Protecting The Ozone Layer - DTIE

Refrigerants

Protecting the

Ozone Layer

V o l u m e 1

UNEP

2 0 0 1U P DAT E

This booklet is one of a series of reports prepared by the OzonAction Programme of the United Nations Environment

Programme Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (UNEP DTIE). UNEP DTIE would like to give special thanks to the

following organizations and individuals for their work in contributing to this project:

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

Ms. Jacqueline Aloisi de Larderel, Director, UNEP DTIE

Mr. Rajendra M. Shende, Chief, UNEP DTIE Energy and OzonAction Unit

Ms. Cecilia Mercado, Information Officer, UNEP DTIE OzonAction Programme

Mr. Andrew Robinson, Programme Assistant, UNEP DTIE OzonAction Programme

Editor: Geoffrey Bird

Design and layout: ampersand graphic design, inc.

Printed in Malta by Interprint Limited

This brochure is available on-line at www.uneptie.org/ozonaction/library/

© 2001 UNEP

This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational and non-profit purposes without special

permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. UNEP would appreciate receiving a

copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source.

No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission

in writing from UNEP.

The technical papers in this publication have not been peer-reviewed and are the sole opinion of the authors. The designations

employed and the presentation of the material in this publication therefore do not imply the expression of any opinion

whatsoever on the part of the United Nations Environment Programme concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city

or area or of its authorities, or concerning delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Moreover, the views expressed do not

necessarily represent the decision or the stated policy of the United Nations Environment Programme, nor does citing of trade

names or commercial processes constitute endorsement.

ISBN: 92-807-2159-3

Refrigerants

Protecting the

Ozone Layer

V o l u m e 1

UNEP

2 0 0 1U P DAT E

Contents

Foreword 3

Acknowledgements 4

Executive summary 5

Ozone depletion: an overview 6

The Montreal Protocol 8

Chapter summaries 12

Prospects for action:

• Domestic refrigeration 15

• Commercial refrigeration 20

• Cold storage, food processing and industrial refrigeration 23

• Unitary air conditioning and heat pumps 26

• Air conditioning via water chillers 28

• Transport refrigeration 31

• Mobile air conditioning 33

• Heat pumps 35

• Refrigerant conservation 37

Resources: 40

• Secretariats and Implementing Agencies 41

• Contact points 42

• Further reading 44

• Glossary 45

About the UNEP DTIE OzonAction Programme 46

About the UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics 48

Foreword

When the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer came into force, in 1989, it

had been ratified by 29 countries and the EEC, and set limits on the production of eight man-made

chemicals identified as ozone depleting substances (ODS). By July 2001 there were more than 170

Parties (i.e. signatories) to the Protocol, both developed and developing countries, and production

and consumption of over 90 substances were controlled.

Linking these two sets of figures, which attest to the success of the Montreal Protocol, is a process of

elimination of ODS in which ratification of the Protocol was only a first step. It was recognized from

the start that the Protocol must be a flexible instrument and that it should be revised and extended to

keep pace with scientific progress. It was also recognized that developing countries would face

special problems with phase out and would need assistance if their development was not to be

hindered. To level the playing field, the developing countries were given extra time to adjust

economically and to equip. A Multilateral Fund (MLF) was also set up early in the process to provide

financial and technical support for their phase out efforts.

Exchanges of information and mutual support among the Parties to the Montreal Protocol – via the

mechanisms of the MLF – have been crucial to the Protocol’s success so far. They will continue to be

so in the future. Even though many industries and manufacturers have successfully replaced ODS

with substances that are less damaging to the ozone layer or with ODS-free technology, lack of up-

to-date, accurate information on issues surrounding ODS substitutes continues to be a major

obstacle for many Parties, especially developing country Parties.

To help stimulate and support the process of ODS phase out, UNEP DTIE’s OzonAction Programme

provides information exchange and training, and acts as a clearinghouse for ozone related

information. One of the most important jobs of the OzonAction programme is to ensure that all those

who need to understand the issues surrounding replacement of ODS can obtain the information and

assistance they require. Hence this series of plain language reports – based on the reports of UNEP’s

Technical Options Committees (TOC) – summarizing the major ODS replacement issues for decision

makers in government and industry. The reports, first published in 1992, have now been updated to

keep abreast of technological progress and to better reflect the present situation in the sectors they

cover: refrigerants; solvents, coatings and adhesives; fire extinguishing substances; foams; aerosols,

sterilants, carbon tetrachloride and miscellaneous uses; and methyl bromide. Updating is based on

the 1998 reports from the TOCs and includes further information from the TOCs until 2000.

