& QS informed of

variation to drawing (if any)

Position and orientation correct

Blinding level correct

Reinforcement -bar sizes

-centres -cover

–starter bars M&E sleeves

Formwork

Concrete mix record of delivery ticket.

Cube taken/date recorded

Slump measured

Concrete placement & compaction

Finish to top of pile cap and ground

beam correct

Curing

General comments……………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………….

Pile cap/Ground beam Approved by (name)……………… Sign ……………Date…….

26

2.4 Productivity Control of Workforce :

2.4.1 The Control Concept

Alfred (1988) gave the view that labour productivity control achieved on a project

site will provide a measure of the labour efficiency, show the total time for which

the labour was employed at work, the time he was productive on work and the time

he remained unproductive. Chitkara (2006) reported that studies carried out on a

construction site revealed that the workers productive work time varies from 50 to

70% of his total employment time and the remaining time is wasted for various

reasons such as idle waiting, unnecessary movement, late starting, early quitting,

unscheduled break, delay in the receipt of tools, materials and work instructions.

Anderson and Woodhead (1981) suggested that the labour control process would

include accounting of actual productivity time, comparing the actual time with the

standard, analyzing the causes of any variance between the actual and standard and

finally taking remedial measures to improve productivity.

2.4.2 Establishing Labour Accounting System

Chitkara (2006) recommended that labour accounting system should be designed

to serve many purposes; to enable computation of accurate payment of

construction workers, to provide data for the evaluation of labour productivity for

various tasks and facilitating the estimation of labour costs of work executed. He

further stated that the same labour accounting system provides the information and

record keeping requirement of the entire project department, especially those of

personnel, accounting, costing and planning. Chitkara, gave his model of labour

accounting system as shown below:

27

Fig. 2.3 Labour Accounting System. (Source: Chitkara, 2006).

Productivity accounting is the time-keepers’ daily time records for the labourers

and craftsmen, foremen daily employment records

2.4.3 Time-Keepers’ Daily Recording

Chitkara maintained that the first step in productivity evaluation is to record

payable time. The timekeeper keeps the labour time account and the basic

document used for this purpose is the time card. The time-card record the daily

attendance time of the worker, details of his trade time in and time out, and

possibly the task he is employed. The workers’ time cards are submitted to the

personnel department by the timekeeper, at specified interval for pay rolls and

wage calculation. A specimen of a time card is shown in table 2.4. Time-card data

ensures that a worker is paid exactly what is due to him.

Administration Center

Time Card Development Centre

Productivity

Manpower Forecast

Cost Analysis

Pay-roll

Labour Cost Forecast

28

Table 2.9: A typical Labour Time Card for Craftsmen (Source: Chitkara, 2006).

2.4.4 Foreman’s Daily Labour Employment Report

Also according to Chitkara, a typical foreman’s daily labour report is based on the

time-keeper record and will include the work activity for which a worker or crew

member was employed on productive work and his idle time breakdown with

causes. The report will indicate the quantity of work done on a daily basis by the

worker. The foreman’s daily labour employment statement, at the end of each day

is forwarded by him through his construction manager/project engineer to the

productivity monitor. A specimen of foreman’s daily labour report is shown in

table2.10

No Category Name

Work Centre/Dept./Work Package Cost Code

Normal Working Time Over Time

DATE IN OUT IN OUT Hours Hours

Total

For use by Accountant

Normal wages Overtime wages Total

Deductions

Amount payable

29

Table 2.10 Foreman’s Daily Labour Report (Source: Chitkara, 2006).

S1

No

Workers’

Names/code

Daily

Grand

Total

(Hrs)

Dated:

Non-Productive Man-Hours

Act

A

Act

B

Act

C

Work

P

Item

Work

Q

Item

Total

(Hrs)

Sick

Def

work

Waiting for

Work

Instruc

tion

Epuip

ment

Mat-

erials

Bad

Weather

Interrup

-tion

Other

duty

Total

Current total

Previous

Employment

Total

employment

Work

Done

Qty

Unit

Productivity

Work/MH(O

QW)

30

2.4.5 Construction Manager Weekly Labour Productivity Report

Like the Foreman’s report and the Timekeeper’s daily report, the construction manager

weekly labour productivity report is based on the foremen’s daily report, after thorough

scrutiny. The manager’s report is done collectively on each time of the work and used

to monitor labour performance and evaluate labour cost for each item of work. The

report provides a device to compare the operating efficiencies of different task force

and helps to forecast the labour workforce required for the remaining similar work. The

manager labour report becomes the bases for developing labour productivity norms for

use in future similar works. See table 2.11 below.

Table 2.11 Construction manager weekly labour productivity reports Chart. [ Chitkara 2006)]

2.5 Productivity Motivation of Construction Workers :

2.5.1 Motivational Objectives

Chitkara (2006) opined that the art of motivating lies in creating the environment,

developing systems and directing efforts in such a way that they meet the

organizational goals as well as the needs of those participating in the process, with

everyone working enthusiastically as one team under the leadership of the

construction manager. The motivational approach, in general can be divided into

Date Crew Milk Actual MH

on date

Actual MH

Cumulative

Quantity work Productivity

actual

Productivity

standard

Skilled Unskilled Complete Cumulative

31

behavioural approach and financial incentive schemes. In a construction project the

behaviour motivational approach is to create a healthy work environment while the

financial incentive scheme benefits the participant in the following ways,

� It assists management is increasing production and productivity without any

appreciable increases in cost, by curtailing supervision time, obtaining

reliable feedback in progress of work and productivity, and increasing

effective control on the employment of workers.

� It helps workers in increasing their earnings and gaining job satisfaction

without affecting the estimated costs of work. It also encourages workers to

develop better method of working.

In all, and in view of the benefits, the management of construction firms should

ensure that such policies, which motivate workers, are put in place for every

project site.

2.5.2 Types of financial incentives

MacCaffer & Harris (2001) argued that financial incentives are those intended to

remove sub-standard performance and encourage increase in output by payment of

bonus money relative to the level of production. Workman understand financial

reward than any other and can achieve and maintain a pace of work up to 331/3

percent above his normal, without loss of quality or personal strain. This incentive

scheme is specifically meant to encourage productivity, good quality of work and

operatives more earnings without increasing unit cost. Examples of financial

incentive schemes are:

i. Profit Sharing: bonus that a company pays out either yearly or half yearly in

lump sum or shares to its employees based on the profit earned by the

company.

32

ii. Day work payment: where an hourly rate is paid relative to the skill required

by the task, the worker is then simply paid for performing on the work. This

system is most suitable for craft operatives where there is great complexity

involved or a high level of skill is required.

iii. Piecework payment: this is the payment of a uniform price per unit of

production, as the worker improves output, earnings increases

proportionately.

2.6 Effective Communication on Construction Site :

2.6.1 What to communicate on site

A construction site is like a factory that is organized to produce a building structure

or road infrastructure. As a factory, various classes of people are involved in

production and everybody has to comprehend direct instructions and carry out

expected duties. According to Nwosu (2007) in a construction site there are many

issues and instructions to be communicated within the site and from the head

office, for the smooth running of the project. Every activity on site requires

effective communication to enhance better result. Issues to be communicated on a

project site include;

� Policies, goals and objectives of the company regarding the project

� Construction drawings, specifications and schedules

� Construction safety, health and welfare instructions

� Site progress reports and possible changes

� Additional works, variations, materials and plant movement

� Consultants inspection visits, instructions and meetings

� Periods of payments to workers, subcontractors and suppliers

� Bonus and incentive packages

� Requirements, transfers, sack or death of any worker

33

� Purchases and delivery of materials etc

2.6.2 Channels of communication on site

Johnston (1981) argued that communication is a vital part of any organization and

no less so than in the construction sites where activities are scattered, decisions and

instructions often needed urgently. Work often goes wrong on site because of poor

communication, particularly among those responsible for implementing

instructions. The accepted medium for giving instructions and receiving

information on site is by verbal, written or telephone transmissions but these

mediums are rarely coordinated correctly with the result that information

occasionally conflicts. A survey of construction sites reveals that project

communication flows in a family tree pattern. A formal line of communication on

a typical construction project is shown in fig 2.5 below.

Whatever that needs to be communicated could be done properly and faster to the

least person using the organization chart.

Fig. 2.4: Site Communication chart

SCM = Senior Construction Manager CM = Construction Manager

SCM

CM

Substructures

CM

Substructures

CM

Finishing

CM

Ext. Wks

Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor

Head

Mason

Head

Carpenter

Head

Fitters

Head

Labourer

34

2.7.0 Quality Control of Construction Work:

2.7.1 Quality Control Objectives

Calvert (2000) opined that maintenance of quality is an important factor in modern

construction and on large work it may justify the full time employment of special

personnel and expensive laboratory facilities. Harris and MacCaffer (2001) on the

other hand, stated that as quality means meeting the requirement of the customer,

control refers to the intention to ensure that the quality is achieved. Both authors

emphasized that the major objectives of quality control can be listed as follows:

� To ensure that completed work meet the specifications

� To reduce customers’ or client’s complaints

� To improve the reliability of products or work produced

� To increase customers’ confidence

� To reduce production cost.

2.7.2 Quality Control Criteria

Quality control is primarily concerned with defect detection and the central feature

of all quality control is that of inspection. To be effective the construction process

requires that work items to be inspected must be catalogued into a quality

schedule, Harris and MacCaffer (2001).

During construction, inspection takes two forms; the quantifiable or measurable,

e.g. lines, levels, verticality and dimensions and visual checks which is subject to

the inspector’s interpretation; e.g. fitness, tolerance and cleanliness. Also,

according to Harris and MacCaffer, two sets of documents are used to facilitate

quality control drawings and specifications. The quantifiable quality checks

include ensuring accurate setting-out and leveling, testing the strength of concrete

cubes, checking alignment of brickwork and commissioning of services

35

installations. Visual quality checks of each section of construction are undertaken

by the contractor’s engineers, and foremen and then by resident representation of

the consultants to ensure compliance with the drawings and specification. The

result of quality checks are recorded and passed on to the resident engineer or

builder. It is however of a necessity that the contractor’s engineers and operatives

should have a clear knowledge and understanding of the quality required and also

able to achieve it first time or regulate it by inspection. This will immensely reduce

the risk of producing unsatisfactory work and being involved in expensive re-work.

2.7.3 Quality Control of Road Projects

Kadyali & Nal (2008) stated that quality control of road construction work will

normally proceed from the quality assurance system on a project adopted by the

client or by the project manager/consultants. The contractor will receive this piece

of document as part of the contract conditions which he would have accented to

during contract award.

On a typical road project, a contractor is required to adopt different stages of

quality control measure.

Preliminary Control Tests

Before any work on the construction of a road pavement is commenced, it is

necessary to conduct certain preliminary test on soils and other pavement materials

incorporated in the design to check if these materials meet the specified quality

requirement such preliminary tests should be conducted of the following materials.

a) Borrow material: After identifying a potential borrow area griddled at 25m centres to full

depth of proposed work, the test pits should be logged and plotted for proper identification

of suitable sources of materials. Any of the following tests can be done on representative

soil samples,

-sand content,

-plasticity index,

36

-density test, or deleterious content,

-moisture content,

-CBR test on the material to be incorporated in the subgrade on soaked/unsoaked sample.

b) For checking suitability of non-bituminous base/subbase materials

-Natural moisture content

- Grading

-Liquid limit and plasticity index

-Specific gravity

-Water absorption

-Durability of aggregates (soundness test)

-LA Abrasion value/aggregate impact value text

c) For proportioning Soil-Aggregate/Stabilized Soil Mixtures

-CBR tests

-Compaction tests (Mod AASHTO for MDD and OMC)

-Unconfined compressive strength (for lime/cement soil mixes)

d) For Bituminous Materials in Base/Binder/Surface Courses

-Coarse and Fine Aggregates

-Grading

-Water Absorption

-LA Abrasion value/aggregate impact value

-Durability (soundness test)

-Amount of detrimental substances

e) Mineral Filler

-Grading

-Water content

-Plasticity index

-Property change after heating

f) Bitumen

-Physical tests

(Penetration, softening point, viscosity, fire/flash points, ductility, TFOT, RTFOT etc.)

g) For Bituminous Mix Design Tests

-Marshall stability

37

-Flow

-Water sensitivity/Retention of stability etc.

h) For Cement Concrete

-Cement: Physical and chemical tests

-Aggregates:

-Gradation

-LA abrasion/aggregate impact value

-Soundness

-Alkali aggregate reaction

-Workability

-Concrete strength

Preliminary inspection of Performance of Equipment

All types and pieces of equipment/plant to be used in the project should be subjected to

preliminary inspection before use. For example, a hot bituminous mix plant should be checked

for its capacity, type/method of supplying aggregate, dryer capacity, dust collector type, mixer

type and capacity, weighting system etc.

Trial Construction

For medium to large projects, trial mixes are produced to check the rate of production (per hour);

proportions of aggregates; amount of bitumen; mixing time; heating, mixing and discharge

temperatures etc. For major large-sized projects, trial paving may be undertaken on full scale

with a view to confirming the work procedure proposed to be adopted, confirming mixture

properties, establishing acceptance, rejection criteria, thickness of spreading and compaction

conditions etc.

Controlling Workmanship during Construction

The formation of the pavement should be controlled on the basis of the height of finished surface

of the sub-base (or base, if no sub-base is to be provided), the proposed height being

measured every 20m length. The pavement width should be controlled on the

finished sub-grade surface. For the control of thickness of each layer, the thickness is calculated

as the difference between the measured heights of the upper and lower surfaces of the layer,

except that the thickness of the surfacing, binder course and bitumen treated base

course should preferably be determined with sampled cores.

38

The standards for controlling workmanship would obviously depend on the

inspection standards, size of the project, professional level of site personnel etc.

The recommended tolerance and frequency of measurement for workmanship are

as given in Table 2.12 below;

Table 2.12 Frequency of Inspection and Tolerances in Workmanship (Kadyali & Nal, 2008)

Pavement Course Measurement Frequency of inspection Tolerance

Subbase Height of finished subbase Thickness Width

Every 20 m Every 20 m Every 20 m

± 40 mm -45 mm -50 mm

Mechanically Stabilised base Thickness Width Every 20 mm Every 100 m

-25 mm -50 mm

Asphalt treated base Thickness Width Every 1000 m2

Every 100 m -15 mm -50 mm

Cement or lime stabilised base Thickness Width Every 20 m Every 100 m

-25 mm -50 mm

Binder and surface Hot asphalt mixture

Thickness: Surface Thickness: Binder Width Evenness

Every 1000 m3 Every 1000 m3 Every 100 m Throughout the length in every lane

-7 mm -9 mm -25 mm 2.4 mm* or less

Controlling Quality during Construction

Quality control during road construction is necessary to ensure that the pavement is

so constructed as to meet the various requirements of specifications and design

documents. Such a quality control involves a variety of tests to be conducted

during construction with regular frequency and obtaining all the relevant

construction data for statistically processing the test results. The different types of

tests to be conducted and their frequency for earthwork, granular subbases and

base courses, pavement layers involving bituminous and cement concrete

construction work are given in Table 2.13 below;

Table 2.13 Frequency of tests for quality control (Kadyali & Nal, 2008)

S/NO. Item of work Frequency

1. Earthwork (i) Soil particle size, Atterberg Limits (ii) C.B.R. on a set of 3 specimens

1-2 tests per 8000m3 One test per 3000m3

39

(iii) Natural moisture content (iv) Moisture content before compaction (v) Dry density of compacted area

One test per 250m3 2-3 tests per 250m3 One test per 1000m3 for embankments to be increased to one test per 500-1000m3 fro subgrade layers.

2. Gravel sub-base (i) Gradation, plasticity (ii) Moisture content (iii) Density

One test per 200m3 One test per 250m2 One test per 500m2

3. Lime-soil (i) Purity of lime (ii) Lime content, moisture content (iii) Density

One test per 5 T One test per 250m2 One test per 500m2

4. Water-bound macadam (i) Los Angeles Abrasion or Aggregate Impact Value, Flakiness Index (ii) Grading of materials (iii) Plasticity of binder

One test per 200m3 One test per 100m3 One test per 25m3

5. Bituminous Macadam (i) Los Angeles Abrasion Value or Aggregate Impact Value, Flakiness Index, Stripping Value (ii) Mix grading, binder content, aggregate gradation

One test per 50 – 100m3 One tests per day

6. Surface dressing and premix carpet (i) Los Angeles Abrasion Value or Aggregate Impact Value, Stripping Value, Flakiness Index Water absorption (ii) Grading of aggregate (iii) Rate of spread of binder and aggregate for surface dressing (iv) Binder content for premix carpet

One test per 50m3 One test per 25m3 One test per 500m2 Two tests per day

7. Asphaltic concrete (i) Los Angeles Abrasion Value or Aggregate Impact value, Stripping Value, Water absorption, Flakiness Index (ii) Sieve analysis for filler (iii) Mix grading, binder content (iv) Stability (v) Thickness and density

One test per 50 – 100m3 One test per 5m3 One test per 100T of mix, minimum 2 tests per day. 3 Marshall specimens per 100 T of mix. One test per 500m2

8. Cement concrete pavement (i) Gradation of aggregates (ii) Los Angeles Abrasion Value or Aggregate Impact value, Soundness (iii) Cement, physical and chemical (iv) Workability (v) Concrete strength (vi) Core strength on hardened concrete

One test for 15m3 Once for each source Once for each source One test per 10m3 3 cube/beam samples for each 7 days and 28 days for every 30m3 of concrete 2 cores for every 30m3 of concrete.

2.7.4 Statistical Methods in Quality Control of Highway Construction

Normal distribution method

It is generally found that the properties of highway materials and end product, when tested a

number of times with samples from the same lot or the same work, follow a “normal

40

distribution”. The normal density function, also called the Gaussian function, is given by the

following equation:

2

2

1

2

1)(

−−

= σ

µ

πσ

x

exf equ. 2.1

For - ∞ < x < + ∞. A typical shape of this function is given Fig. 2.6.

Fig. 2.5: Normal distribution curve.

It is seen that the curve is bell shaped and is symmetrical with respect to µ , the population mean.

A useful transformation of this equation is obtained when µ = 0 and = 1. The variable z, known

as the standard normal variable, is defined as:

σ

µ−=

xz equ. 2.2

Equation (2.1) then becomes

2/2

2

1)( zexf −=

π equ. 2.3

The above relationship is given in Fig. 2.6, which is known as the standard normal density curve.

Area F-(Z1) = φ (z1)

2/2

2

1)( z

ezf−=

π

x µ

f (

x)

2

2

1

2

1)(

−−

= σ

µ

πσ

x

exf

- 3 - 2 -1 0 1 z 1 23

f (

x)

z

41

Fig. 2.6: Standard normal density curve

The area below this curve is unity. Standard tables are available giving the value of the area

under any part of the normal curve for different values of z. In these tables, the cumulative unit

normal distribution, or F(z), is plotted for various values of z above 0. By symmetry, for values

less than 0, φ (-z) = 1 - Φ (z).

Mean, Standard Deviation and Coefficient of Variation method

The most common measure of central tendency of values is the arithmetic mean, or simply the

“mean”. Suppose there are n observations of a variable x (i.e., sample size = n), and these are

denoted by x1, x2, x3, ……….. xn, then the mean x is given by the formula:

n

xxxxx n++++

=....321

n

xin

i

∑== 1 equ. 2.4

When the observations are grouped into different classes, a simplified procedure enables a quick

determination of the mean A measure of the dispersion of the data is the standard deviation,

which is obtained from:

1

)(1

2

−

−

=

∑=

n

xxi

s

n

i equ. 2.5

Where s = standard deviation and xi = each individual observation

x = mean, as found from Eqn. (2.4)

n = number of observation.

It may be noted that x and s obtained from above are estimates of the true mean, µ and the true

standard deviation, σ of the population.

The coefficient of variation is defined as the ratio between the standard deviation and the mean.