Updating of the reports at this point is particularly timely. The ‘grace period’ granted to developing

countries under the Montreal Protocol before their introduction of a freeze on CFCs came to an end in

July 1999. As developing countries now move to meet their Protocol commitments, accurate and up-

to-date information on available and appropriate technologies will be more important than ever if the

final goal of effective global protection of the ozone layer is to be achieved.

The publications in this series summarize the current uses of ODS in each sector, the availability of

substitutes and the technological and economic implications of converting to ODS-free technology.

Readers requiring more detailed information should refer to the original reports of the UNEP Technical

Options Committees (see Further Reading) on which the series is based.

PROTECTING THE OZONE LAYER • TECHNICAL BROCHURE UPDATES • REFRIGERANTS

3

Acknowledgements

List of the reporting (full) members of the Refrigeration Technical Options Committee. The names of

people proposed by former experts as replacements but who are still subject to final government

approval and recommendation to UNEP are given in italics. This report was written by Dr Lambert

Kuijpers (TEAP Co-Chair and Refrigeration TOC Co-Chair). The people listed below also gave freely

of their time to ensure that this publication, while written in plain language, reflects accurately the

more detailed information in the sources used.

UNEP TOC REFRIGERATION, A/C AND HEAT PUMPS’

REPORTING MEMBERS FOR THE ASSESSMENT 2000-2002


4

Co-chairs Affiliation Country Dr. Radhey S. Agarwal IIT Delhi India

Dr. Lambert Kuijpers Cochair UNEP TEAP Netherlands

Mr. Ward Atkinson Sun Test Engineering USA

Mr. James A. Baker Delphi Automotive Systems USA

Mr. Julius Banks US EPA USA

Mr. Marc Barreau ATOFINA France

Dr. Steven Bernhardt DuPont Fluoroproducts USA

Mr. Jos Bouma IEA Heat Pump Centre Netherlands

Dr. Dariusz Butrymowicz Institute of Fluid-Flow Machinery of Polish Academy Polandof Sciences

Mr. James M. Calm Engineering Consultant USA

Dr. Denis Clodic Centre d’Energetique, Ecole des Mines de Paris France

Mr. Daniel Colbourne Calor Gas Limited Great Britain

Mr. Jim Crawford The Trane Company USA

Dr. Sukumar Devotta National Chemical Laboratory India

Mr. László Gaal Hungarian Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Association Hungary

Dr. Kenneth E. Hickman Consultant USA

Mr. Martien Janssen Re/genT Consultancy Netherlands

Mr. Makoto Kaibara Matsushita Electric Industrial Co. Ltd. Japan

Dr. Ftouh Kallel Batam, Societe Hela D’Electromenager Tunisia

Dr. Ing. Michael Kauffeld DTI Energy, Danish Technological Institute Denmark

Mr. Fred J. Keller CARRIER Corporation USA

Prof. Dr. Ing. Jürgen Köhler Institut für Thermodynamik Denmark

Dipl. Ing. Holger König Axima Refrigeration GmbH Denmark

Prof. Dr. Ing. H. Kruse FKW GmbH Denmark

Mr. Edward J. McInerney GE Appliance Park 35-1001 USA

Mr. Mark Menzer ARI USA

Mr. Haruo Onishi Daikin Industries Ltd. Japan

Mr. Hezekiah B. Okeyo Department of Industrial Development, Uchumi House Kenya

Dr. Roberto de Aguiar Peixoto Maua Institute of Technology Brazil

Mrs. Frédérique Sauer Dehon Service S.A. France

Mr. Adam M. Sebbit Makerere University Uganda

Mr. Stephan Sicars Siccon Denmark

Mr. Arnon Simakulthorn Thai Compressor Manuf. Co. Ltd Thailand

Prof. Aryadi Suwono Bandung Institute of Technology Indonesia

Dr. Pham van Tho Ministry of Fisheries Vietnam

Ms. Trude Tokle SINTEF Energy Research Norway

Mr. Vassily N. Tselikov CPPI Russian Federation

Mr. Paulo Vodianitskaia Multibrás SA Eletrodomésticos Brazil

Mr. Kiyoshige Yokoi MATSUSHITA Refr Co Japan

Executive summary

CFC production has been phased out in the non-Article 5 countries and phase out is underway in the

Article 5 countries. To date, the main substitutes for CFCs in both developed and developing

countries have been HCFCs and HFCs. HCFCs are transitional substances and alternatives to them,

mainly blends of HFCs, and also HCs and ammonia, have become commercially available for many

applications. As a result, HFCs currently have a large share of the replacement market. If high

obsolescence costs are to be avoided, a rational approach to phase out of HCFC consumption

should include a minimum period to allow for development and commercialization of alternatives and

for rational phasing in of new equipment. For the short term, the transitional HCFCs are still a valid

option for refrigeration and air conditioning (A/C) equipment.