42

Coefficient of variation = x

s (for the sample) equ. 2 6

= µ

σ (for the population) equ. 2.7

Distribution of Sample Mean method

When the sample mean, x is determined repeatedly with n observations, it will be found that x

also takes a normal distribution with mean µ and standard deviationn

σ. The latter is known by

the term standard error of the mean, σ x . If the value of σ is not known, σ can be taken equal to s,

the standard deviation of the sample.

Point Estimate and Interval Estimate method

The sample mean x is a point estimate of the population mean µ. It is more usual to estimate a

parameter within an interval. Thus, if t1 and t2 are two values of a random variable t and it is

desired to estimate the parameter θ, then

Pr [t1 ≤ θ ≤ t2] = γ equ. 2.8

Pr denotes the probability indicated in [ 2.8]

and γ = specified probability.

The set of values between t1 and t2 (inclusive) is called the confidence interval. The values t1 and

t2 are called the confidence limits. The probability measure γ is called the confidence level. The

confidence level is the proportion of the samples for which the interval includes the true values.

From the normal distribution table the values of the standard normal variable za, associated with

various confidence levels γ are summarized in Table 2.14. It may be noted that

2

1 γσ

+= equ. 2.9

Table 2.14: Standard normal variable associated with various confidence levels

Confidence

Level 2

1 γσ

+=

Tolerance Level (proportion of test results

that fall below the minimum)

Za

0.80 0.90 1 in 10 1.282

43

0.90 0.95 1 in 20 1.645 0.95 0.975 1 in 40 1.960

0.98 0.99 1 in 100 2.326

0.99 0.995 1 in 200 2.576 0.998 0.999 1 in 1000 3.09 0.999 0.9995 1 in 2000 3.291

Example2.1. The thickness of an asphaltic concrete layer is designed and constructed to be

80mm. the standard deviation is 15mm. What is the probability that if a sample of 100 readings

of the thickness is tested that the mean observed thickness exceeds 75 mm?

Solution µ = 80, σ = 15

σ x = 5.1100

15=

p ( x > 75) = Shaded area in Fig. 2.7

= 1

−−

5.1

8075φ

= 1 - φ (-3.33)

= 1 –[1 –φ (3.33)]

= 1 – 1 + φ (3.33)

= 0.9996, from statistical tables.

The probability that the observed mean thickness of 100 readings exceeds 75 mm is 99.96

per cent.

Example2.2. A series of 363 observations of the cube strength of concrete gives a mean of 39.7

MN/m2 and a standard deviation of 6.8 MN/m

2. Give α 95 per cent confidence interval for the

population mean.

Solution n = 363, x = 39.7, s = 6.8.

The distribution of x follows a normal distribution with mean as µ and a standard deviation of

n

σ, (known as the standard error of mean). Since σ is not known, it can be approximated by s,

the standard deviation of the sample.

.36.0363

8.6===

n

sxσ

44

For a 95 per cent confidence level, γ = 0.95. Hence the normal variable z has a value of 1.95, as

seen from Table 2.14.

With 95 per cent confidence, the population mean has a value between x + 1.96 σ x

i.e., between 39.7 + 1.96 x 0.36 and 39.7 – 1.96 x 0.36

i.e., between 40.4 and 39.0 MN/m2..

2.7.5 Quality Control on Building Projects

A large and complex building project is expected to have a Quality Control

Engineer or Manager. His duty according to Bamisile (2004), among others, is to

ensure;

i) Strict implementation of the project quality management plan and health and

safety plan.

ii) Approval for the use of each and all specific work instructions and

inspection/testing plan of the project.

iii) That the internal quality audits are carried out periodically during the execution

of the project

iv) Proper safekeeping and storage of all quality records on and off site.

Workmanship; All activities affecting quality are to be described and

accomplished with documented instructions, drawings, specifications and

checklists appropriate to the circumstances. Table 2.10 shows a typical work

instruction form.

Inspection and testing equipment: Selection of surveying, measuring and testing

equipment shall be controlled to ensure that such items are of appropriate type,

range, accuracy and tolerance for the purpose for which they are to be used. They

are to be check at intervals and by the methods shown in Table 2.15.

Table 2.15 TYPICAL INSPECTION MEASURING AND TESTING EQUIPMENT ON BUILDING SITE

[Bamisile, 2004]

45

INSTRUMENT METHOD OF TEST OR

CHECK

ALLOWABLE ERROR MAXIMUM INTERVAL

BETWEEN CHECKS

Surveyor’s level a) Two pegs

b) Circular level check

5mm in 50m

Bubble remains generally within

inner circle

On delivery and then 1 week

4 weeks or earlier if problem

suspected

Surveyor’s

precise level

a) Two pegs

b) Circular level check

1mm 30m

Bubble remains generally within inner circle


4 weeks or earlier if problem

suspected

Laser level As manufacturers instructions 3mm in 50m or as manufacturers

recommend


Theodolite a) Hori. Collimation

b) Vert. collimation

c) Trunnion axis

d) Rot’n of alidade

e) Optical plumet

20’’

30’’

30’’

Bubble 2 div.

3mm at 1.5m

] ] ] On delivery and then ] 4 weeks or earlier if ] problem ] suspected ] ] EDM/Total

Station

a) Hori. Collimation

b) Vert. collimation

c) Trunnion axis

d) Rot’n of alidade

e) Optical plumet

f) Dist. Measurement

against calibrated base line

20’’

30’’

30’’

Bubble 2 div.

3mm at 1.5m

Mfrs.quoted accuracy + 5mm +

] ] ] On delivery and then ] 4 weeks or earlier if ] problem ] suspected ] ]

1 week

Auto plumb a)Vertically

b) Optical plummet

30’’

3mm at 1.5m

] On delivery and then ] 4 weeks or earlier if ] problem ] suspected

Designated

- hand tapes

–steel tapes

–stylon tapes

a)Measure against

calibrated

band/ tape or base line

b)Check with calibrated

band/tape

3.5m- + 2mm

30m- + 4mm

50m- +5mm

]

] On delivery and then ] 8 weeks- stylon ] 26 weeks – steel ] or hand tapes or earlier if problem suspected

Leveling Staff a) Measured against

designated tape

+ 2mm over total length and

between section

On delivery, on sign of

damage or 6 months

Designated

spirit level

Standard check 1mm in 1m 4 weeks

Table 2.15 Contd.

46

Work inspection and test checklists: Each work section which has been identified

to require quality control, a quality inspection and test checklists, etc will be used.

The checklists are in sequential order for inspections and tests procedures to be

undertaken to verify conformity with specifications and drawings.

Non-conformity Control: All non-conformity of suppliers, to be controlled by a

laid down procedure. A parameter must be established to ensure firm control of

non-conformity. Such parameter or measures will include.

a) Identification, documentation, segregation, review or disposition of non-

conforming item of work.

b) Notification of the person or group responsible for the non-conformity.

c) Every non-conformity and concession on site should be registered and updated

by the quality engineer.

d) The quality engineer and the construction manager should carryout analysis and

assessment of non-conformity and suggest corrective action and measure to be

taken to avoid reoccurrence.

Corrective Action; Once the appropriate correction or remedy has been determined

over non-conformity the next item is to implement the correction. The senior site

manager or project manager has the responsibility to verify proper implementation.

Internal Quality Audit; Internal quality auditing of construction work is another

task of the quality control unit. This task is to verify whether qualities of the works

carried out on site comply with planned arrangement and to determine the

effectiveness of the quality control system adopted in the company.

Quality auditory is performed using checklists and will be conducted by

appropriately trained personnel not having direct responsibilities but

knowledgeable of the specific item of construction being audited.

47

The auditor at the end of his task will produce an audit report on the quality

system, which he must submit to the Executive Director. The Director is obliged to

study the report, carryout periodic analysis of the audit and most probably include

the result in the future review process on quality control. Examples of quality audit

forms are included below in tables 2.16 (a) & 2.16 (b).

48

Tables 2.16 (a) Typical Internal Quality Audit Form [ Bamisile,2004]

PROJECT AUDIT PROGRAMME 2004

Activity A F M A M J J A S O N D

Setting out x

Instrument check x

Substructure x

Insitu-concrete x

Reinforcement x

Structural steel x

Blockwork

DPM

Pre-cast concrete x

Sealants

Windows

Plasterwork

Screeding

M&E Installations

49

Tables 2.16 (b) TYPICAL INTERNAL QUALITY AUDIT FORM [Bamisile,2004]

PROJECT AUDIT PROGRAMME 2004

Activity A F M A M J J A S O N D

2.8 Education and Training of Construction Craftsmen:

2.8.1. The need to educate and train construction craftsmen

Education and training, as posited by Bokini (2005) compliments each other; while

education impacts knowledge, training inculcates skills into the receiver. Education

ensures background knowledge of a particular subject either in a public school,

college, university or in private institution. Training according to Wahab (1992) is

Mgt. Resp. & Orgn. x

Quality System x

Contract Review x

Document Control x

Purchasing x

Client Supplies

Process Control x x x x

Inspection& Testing x x

Insp./Measure/Testing x x

Insp./Test Status x x

Control Non-Conform x x

Corrective Action x x

Mat. Handlg /Storage x x

Quality Records x

Training x

Complaints x

50

an activity, which is concerned with making employee more articulate and efficient

in the performance of their current tasks, or in preparation for new types of job to

meet the dynamic needs of the organization. It is meant to develop mental ability,

dexterity and skill of personnel at all level.

Obiegbu (2002) stressed the need to maintain effective human resources in the

construction industry. He further stated that it involves first, an understanding of

the changes in the business environment as a result of many variables such as

economic situation, political trend and technological advancement that

continuously affect production. The second issue is the national approach to the

utilization of youth labour and maximization of technical and craftsmen cadre in

any market economy, which includes setting up adequate vocational training

programmes. Construction process demands efficient team, comprising

construction managers, engineers, technicians, craftsmen and artisans. Each of

these site personnel has specific and unique role to play in the entire execution of

construction project. The technicality of site work requires that every construction

worker must be practically productive, craftsmen inclusive. The craftsmen are

supposed to be workers of hand – on – tool group or the skilled operatives. The

dynamism of modern technology and the complexity of building infrastructure

designs demand that our present craftsmen should be effectively educated and

practically trained, and in adequate number for the following objectives:

i. To ensure standard and quality of construction projects

ii. To enhance early completion time of projects

iii. To reduce waste and make projects cost-effective

iv. To meet with the technological innovation in the construction industry.

v. To ensure adequate supply of skilled craftsmen and artisans

vi. To reduce supervision cost.

vii. To ensure good workmanship and proper finishing of construction work.

51

2.8.2 Mode of craftsmen education and training

Awe (2006) opined that the mode of education and training craftsmen and artisans

in Nigeria still follow the British education pattern largely due to their early rule of

the country.

In the pre-independent days, training of craftsmen is commenced using any of the

following programmes, which is still in use at present.

i. A formalized, full – time, five years vocational education in government trade

centres, established in capital cities and other districts or provisional

professional towns. Young boys and girls with qualification of standard six or

third year secondary grammar schools are admitted in levels 1 and 3 to train

in crafts courses such as carpentry and journey, block/brick laying and

concreting, painting and decoration, plumbing, welding, electrical wiring and

installation, automobile and plant maintenance, etc. At the completion of their

training they are registered to sit for City and Guilds of London craft

certificate examinations. The craft certificate exams are now conducted in

Nigeria by an education body called National Board for Technical and

Business Education, NABTEB at both ordinary and advanced levels.

ii. Government supervised apprenticeship scheme for craftsmen; usually

organized in public works departments, now ministry of works and housing,

under master craftsmen in various technical departments. The trainee must

have the basic education of standard six. At the end of the training which runs

in 3, 4 and 5 years, the trainee will be tested and certified with grade III, II or

I trade test certificate in any chosen trade.

iii. Private apprenticeship scheme, similar to the government scheme but are run

in private workshops and companies. The trainees are supervised by master

52

craftsmen in those establishments and are also prepared to take the same test

with their counterparts in the ministry of works.

2.8.3 Government Role in the Training of Craftsmen

Omeata (2000) cited a report on Second National Development Plan (1970 –

1974), and the Third National Development Plan of 1975 – 1980, whichy posited

that the attention of the Federal Government of Nigeria was drawn on the shortage

of technical manpower and more precisely that of the technicians and craft cadre.

In an attempt to reverse the situation, Federal Government adopted the following

measures.

i. Instituted a crash programme for which Nigerians were sent abroad to training

as technical teachers.

ii. The establishment of the National Board for Technical education (NBTE) to

coordinate and control technical education in the country.

iii. The establishment of Industrial Training Fund (ITF) in1971

iv. Encouragement plan for states to set up their own polytechnics by adopting a

policy of 50% matching grants on both re-current and capital expenditure of

the then thirteen state polytechnics.

v. Two tier system of Diploma award in polytechnics was abolished and

replaced by one tire system leading to the award of Nigeria National Diploma

(NND). This policy was later dropped in 1980 following protest by students

who preferred the former two-tier system.

vi. Free technical education introduced to encourage and stimulate increased

involvement.

vii. Review of the salary scale of polytechnics staff and the placement of holders

of HND in public service on salary grade level 8.

53

viii. Tertiary institutions were granted autonomy from ministry of education and

should be run by governing Councils.

The National policy on education of 1988 promulgates the establishment of

vocational education centers as the primary goals of;

i. Training manpower in the applied science, technology and business,

particularly at craft, advanced craft and technician levels.

ii. Providing the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for

agriculture, commerce and economic development.

iii. Training and imparting the necessary skills to individuals who shall be self-

reliant economically.

For the prime purpose of this study, which is centered on craft operatives, the

researcher has to examine further the role of the following government agencies

NBTE and ITF in the training of craftsmen.

2.8.3.1 NBTE Craft Training Scheme

According to the National Policy on Education of 1977 establishing NBTE with

subsequent review of 1981 and 1988, the board was primarily assigned the role of

controlling technical and business education in colleges and polytechnics, Nwosu

(2006). The other function of the board includes the following:

i. To advise the Federal Government on all aspect of technical education

outside the Universities and make recommendation on the national policy

necessary for the training of technicians, craftsmen and other skilled

manpower.

ii. To determine the skilled and middle level manpower needs of the country

after consultation with National Manpower Board (NMB) and Industrial

Training Fund (ITF). And recommend the programmes to be pursued by the

polytechnics and the establishment of new polytechnics.

54

iii. To inquire and advise the Federal Government on the financial needs of the

polytechnics and other technical instructions.

iv. To receive bulk grants from the Federal Government and allocate them to the

polytechnics and colleges on a formula.

v. To assist other agencies in channeling all the external aids to polytechnics in

Nigeria.

vi. To advise on, and take steps in harmonizing entry requirements and duration

of courses at technical institution.

vii. To lay down standards of skills to be attained and continually review such

standards according to the technological needs of the country.

viii. To review method of assessment of students and trainees and develop

a scheme of national certification for technical and craftsmen and other

skilled personnel in collaboration with the ministry of education and training

institution.

ix. To undertake periodic review of the terms and conditions of service of

personnel in the polytechnic and make recommendation thereon to the

Federal Government.

x. To collect data, analyze and publish information relating to technical and

vocational education.

xi. To accredit programmes of all the polytechnics, technical colleges and

vocational centers in the federation for the purpose of the award of

certificates and diplomas.

In order to achieve the above objectives, the board has four standing committees,

namely:

a. Planning and Development Committee (PDC).

b. Programme Evaluation and Certification Committee (PECC).

c. Finance and General Purpose Committee (FGPC).

55

d. Appointment and Promotion Committee (APC).

In the process of disbursing federal grants to the institutions by NBTE, especially

to the technical and vocational colleges, the board collaborates with States

Ministry of Education to convert part of their grants into equipments to be supplied

piece meal to colleges, Nwosu (2006).

2.8.3.2 ITF Craft Training Scheme

According to ITF bulletin, the Industrial training Fund, or simply called fund was

the first Nigerian Federal Government parastatal established for manpower training

and development. It was established by decree No 47 of 8th October 1971 in line

with post – independence drive for accelerated economic growth and development

during the second national development plan period of 1970-1974. The act further

stipulate that ITF was established with the specific mandate of transforming the

Nigerian economy from its predominant dependence on foreign expertise, to a state

of self – reliance through training and development of Nigerians who would be

competent to perform the specialized skills required to manage the essential sectors

of the Nigerian economy. In the mandate, the fund through its governing council

will formulate policies and make provision for;

i. Facilities for training of persons employed in the industry and commerce

ii. Approval of such courses and facilities provided by other persons.

iii. Consistent and regular consideration of operational areas of the industry and

commerce that requires special manpower development actions and

recommend the kind of training needed, the standards to be attained and to

ensure that such standards are met.

iv. Assisting persons in finding facilities for training and for employment in the

industry and commerce.

56

v. Consulting and assisting other persons to conduct researches into any matter

relating to training in industry.

ITF has seven full-fledged departments among, specialized professional and

occupational areas, headed by directors. One of such department that is concerned

with this research is the vocational and apprentice training department.

In pursuance of ITF policy of direct participation in the training and development

of industrial craftsmen, the department, referred as VAT was established in 1983

for the sole function of training and assisting other informal group in the training

of craftsmen and artisans in various trades. To carry out its duties, VAT, according

to ITF/ATM publication has three cardinal procedures, namely;

i. Skill improvement, updating and broadening courses at its vocational training

centre at Ikeja Lagos.

ii. Craft instructors’ courses in various trades at instructors training centre, ITC,

Kano.

iii. Direct collaboration with companies and industries in the in – house training

of craftsmen apprentices.

It may seem that ITF, through its VAT department has made commendable

progress in craft apprentice training in various trades, but its impact is yet to be felt

in the construction industry.

2.8.3.3 FMWH Training Schools

Federal Ministry of Work and Housing, through the high way department operates

three training schools for technicians and craftsmen in road construction and allied

works, Eliego (2000). Such schools are;

i. Lagos High Way Training Centre at Badagry

ii. Kaduna High Way Training Centre, Kaduna.

iii. Ugoneki High Way Training Centre, Edo State.

57

The syllabus used in training the students in these schools is constantly reviewed to

meet technological challenges ahead.

2.8.4 The Role of the Professional Bodies in the Training of Craftsmen

2.8.4.1 NSE and COREN Training Scheme

Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE) and Council for the Regulation of

Engineering in Nigeria (COREN) have been on the forefront of training and

retraining of craftsmen in engineering crafts. Quoting Omeata (2000), one of the

management techniques and decision making that can contribute and lead us to the

most effective result in productivity and profitability in development pattern of the

society is “Training”. More importantly, is the training of engineering personnel.

One of the key duties of COREN as stated in decree No 55 of 1970 establishing the

council is to organize and supervise practical training of its categories of

engineering personnel, comprising.

i. Engineers – graduate of Universities

ii. Technologists – graduates of Polytechnics

iii. Technicians – graduate of Technical College

iv. Craftsmen – graduates of Trade Centres

According to Amusu (2002), COREN has the mandate to carry out the following

functions.

1. Establish technical workshops in collaboration with industrial

establishments.

2. Source for technical teachers or instructors trained to monitor performance

and award certificate of apprenticeship to all cadre of engineering crafts

apprentices.

3. Develop apprentice curriculum for industry for the different cadre, to

supplement the college effort

58

4. Enforce the establishment of practical training workshops in the industry

and ensure the maintenance of such workshops.

5. Facilitate control of apprentice training by establishing progress records

and test partition.

In recognition of every member of the engineering family COREN has approved

and coordinates the activities of various associations under the family such as

a. Nigerian Society of Engineer NSE

b. Nigerian Association of Technologist Engineers MATE

c. Nigerian Association of Craft Engineers NACE

In addition, COREN provides annual forum for all practitioners in engineering at

all levels to;

i. Evaluate matters of mutual interest relating to the profession

ii. Discuss intra and inter relationship between different cadres and the

Nigerian society.

iii. Assess and educate practitioners on various developments within the

engineering profession for a desirable standard of engineering practice.

iv. Award certificate to best performed engineer, technologist, technician

and craftsman of the year.