For the long term, however, only five important global refrigerant options remain for the vapour

compression cycle (as well as various non vapour compression methods):

• hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs, HFC-blends with 400 and 500 number designation);

• ammonia (R-717);

• hydrocarbons and blends (HCs, e.g. HC-290, HC-600, HC-600a etc.);

• carbon dioxide (CO2, R-744);

• water (R-718).

None of these is perfect. All have advantages and disadvantages that should be considered by

governments, equipment manufacturers and equipment users. For instance, HFCs have relatively high

global warming potentials, ammonia is more toxic than the other options, and both ammonia and

hydrocarbons are flammable. Appropriate equipment design, maintenance and use can help to

overcome these concerns, though sometimes at the cost of greater capital investment or lower

energy efficiency. Energy efficiency relates directly to global warming and greenhouse gas emissions.

It therefore remains an important issue for all refrigeration technologies, and should be considered

along with the factors described above. Next to ozone depletion, global warming is the main

environmental issue governing the selection of refrigerant technologies for the near-, mid- and long-

term. Although this issue is not covered by the Montreal Protocol, it nevertheless forms an important

criterion in the ongoing “environmental acceptability” debate. Interest in ammonia and the

hydrocarbons is stimulated, at least in part, by the fact that the HFCs are greenhouse gases which

may be subject to control measures in future. However, safety aspects also imply stringent emission

controls for ammonia and hydrocarbons. Similarly, energy efficiency research is partly encouraged by

the contribution of energy production to carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions.

The five refrigerant options mentioned above are at different stages of development or

commercialization. HFCs are widely applied in many sectors and ammonia and hydrocarbons are

enjoying growth in sectors where they can be accommodated easily. CO2 equipment is being

developed for certain applications and the first systems have reached the commercial market.

Equipment using water has been developed and may see some increase in use in limited

applications. Work by several committees is underway to develop standards to permit the application

of new refrigerants. Companies intend to reach limits that are accepted worldwide in those standards.


5

Ozone depletion: an overview

Most of the oxygen in the Earth’s atmosphere is in the form of molecules containing two oxygen

atoms, known by the familiar chemical symbol O2. In certain circumstances, three atoms of oxygen

can bond together to form ozone, a gas with the chemical symbol O3. Ozone occurs naturally in the

Earth’s atmosphere where its concentration varies with altitude. Concentration peaks in the

stratosphere at around 25–30 kilometres from the Earth’s surface and this region of concentration of

the gas is known as the ozone layer.

The ozone layer is important because it absorbs certain wavelengths of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from

the Sun, reducing their intensity at the Earth’s surface. High doses of UV radiation at these

wavelengths can damage eyes and cause skin cancer, reduce the efficiency of the body’s immune

system, reduce plant growth rates, upset the balance of terrestrial and marine ecosystems, and

accelerate degradation of some plastics and other materials.

A number of man-made chemicals are known to be harmful to the ozone layer. They all have two

common properties: they are stable in the lower atmosphere and they contain chlorine or bromine.

Their stability allows them to diffuse gradually up to the stratosphere where they can be broken down

by solar radiation. This releases chlorine and bromine radicals that can set off destructive chain

reactions breaking down other gases, including ozone, and thus reducing the atmospheric

concentration of ozone. This is what is meant by ozone depletion. The chlorine or bromine radical is

left intact after this reaction and may take part in as many as 100,000 similar reactions before

eventually being washed out of the stratosphere into the troposphere.


6

Effects of CFCs on stratoshperic ozone

UV radiation CFCl3

CFCl2

chlorineradical

chlorinemonoxide free

chlorineradical

ozone(O3)

series of reactions

oxygenmolecule

(O2)

+

When gases containing

chlorine, such as CFCs,

are broken down in the

atmosphere, each chlorine

atom sets off a reaction that

may destroy hundreds of

thousands of ozone molecules.

Another important environmental impact of a gas is its contribution to global warming. Global

Warming Potential (GWP) is an estimate of the warming of the atmosphere resulting from release of a

unit mass of gas in relation to the warming that would be caused by release of the same amount of

carbon dioxide. Some ODS and some of the chemicals being developed to replace them are known

to have significant GWPs. For example, CFCs have high GWPs and the non-ozone-depleting

hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) developed to replace CFCs also contribute to global warming. GWP is an

increasingly important parameter when considering substances as candidates to replace ODS.

During past decades, sufficient quantities of ODS have been released into the atmosphere to damage

the ozone layer significantly. The largest losses of stratospheric ozone occur regularly over the

Antarctic every spring, resulting in substantial increases in UV levels over Antarctica. A similar though

weaker effect has been observed over the Arctic.