2.8.4.2 NIOB and CORBON Training Scheme

Nigerian Institute of Building (NIOB) and Council of Registered Builders of

Nigeria (CORBON), have recently joined craft training campaign. This may be due

to late promulgation of the Decree 45 establishing the council in 1989, which was

rectified in 1990 by ACT Cap 40. Before then, eminent professional builders have

aired their views regarding the need for urgent training of craftsmen to increase

their supply and productivity in the construction industry. The then president of the

institute, K.A. Wahab, commented that the effort of the Manpower Board through

59

strategic surveys have revealed manpower shortages in all aspect of the

construction industry. The worst hit areas being the intermediate personnel such as

building and civil engineering technicians, foremen, clerk of works and

supervisors, following by craftsmen, who were traditionally produced in the

informal training sector apprenticeship, Wahab (1990).

The Nigerian Institute of Building in her constitution stipulates that a committee on

craftsmen and artisans member cadre be constituted with the following objectives:

i. To determine and identity building craftsmen and artisans and establish the

interdependence of the various trades in the building industry.

ii. To review the criteria for registering building craftsmen and artisans under the

umbrella of the Nigerian Institute of Building in an appropriate cadre.

iii. To recommend training and retraining programme for building craftsmen and

artisans.

iv. To examine and make recommendation regarding the procedure for

registering craftsmen and artisans as members of the institute under an

appropriate cadre.

v. To present yearly report to the council on the affairs of building craftsmen

and artisans.

Challenged by shoddy work and poor finishing of buildings, rampant building

failures and incessant collapse of buildings, the institute through its national

council has developed and approved craftsmen/artisan registration policy;

curriculum for the training and retraining of craftsmen and artisans in line with

National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) syllabi and the need of the

industry – NBCS (2005). The policy further provides for conversion and

advancement of craftsmen along full corporate line, through appropriate

professional examinations. Recently in 2005, the Nigerian Institute of Building

convened building craftsmen summit in Lagos. The primary aim was to pool

60

together the available building craftsmen in the country, educate them on the new

trend in building activities and find solution to the shortage of artisans and

craftsmen that is obvious in the industry, especially fully trained ones. Any

professional builder, knowing what the situation is like in the construction industry

that is faced with inadequate craft operatives and shoddy work problem, will

commend the institute in her gesture to revive the craft group. It is better to wish

her well if only the idea will not be left to die a real death.

2.8.5 Private sector role in the training of craftsmen

This sector refers to construction companies of different sizes and individual

enterprises where the services of craftsmen and artisans are employed. In such

organizations bulk of their work are based on the efforts of these craftsmen. These

companies regularly accept young people who need apprenticeship craftsmen

training in order to meet their self-employment need. Aderoba (1994) opined that

bulk of craftsmen and artisans in Nigeria and indeed many African countries

receive their training from roadside local workshop on apprenticeship. These

workshops turn out mechanics, carpenters, bricklayers, electricians, plumbers,

painters, filters etc. in such a large scale that makes the output from the technical

colleges insignificant based on the survey he carried out at Ondo and Akure LGA

on Ondo State. He made the following discoveries;

i. About 92% of craftsmen and artisans practicing in the two towns received their

training from roadside workshops.

ii. The master craft trainers engage an average of four apprentices per master.

iii. The level of formal education of both the master craftsmen and the apprentices are

low

iv. Most of the trained artisans exhibit in – depth practical skill but with very poor

background in theoretical concept. They usually get embarrassed when confronted

61

with theoretical question. This limits their scope for improvement in new products

and services ideas.

v. Inspite of their number, they lack good knowledge of costing, book – keeping, job

planning and control.

vi. Government bodies pay very little attention to these roadside artisans and

apprentices, even though they account for more than 90% of the skilled workforce

in the country. They are not helped by way of formal training and other incentives

to improve their productivity and contribute effectively to the economy.

vii. Most of the artisans complained that they were not well paid when they work

for others, so they resort to self-employment.

The indigenous construction companies have not given proper attention to in-house

training of craftsmen and artisans, because of their quest for much profit. Only the

multinational construction firms who do not want to compromise qualify

workmanship in their projects, have given due attention to the recruitment of

qualified craftsmen and training of apprentices on various trades because of their

long term policies on in – house training of craftsmen and artisans. It could be said

that they have always maintained adequate resources of quality craftsmen in their

firms.

62

CHPATER THREE: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

The focus of this study is on the factors influencing construction craftsmen

productivity and quality of work in Nigerian indigenous construction companies.

The study investigated some of the factors using field survey research method,

carried out on indigenous construction companies.

3.2 Scope of Study

The study centered mainly on the managerial capabilities of the indigenous

construction company managers with respect to effective workforce planning and

supervision, workers motivation strategies and training arrangement for craftsmen,

which will ensure higher productivity and quality of work.

3.3 Population of study

The population of the study is the indigenous construction companies in the six

geo-political zones of Nigeria; Northeast, Northwest, North-Central, Southeast,

Southwest, South-South and Federal Capital Territory. Selected indigenous

construction companies in a representative state of each zone were considered as

population.

3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques

The study used random sampling techniques in selecting the companies. Names of

ten indigenous construction companies in each state were listed on separate papers,

folded and thrown into separate black polythene bags. After thorough shaking of

the bags, ten of the folded papers were picked from each bag, one at a time and

names of the sample companies on the papers were listed, totaling 70 companies.

63

3.5 Instrument for Data Collection

A field survey instrument (see appendix A) was used in this study; through close

form structured questionnaire comprising twenty-five research questions, clearly

typed and printed in several copies.

3.6 Validation of Instrument

On the instruction and guidance of my supervisor, the questionnaire (comprising

25 structured questions) was framed on a minimum of five questions to each of the

research questions. This is to provide factual data to analyze the research questions

and hypothesis included in the study.

3.7 Method of Data Collection

The data collection instrument was administered to three categories of companies’

personnel; construction managers, site engineers and general foremen. The three

categories of personnel were chosen because of their direct involvement in

construction operations.

3.8 Method of Data Analysis

Collected data were organized and presented using statistical tables. The analyses

and testing of data were carried out with non-parametric inferential statistics, e.g

frequency, percentage, ranking and chi-square method.

3.9 Statistical Presentation of Data

Statistical tables below were designed and used to assemble the entire

questionnaire data received from fifty-two indigenous construction companies out

of seventy companies that were issued field research questionnaires. The

companies were those located and operating in the six geo-political zones of

Nigeria. Four categories of the companies’ personnel were administered with the

64

questionnaires; they are the General Managers, Construction Managers, Project

Engineers and General Foremen. A representative state was selected from each

zone for the field study: North-East Zone, Bauchi; North-West Zone, Kaduna;

North-Central Zone, Benue; South-East Zone, Enugu; South-West Zone, Oyo;

South-South Zone, Akwa Ibom and FCT, Abuja

This arrangement is required to classify all the collected data for further analysis

and testing of hypotheses.

Section one: Company profile

Table 3.1: Questionnaire No 1; Ownership composition of your company

Contractor Nigerian Ownership

Nigerian and Non Nigerian

Fully Foreign Ownership

Observed Frequency Total

Bauchi 3 0 0 3

Kaduna 7 0 0 7

Benue 6 0 0 6

Enugu 10 0 0 10

Oyo 6 0 0 6

Akwa Ibom 10 0 0 10

Abuja 10 0 0 10

Total 52 0 0 52

Table 3.2: Questionnaire No 2; Area of specialization of your company

Contractor Building Construction

Road Construction

Building And Road Construction


Bauchi 3 0 0 3

Kaduna 3 1 3 7

Benue 4 0 2 6

Enugu 3 2 5 10

Oyo 2 1 3 6

Akwa Ibom 4 2 4 10

Abuja 3 2 5 10

Total 22 8 22 52

Table 3.3: Questionnaire No3; Age of your company in construction

65

Contractor 15-20yrs 10-14yrs 5-9yrs Observed Frequency Total

Bauchi 1 2 0 3

Kaduna 2 3 2 7

Benue 2 2 2 6

Enugu 4 4 2 10

Oyo 3 3 0 6

Akwa Ibom 4 4 2 10

Abuja 4 5 1 10

Total 20 23 9 52

Table 3.4: Questionnaire No 4; Category of registration of your company.

Contractor

Federal State Federal & State Observed Frequency Total

Bauchi 0 2 1 3

Kaduna 0 4 3 7

Benue 0 3 2 6

Enugu 0 6 4 10

Oyo 2 2 3 6

Akwa Ibom 0 6 4 10

Abuja 5 0 5 10

Total 7 23 22 52

Table 3.5: Questionnaire No 5; Geographical location of your company

Contractor North East

North West

North Central

South East

South West

South South

FCT Observed Frequency Total

Bauchi 3 3

Kaduna 7 7

Benue 6 6

Enugu 10 10

Oyo 6 6

Akwa Ibom 10 10

Abuja 10 10

Total 3 7 6 10 6 10 10 52

Section Two: Construction planning, supervision and quality control

66

Table 3.6 Questionnaire No 6; What is the employment status of greater number of your craft

workers.

Contractor Staff Casual On Contact Observed Frequency Total

Bauchi 0 2 1 3

Kaduna 2 4 1 7

Benue 1 3 2 6

Enugu 2 5 3 10

Oyo 2 2 2 6

Akwa Ibom 3 5 2 10

Abuja 4 3 3 10

Total 14 24 14 52

Table 3.7: Questionnaire No 7; What is your company’s project planning set up.

Contractor Separate Department

Site Base Administrative Function


Bauchi 0 2 1 3

Kaduna 3 4 0 7

Benue 0 5 1 6

Enugu 3 7 0 10

Oyo 2 4 0 6

Akwa Ibom 4 6 0 10

Abuja 5 5 0 10

Total 17 33 2 52

Table 3.8 Questionnaire No 8; Who is the head of project planning in your company.

67

Contractor Engineer /Builder

General Foremen

Accountant Observed Frequency Total

Bauchi 0 3 0 3

Kaduna 3 4 0 7

Benue 2 4 0 6

Enugu 5 5 0 10

Oyo 3 3 0 6

Akwa Ibom 4 6 0 10

Abuja 7 3 0 10

Total 24 28 0 52

Table 3.9 Questionnaire No 9; What type of construction planning method is adopted in your

company.

Contractor Work Programming and Scheduling

Visual Estimation

Consultation with Workers


Bauchi 0 0 3 3

Kaduna 3 0 4 7

Benue 0 0 6 6

Enugu 4 0 6 10

Oyo 3 0 3 6

Akwa Ibom 4 0 6 10

Abuja 6 0 4 10

Total 20 0 32 52

Table 3.10: Questionnaire No 10; With regard to your present construction planning method,

estimate crafts workers output in your company.

68

Contractor High Average Below Average Observed Frequency Total

Bauchi 0 1 2 3 Kaduna 1 2 4 7

Benue 0 2 4 6

Enugu 2 3 5 10

Oyo 2 1 3 6

Akwa Ibom 3 2 5 10

Abuja 4 3 3 10

Total 12 14 26 52

Table 3.11: Questionnaire No 11; If the output of your craft workers is below average what is the

anticipated cause(s).

Table 3.12: Questionnaire No 12;What type of quality control method is adopted in your

company

Contractor Improper Planning and Supervision

Inadequate Funding

Poor health of Craftsmen


Bauchi 2 0 1 3

Kaduna 3 2 2 7

Benue 4 1 1 6

Enugu 4 3 3 10

Oyo 3 2 1 6

Akwa Ibom 4 4 2 10

Abuja 2 4 4 10

Total 22 16 14 52

69

Contractor Daily Supervision Check Lists and inspection tests

Daily Round Trip Observation by Manager/Foreman

Rely on Foreman Report


Bauchi 0 1 2 3

Kaduna 2

3

2

7

Benue 0 2

4

6

Enugu 1 3 6 10

Oyo 1 3 2 6

Akwa Ibom 2 4 4 10

Abuja 4 3 3 10

Total 10 18 24 52

Table 3.13: Questionnaire No 13; Please estimate your craftsmen quality of work with your

present method of quality control

Contractor High Average Below Average Observed Frequency Total

Bauchi 0 1 2 3

Kaduna 0 3 4 7

Benue 0 2 4 6

Enugu 1 4 5 10

Oyo 1 3 2 6

Akwa Ibom 1 4 5 10

Abuja 4 3 3 10

Total 7 20 25 52

Table 3.14: Questionnaire No 14: If the quality of work is below average, what could be the

cause(s)

Contractor Inadequate Control Method

Inadequate Equipment

Complex Work


70

Bauchi 2 0 1 3

Kaduna 4 1 2 7

Benue 4 2 0 6

Enugu 5 3 2 10

Oyo 4 1 1 6

Akwa Ibom 5 3 2 10

Abuja 4 3 3 10

Total 28 13 11 52

Table 3.15 Quetionnaire15; What method have you been using to determine the output of your

craftsmen

Contractor Comparing with Established Output Standards

Comparing with Previous Work

Physical Observation


Bauchi 0 2 1 3

Kaduna 2 2 3 7

Benue 1 2 3 6

Enugu 2 3 5 10

Oyo 1 2 3 6

Akwa Ibom 2 3 5 10

Abuja 4 3 3 10

Total 12 17 23 52

Section Three: Motivations of craft workers

Table 3.16 Questionnaire No 16; Please indicate the ratio of staff and casual craftsmen in your

company

Contractor 1: 2 1: 4 1: 6 Observed Frequency Total

Bauchi 0 0 3 3

Kaduna 1 3 3 7

71

Benue 0 3 3 6

Enugu 2 5 3 10

Oyo 0 4 2 6

Akwa Ibom 2 4 4 10

Abuja 5 3 2 10

Total 10 22 20 52

Table 3.17: Questionnaire No 17; What is the monthly salary for a staff craftsman in your

company

Contractor N18000-N20000 N 21000 - N25000 N26000-N30000 Observed Frequency Total

Bauchi 2 1 0 3

Kaduna 2 3 2 7

Benue 4 2 0 6

Enugu 2 5 3 10

Oyo 1 4 1 6

Akwa Ibom 1 5 4 10

Abuja 0 4 6 10

Total 12 24 16 52

Table 3.18: Questionnaire No 18; What is the daily wage for a casual craftsman employed in

your company

72

Table 3.19: Questionnaire No19; What Incentive packages have you adopted for your craft

workers

Contractor Free Transport and Medication

Overtime Payment and Bonus

Non Yet Observed Frequency Total

Bauchi 0 0 3 3

Kaduna 0 2 5 7

Benue 0 2 4 6

Enugu 0 2 8 10

Oyo 0 3 3 6

Akwa Ibom 2 4 4 10

Abuja 2 4 4 10

Total 4 17 31 52

Table 3.20: Questionnaire No 20; Please with the present wages, salaries and incentive packages

paid by your company estimate craft workers output

Contractor N1000 - N1200 N1300 - N1500 N1600 – N 2000 Observed Frequency Total

Bauchi 3 0 0 3

Kaduna 3 4 0 7

Benue 4 2 0 6

Enugu 0 5 5 10

Oyo 2 4 0 6

Akwa Ibom 0 6 4 10

Abuja 0 2 8 10

Total 12 23 17 52

73

Contractor High Average Below Average


Bauchi 0 1 2 3

Kaduna 0 2 5 7

Benue 0 2 4 6

Enugu 0 5 5 10

Oyo 0 3 3 6

Akwa Ibom 1 5 4 10

Abuja 2 5 3 10

Total 3 23 26 52

Table 3.21: Questionnaire No 21; If the output of craft workers is still below average, what is the

anticipated cause(s).

Contractor Lack of Materials

Inadequate Wage And Incentives

Idleness Among Workers


Bauchi 1 2 0 3

Kaduna 2 3 2 7

Benue 2 3 1 6

Enugu 3 4 3 10

Oyo 2 3 2 6

Akwa Ibom 4 4 2 10

Abuja 2 3 5 10

Total 16 21 15 52

Section four: Crafts workers Recruitment and Retraining

Table 3.22: Questionnaires No 22: What is your recruitment source(s) for craft workers.

Contractor College And Advert

Personal Recommendation

Labour Shop Observed Frequency Total

74

Bauchi 0 1 2 3

Kaduna 0 3 4 7

Benue 0 2 4 6

Enugu 2 3 5 10

Oyo 1 2 3 6

Akwa Ibom 3 4 3 10

Abuja 4 2 4 10

Total 10 17 25 52

Table 3.23: Questionnaire No 23; What is the minimum qualification for your craft workers.

Contractor Trade Tested

Apprentice Testimonial

Previous Work Participation


Bauchi 0 0 3 3

Kaduna 2 3 2 7

Benue 1 2 3 6

Enugu 2 2 6 10

Oyo 2 2 2 6

Akwa Ibom 3 3 4 10

Abuja 5 2 3 10

Total 15 14 23 52

Table 3.24: Questionnaire No 24: What is your training or retraining scheme for craftsmen in

your company?

Contractor Apprenticeship Scheme

Short Course at Technical Colleges

No Training Scheme at Present


Bauchi 3 0 0 3

Kaduna 3 0 4 7

75

Benue 1 0 5 6

Enugu 0 0 7 10

Oyo 2 0 4 6

Akwa Ibom 0 0 I0 10

Abuja 0 0 10 10

Total 9 0 43 52

Table 3.25: Questionnaire 25; With the present level of qualification and training of your

craftsmen estimate their efficiency in terms of output and quality of work

Contractor High Average Below Average


Bauchi 0 1 2 3

Kaduna 0 2 5 7

Benue 0 2 4 6

Enugu 1 3 6 10

Oyo 1 2 3 6

Akwa Ibom 1 3 6 10

Abuja 3 4 3 10

Total 6 17 29 52

3.10 DATA ANALYSIS

Frequency Ranking and Chi-Square statistics were used to analyze the table data

that relate to the research questions and for the testing of the hypotheses.

76

Research Question 1

Can improper planning and poor supervision greatly affect the productivity of

construction workers in our indigenous construction companies?

Table 3.26 Analysis (adopted from table 4.11) on the factors that can directly affect productivity

of craft workers employed in indigenous companies

Factor/Response Opinion Frequency Percentage Ranking

Improper planning and supervision 22 42.31 1

Inadequate funding 16 30.77 2

Poor health of craft workers 14 26.92 3

Total 52 100%

Figure 3.1 Graphical analysis of data

From the factor ranking on the table3.26, it has become evident that the 1st, which

is improper planning and supervision, is the greatest factor among others that

affects the productivity of construction workers in indigenous construction

companies in Nigeria

77

Research Question 2

Can poor wages and absent of motivational incentives greatly affect the

productivity of construction workers in our indigenous construction companies?

Table 3.27 Analysis (adopted from table 4.19) on the type of motivational incentives policies

indigenous contractors apply to their craft workers

Response Opinion Frequency Percentage Ranking

Free transportation and medical treatment only 4 7.69 3

Overtime payment only 17 32.69 2

No incentive and wage increment scheme at present 31 59.62 1

Total 52 100


From the factor ranking on the table 3.27, it has also become evident that the 1st

that is no incentives and poor wage among other factors can greatly affect the

productivity of construction workers in indigenous construction companies in

Nigeria

78

Research Question 3

Will inadequate education and training greatly affect the quality of work and

output of craft workers in our indigenous construction companies?

Table 3.28 Analysis (adopted from table 4.23) on the type of vocational qualification possessed

by most craft workers employed by indigenous contractors

Response Opinion Frequency Percentage Ranking

Trade tested only 15 28.85 2

Apprenticeship testimonial only 14 26.92 3

Previous work participation only 23 44.23 1

Total 52 100


From the factor ranking on the table 3.8, it can be proved that the 1st, which is the

use of previous work participation only as basic qualification, is inadequate and

will greatly affect the quality of work and productivity of craft workers in

indigenous construction companies in Nigeria

79

Testing Null Hypothesis 1

H01: Improper planning, supervision and control of craftsmen activities on

construction site significantly affect their productivity and quality of work in

indigenous construction companies in Nigeria.

Table 3.29 Testing (adopted from table 4.11) on the type of factors that can affect productivity of

craft workers employed in indigenous construction companies


Total sampled opinion / Respondents = 52

Observed frequency O range from 0 to 10

Expected frequency E = row total x column total Grand total

Contractor Inadequate Planning

and Supervision

Inadequate

Funding

Poor health of

Craftsmen

Observed

Frequency Total

Bauchi 2 0 1 3

Kaduna 3 2 2 7

Benue 4 1 1 6 Enugu 4 3 3 10 Oyo 3 2 1 6

Akwa Ibom 4 4 2 10

Abuja 2 4 4 10 Total 22 16 14 52

80

E11 = 3X22 = 1.27 E12 = 3X16 = 0.92 E13 = 3X14 = o.81 52 52 52 E21 = 7X22 = 2.96 E22 = 7X16 =2.15 E23 = 7X14 = 1.89 52 52 52 E31 = 6X22 =2.54 E32 = 6X16 = 1.85 E33 = 6X14 = 1.62 52 52 52 E41 = 10X22 = 4.23 E42 = 10X16 = 3.08 E43 = 10X14 = 2.69 52 52 52 E51 = 6X22 =2.54 E52 = 6X16 = 1.85 E53 = 6X16 = 1.62 52 52 52 E61 = 10X22 = 4.23 E62 = 10X16 =3.08 E63 = 10X14 =2.69 52 52 52 E71 = 10X22 = 4.23 E72 = 10X16 = 3.08 E73 = 10X14 = 2.69


Cell Oi Ei Oi – Ei ( Oi – Ei)2

(Oi – Ei)2 / Ei

E11 2 1.27 0.73 0.53 0.42

E12 0 0.92 -0.92 0.85 0.92

E13 1 0.81 0.19 0.04 0.05

E21 3 2.96 0.04 0.00 0.00

E22 2 2.15 -0.15 0.03 0.01

E23 2 1.89 0.11 0.01 0.01

E31 4 2.54 1.46 2.13 0.84

E32 1 1.85 -0.85 0.72 0.39

E33 1 1.62 -0.62 0.38 0.24

E41 4 4.23 -0.23 0.05 0.01

E42 3 3.08 -0.08 0.01 0.00

E43 3 2.69 0.31 0.10 0.04

E51 3 2.54 0.46 0.21 0.08

E52 2 1.85 0.15 0.02 0.01

E53 1 1.62 -0.62 0.38 0.24

E61 4 4.23 -0.23 0.05 0.01

E62 4 3.08 0.92 0.85 0.28

E63 2 2.69 -0.69 0.48 0.18

E71 2 4.23 -2.23 4.97 1.18

E72 4 3.08 0.92 0.85 0.28

E73 4 2.69 1.31 1.72 0.64

5.83

Calculated Chi-Square X2 = ∑ (Oi – Ei)2 / Ei

= 5.83

Degree of freedom df = (R-1)(C-1)

R = No of rows, C = No of columns df = (7-1)(3-1) = 12

81

Level of significant = 5% or 0.05

From Chi- Square Table, X20.05 = 23.69

X2

c = 5.83< 21.026 ie significant

Based on the result above, X2c significant, we therefore accept the null hypothesis

HO1 which state that improper planning, supervision and control of craft workers

activities on construction site significantly affect their productivity in indigenous

construction companies


H02: Poor wages and inadequate motivational incentives significantly affect the

productivity and quality of work of craftsmen in indigenous construction firms in

Nigeria.

Table 3.1 Analysis (adopted from table 4.19) on the output of craft workers based on the present

wages, and incentive policy

Respondents Free

Transport

and

Overtime

Payment and

Bonus

Non

incentives Yet

Observed Frequency

Total

Bauchi 0 0 3 3 Kaduna 0 2 5 7 Benue 0 2 4 6

Enugu 0 2 8 10 Oyo 0 3 3 6

Akwa Ibom 2 4 4 10 Abuja 2 4 4 10 Total 4 17 52

82


Total sampled opinion / Respondents = 52

Observed frequency O range from 1to 10

Expected frequency E = row total x column total Grand total Table 3.2 Testing of hypotheses 2


(Oi – Ei)2

/ Ei

E11 0 0.23 - 0.23 0.05 0.22

E12 0 0.98 - 0.98 0.96 0.98 E13 3 1.79 1.21 1.46 0.82

E21 0 0.54 - 0.54 0.29 0.54

E22 2 2.29 - 0.29 0.08 0.35 E23 5 4.17 0.83 0.69 0.17

E31 0 0.46 - 0.46 0.21 0.46 E32 2 1.96 0.04 0.00 0.00

E33 4 3.58 0.42 0.18 0.05

E41 0 0.77 - 0.77 0.59 0.77 E42 2 3.27 - 1.27 1.61 0.49

E43 8 5.96 2.04 4.16 0.70 E51 0 0.46 - 0.46 0.21 0.46 E52 3 1.96 1.04 1.08 0.55

E53 3 3.58 - 0.58 0.34 0.10 E61 2 0.77 1.23 1.51 1.96 E62 4 3.27 0.73 0.53 0.16

E63 4 5.96 - 1.96 3.84 0.64 E71 2 0.77 1.23 1.51 0.10 E72 4 3.27 0.73 0.53 0.16 E73 4 5.96 - 1.96 3.84 0.64

10.32

83

Calculated Chi-Square X2 = ∑ (Oi – Ei)2 / Ei = 10.32

Degree of freedom df = 12



X2


Based on the result above, X2c significant, we therefore accept the null hypothesis

HO2 which posit that poor wages and inadequate motivational incentives

significantly affect the productivity of craft workers in indigenous construction



H03: Inadequate education and vocational training of craftsmen significantly affect

their quality of work in indigenous construction companies in Nigeria.

Table 3.33 Analysis (adopted from table 4.23.) on the quality of work and output of craft

workers with their present qualifications and training

Respondents Trade

Tested

Apprentice

Testimonial

Previous Work

Participation

Observed Frequency

Total

Bauchi 0 0 3 3

Kaduna 2 3 2 7

Benue 1 2 3 6 Enugu 2 2 6 10 Oyo 2 2 2 6

Akwa Ibom 3 3 4 10

Abuja 5 2 3 10

Total 15 14 23 52

84


Total sampled opinion / Respondents = 52.

Observed frequency O range from 1to 10

Expected frequency E = row total x column total Grand total



(Oi – Ei)2

/ Ei

E11 0 0.86 - 0.86 0.74 0.86

E12 0 0.64 - 0.64 0.41 0.64 E13 3 1.50 1.50 2.25 1.50 E21 2 2.02 - 0.02 0.00 0.00

E22 1 1.48 - 0.48 0.23 0.16 E23 4 3.50 0.50 0.25 0.07 E31 1 1.73 - 0.73 0.53 0.31

E32 1 1.27 -0.27 0.07 0.06

E33 4 3.00 1.00 1.00 0.33

E41 2 2.89 - 0.89 0.79 0.27 E42 2 2.12 - 0.12 0.01 0.01

E43 6 5.00 1.00 1.00 0.20 E51 2 1.73 0.27 0.07 0.04

E52 2 1.27 0.73 0.53 0.42 E53 2 3.00 - 1.00 1.00 0.33

E61 3 2.89 0.11 0.01 0.00

E62 3 2.12 0.88 0.77 0.36 E63 4 5.00 - 1.00 1.00 0.20

E71 5 2.89 2.11 4.45 1.54 E72 2 2.12 - 0.12 0.01 0.01

E73 3 5.00 -2.00 4.00 0.80

8.11

85

Calculated Chi-Square X2 = ∑ (Oi – Ei) 2 / Ei

= 8.11

Degree of freedom df = (R-1)(C-1)

df = (7-1)(3-1) = 12



X2


Based on the result above X2c significant, we therefore accept the null hypothesis

HO3 which implies that inadequate education and vocational training of craft

workers significantly affect their quality of work in indigenous construction


86

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS OF FIELD SURVEY

1. All the construction companies investigated were fully Nigerian owned or

indigenous and 42.3% of them operate as building/civil engineering companies,

another 42.3% as building constructors, and the remaining 15.4% as road

construction companies.

2. Majority of the indigenous construction companies have been in operation for

more than ten years and are registered either with the federal, state or both

3. Majority of the indigenous construction firms employs greater number of

craftsmen on casual basis.

4. More than half of the companies investigated carry out their construction

planning on the site and majority of the planners are General Foremen.

5. 62% of the companies carryout their construction planning by consultation with

workers, only 38% use work programming and scheduling.

6. Majority of the indigenous companies indicated that with their present

construction planning method the output of their craftsmen is still below average

and gave their reason as inadequate planning and supervision, while the second

group says it is inadequate finding.

7. 46% of the indigenous construction companies carry out work quality control by

relying on foremens’report, 34% rely on the managers’ round trip observation

reports, and only 20% use daily supervision check list and inspection tests.

8. Greater number of the companies indicated that with their present method of

quality control the quality of their job is still below average and gave their reasons

as inadequate training of craft workers

87

9. 44% of the companies evaluates daily output of their craftsmen by physical

observation, 32% evaluates by comparing with previously completed work, while

the remaining 24% evaluates by comparing with established output standards.

10. Majority of the indigenous companies pay their staff craftsmen less than

N35000 monthly and pay casual craftsmen less than N2000 per day.

11. 62% of all the indigenous companies have no immediate plan to use incentive

packages to motive their crafts workers while only 32% could pay overtime.

12. The same majority indicated that their craftsmen output is below average and

gave their reasons as inadequate wages and incentives.

13. Greater number of the companies recruit their craftsmen through labour shops

and they use previous job participation as qualifications.

14. 82% of the companies indicated that they have no immediate training or

retraining scheme for their crafts workers.

15. Majority of the indigenous companies finally indicated that the efficiency of

their craft workers in terms of productivity and quality of work is below average

and the cause is inadequate craft training

4.2 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

Items 2 and 3 of the results of findings imply that the indigenous construction

companies have been in the business for upwards of twenty years and they still

employ more causal craftsmen than staff craftsmen. This casual method of

employing craftsmen could not guarantee quality work and higher productivity.

Items 2 and 6 indicated that majority of indigenous construction companies

carryout their construction planning on site through their general foremen and by

consultation with workers.. This looks very unprofessional and has the possibilities

of achieving low output and consequently leading to waste of labour resources and

production time. Greater number of the contractors agreed to these possibilities.

88

Items 7 and 8 pointed out that greater number of the contractors rely on the

foremen and manager’s observation report as a means of controlling quality of

work instead of using checklist and inspection test. The result of such method will

be poor quality of job all through the project, in spite of low training of workers.

Item 9 indicated that most of the contractors evaluate their workers output by

observation and comparing with previous works, which is also unprofessional and

cannot guarantee steady improvement or aid proper planning.

Items 10,11and12, reported that greater number of the indigenous companies pay

between N1000 and 1500 per day to the causal craftsmen and less than 3500

monthly to the staff craftsmen and without appreciable incentive scheme. It is very

clear that the wages are low for the crafts workers, considering the present cost of

living in the country. The result of this poor condition is low morale, and low

output of work, which they all confirmed. Also the companies stand the chance of

losing good craftsmen any time.

Items 13 and 14 stated the labour shop method which most of the companies use in

recruiting craftsmen of low training and their hesitant attitude to train them further.

It is obvious that these contractors have not accepted the fact that construction is

highly technical, and production oriented business, which must be done with the

target of meeting the needs of clients, in terms of quality and value. Only efficient

and well-trained craftsmen under the supervision of professional managers can

achieve such tasks. However the contractors finally agree that untrained craftsmen

will always produce below expectation.

89

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

In every economic and management process, higher productivity is matched with

reward or profit. Productivity is a measure of individual or collective performance

of resource input in an organization. Craftsmen working on a construction site are

seen as part of the labour resource input and are expected to be productive. With

the research findings above it is now obvious that our indigenous construction

contractors and their craft workers are not really productive for the following

reasons;

i- Improper project planning and supervision of craft workers which could

not ensure high productivity. This was further confirmed by the accepted null

hypothesis Ho1.

ii- Inadequate or total absent of motivational incentives for craft workers

which also limited their productivity. The accepted null hypothesis Ho2

proved this assertion.

iii - low vocational training of recruited craftsmen with no provision of

retraining them resulting to poor quality of work. Again this situation was

confirmed by the accepted null hypothesis Ho3.

In view of these revealed points, I finally posit that the productivity and quality of

work of craftsmen working in indigenous construction companies, in nearly all the

states of the federation is below standard.

90

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE STUDY

Based on the above research findings, analysis and tests, decision models below,

were developed for indigenous construction contractors to adopt and improve their

craft workers productivity and quality of work.

Affecting Factor: Improper planning and supervision

Improvement Strategies:

o Establish a project-planning unit to be headed by a qualified and experienced construction engineer/manager.

o The planning engineer must always use modern planning tools, which include method statement, labour standard, CPM analysis, work programme, labour and materials schedule charts.

o Site engineers must be furnished with work programme, labour and materials schedules. o Site engineers must always stay on site to direct the craft workers on every section of

work till day work is over. o Engineers must use checklist to supervise work. o Engineers must conduct tests on materials and equipments before use. o Keep records of daily and weekly labour output. o Always compare output with programme of work and correct any delay or deviation. o Use effective communication methods onsite

Affecting Factor: Non use of adequate incentives


o Provide a policy to motivate site workers with incentives. o Use financial and non-financial incentives to motivate site workers always. o Maintain higher ratio of permanent craft workers than casuals. o Pay craft workers adequately and on time

Affecting Factor: Poor training of craft workers.


o Ensure that every craft worker on site is trade tested or with approved vocational trade certificate.

o When necessary retrain each craftsman for higher productivity and quality of work

This study could not be exustive of the problem factors affecting construction

workers productivity and quality of work in the industry and therefore the

following further studies are suggested;

91

1) The impact of poor welfare management on the productivity of construction

workers in a large size construction company.

2) The effect of inadequate communication system on construction workers

productivity and quality of work.

3) The need for intensive training and retraining of craftsmen for higher

productivity in the construction industry

5.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

In the course of carrying out this study, some limitations were encountered and

they include the followings;

1) The time needed to complete this study was short, when compared with the

content and geographical coverage of the study.

2) Some respondents were not very free with their responses as many thought

the questionnaire was to their disadvantages.

3) Transportation and lodging costs in the far northern states were setbacks to

the study and this affected the rate of return of the instrument

92

REFERENCES

Aderoba Adeyemi: (1994) Extension Education for Roadside Apprentices; Journal of Training and Development TRADE. Vol. 1No 2PP 19 ITF Jos Nigeria

Adrain J. J. (1282) Construction Estimating; an Accounting and Productivity

Approach, Prentice-Hall Reston Publishing Co. Virginia Alfred L E :( 1988) Construction Productivity, Book Company, New York Amusu I (2000) Theoretical Training for Engineering Personnel; 10th Engineering

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Skilled Craftsmen. The Builders Focus pp 33 NAOBS. Bamisile A. (2004). Building Production Management. Foresight Press Ltd Lagos Bennett I: (1985) Construction Project Management Butterworth’s, London Bokini S.K. (2005) Skill Acquisition and Development for Craftsmen and Artisans;

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Jeremaih P. (2012). National Productivity Data. An FRCN Documentary Report

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95

APPENDIX A


Faculty of Engineering University of Nigeria, Nsukka

March 2011

Dear Sir/Madam,

RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

We are delighted to request for your kind response to the attached questionnaire. It

is part of our research work on the ‘Factors affecting the productivity and

quality of work of construction workers in Nigerian indigenous construction

companies.

The study is purely an academic exercise in partial fulfillment for the award of a

Master of Engineering Degree in Materials and Construction Engineering. It is

therefore hoped that the information you will provide in this questionnaire will

make the study worthwhile and also useful to the department.

Your response shall be well appreciated and treated confidentially.

Yours faithfully,

C.F.M. Chukwuji Prof. (Engr.) O.O. Ugwu

Reg. No: PG/MEng/09/50669 (Supervisor)

96

Name and address of company……………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………

Name of respondent ………………………………………………………………..

Qualification(s) of respondent………………………………………………………

Position held in the company ………………………………………………………

(General Manager, Construction Manager, Project Engineer, General foreman)

Section One: Company Profile (Tick as applicable)

1. Ownership composition of your company.

[ ] Fully Nigerian Ownership

[ ] Nigerian and Non Nigerian ownership

[ ] Fully foreign ownership

2. Area of specialization of your company

[ ] Building construction only

[ ] Highway/Road construction only

[ ] Building and Road construction

3. Age of your company in construction

[ ] 15 years and above

[ ] 10 – 14 years

[ ] 5 – 9 years

4. Category of registration of your company

[ ] Federal

[ ] State

[ ] Federal & State

97

5. Geographical location of your company in Nigeria (please specify)

[ ] North-East …………………………….................................

[ ] North-West …………………………………………………

[ ] North-Central ………………………………………………..

[ ] South-East …………………………………………………..

[ ] South-West ………………………………………………….

[ ] South-South …………………………………………………

Section Two: Construction Planning, Supervision and Quality Control

6. What is the employment status of greater number of your craft workers.

[ ] Staff

[ ] Casual

[ ] Contract staff

[ ] All of the above

7. What is your company’s project planning set up

[ ] Separate department

[ ] Site base

[ ] Administrative function

[ ] Others (please specify) ……………………………………………...

8. Who is the head of project planning in your company

[ ] Engineer/Construction Manager

[ ] Foreman

[ ] Accountant


9. What type of construction planning method is adopted in your company.

98

[ ] Work programming and scheduling

[ ] Visual estimation

[ ] Consultation with workers

[ ] Others (please specify) ……………………………………………

10. With regard to your present construction planning method, estimate crafts

output in your company.

[ ] High

[ ] Average

[ ] Below average

[ ] Others (please specify)…………………………………………..

11. If the output of your craft workers is below average what is the anticipated

cause(s).

[ ] Improper planning and supervision

[ ] Inadequate Funding

[ ] Poor health of craftsmen


12. What type of quality control method is adopted in your company

[ ] Daily supervision with check lists

[ ] Daily round trip observation by manger/foreman

[ ] Rely on foreman report


99

13. Please estimate your craftsmen quality of work with your present method of

quality control.

[ ] High

[ ] Average

[ ] Below average


14. If the quality of work is below average, what could be the cause(s)

[ ] Inadequate control method

[ ] Inadequate equipment

[ ] Complex work


15. What method have you been using to determine output of your craftsmen

[ ] Comparing with established output standard

[ ] Comparing with previous work

[ ] Physical observation

[ ] Others (please specify) …………………………………………….

Section Three: Motivation of crafts workers

16. Please indicate the ratio of staff and casual craftsmen in your company

[ ] 1:2

[ ] 1:4

[ ] 1:6


17. What is the monthly salary for a staff craftsman in your company

100

[ ] N18, 000 – N 20000

[ ] N21, 000 - N 25000

[ ] N26, 000 - N30000

[ ] Others (please specify) ……………………………………………..

18. Daily wage for a casual craftsman you employ

[ ] N1,000 – N1200

[ ] N 1,300 – N1500

[ ] N 1,600 – N2000

[ ] Others (please specify) …………………………………………….

19. What incentive packages have you adopted for the crafts workers

[ ] Free transport and medication

[ ] Overtime payment and bonus

[ ] None yet

[ ] Others (please specify) ……………………………………………

20. Please, with the present wages, salaries and incentive packages paid by your

company estimate craftsmen output.

[ ] High

[ ] Average

[ ] Below average


21. If the output of craft workers is still below average, what is the anticipated

cause(s).

101

[ ] Lack of materials

[ ] Inadequate wages and incentives

[ ] Idleness among workers

[ ] Others (please specify) ………………………………………………

Section Four: Craftsmen recruitment and training

22. What is your recruitment source(s) for crafts workers

[ ] College contact/advert

[ ] Personal Recommendation

[ ] Labour shop


23. What is the minimum qualification for your crafts workers

[ ] Trade tested

[ ] Apprentice testimonial

[ ] Previous work participation


24. What is your training or retraining scheme for craftsmen in your company.

[ ] Apprenticeship scheme

[ ] Short courses at technical colleges

[ ] No training scheme at present


25. With the present level of qualification and training of your craftsmen estimate

their efficiency in terms of output and quality of work

[ ] High

102

[ ] Average

[ ] Below average


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