At present, scientists predict that, provided the Montreal Protocol is implemented in full, ozone

depletion will reach its peak during the next few years and will then gradually decline until the ozone

layer returns to normal around 2050.


7

CFC numbers provide the information

needed to deduce the chemical structure

of the compound. The digit far right

provides information on the number of

fluorine atoms, the digit second from the

right provides information on hydrogen

atoms, and the digit on the left provides

information on carbon atoms. Vacant

valencies are filled with chlorine atoms.

Adding 90 to the number reveals the

numbers of C, H and F atoms more

directly.

How CFC Nomenclature Works

number of carbon atoms minus one (omitted if 0)

CC

FF

FF

ClCl CFC 114

number of hydrogen atoms, plus one

number of fluorine atoms in one molecule

Note: 1. All spare valencies filled by chlorine atoms2. Different isomers are indicated by a suffic of lower case letters3. Bromine atoms are indicated by a suffic B plus number of atoms4. Hundreds number = 4 or 5 for blends (e.g. R-502)

Ozone-depleting Major uses Ozone-depletion substance (ODS) potential (ODP)Chlorofluorocarbons Refrigerants; propellants for spray cans, inhalers, etc.; 0.6–1

(CFC) solvents, blowing agents for foam manufacture

Halons Used in fire extinguishers 3–10

Carbon tetrachloride Feedstock for CFCs, pharmaceutical and agricultural 1.1

chemicals, solvent

1,1,1-trichlorethane Solvent 0.1

(methyl chloroform)

Hydrobromofluorocarbons Developed as ‘transitional’ replacement for CFCs. 0.01–0.52

(HBFCs)

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons Developed as ‘transitional’ replacement for CFCs. 0.02–7.5

(HCFCs)

Methyl bromide Fumigant, widely used for pest control 0.6

Bromochloromethane (CBM) Solvent 0.12

The Montreal Protocol

The Montreal Protocol, developed under the management of the United Nations Environment

Programme in 1987, came into force on 1 January 1989. The Protocol defines measures that

Parties must introduce to limit production and consumption of substances that deplete the ozone

layer. The Montreal Protocol and the Vienna Convention – the framework agreement from which the

Protocol was born – were the first global agreements to protect the Earth’s atmosphere.

The Protocol originally introduced phase out schedules for five CFCs and three halons. However, it

was designed so that it could be revised on the basis of periodic scientific and technical

assessments. The first revisions were made at a meeting of the Parties in London, in 1990, when

controls were extended to additional CFCs and halons as well as to carbon tetrachloride and methyl

chloroform. At the Copenhagen meeting, in 1992, the Protocol was amended to include methyl

bromide and to control HBFCs and HCFCs. A schedule for phase out of methyl bromide was

adopted at the Vienna meeting in 1995, and this was later revised in 1997, in Montreal. In 1999, the

Parties met in Beijing, where they extended control to bromochloromethane (CBM). By July 2001,

there were 177 Parties to the Montreal Protocol and more than 90 chemicals are now controlled.


8

Ozone-depleting substances (ODS) covered by the Montreal Protocol and their ozone-depletion potential (ODP)*

* Where ranges of ODP are given, readers requiring the exact ODP for a given CFC, halon, HBFC or HCFC should referto the Handbook for the International Treaties for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, published by the UNEP OzoneSecretariat, or other accredited sources.

How regulation works

All ODS do not inflict equal amounts of damage on the ozone layer. Substances that contain only

carbon, fluorine, chlorine, and/or bromine – referred to as fully halogenated – have the highest

potential for damage. They include CFCs and halons. Other substances, including the

hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), developed as replacements for CFCs, also contain hydrogen. This

reduces their persistence in the atmosphere and makes them less damaging for the ozone layer. For

the purposes of control under the Montreal Protocol, ODS are assigned an ozone-depletion potential

(ODP).

Each controlled chemical is assigned an ODP in relation to CFC-11 which is given an ODP of 1.

These values are used to calculate an indicator of the damage being inflicted on the ozone layer by

each country’s production and consumption of controlled substances. Consumption is defined as

total production plus imports less exports, and therefore excludes recycled substances. The relative

ozone-depleting effect of production of a controlled ODS is calculated by multiplying its annual

production by its ODP, results are given in ODP tonnes, a unit used in this series of publications and

elsewhere. The ODS currently covered by the Montreal Protocol are shown, with their ODPs, in the

table on page 8.

Developing countries and the Montreal Protocol

From the outset, the Parties to the Montreal Protocol recognized that developing countries could face

special difficulties with phase out and that additional time and financial and technical support would

be needed by what came to be known as ‘Article 5’ countries. Article 5 countries are developing

countries that consume less than 0.3 kg per capita per year of controlled substances in a certain

base year. They are so called because their status is defined in Article 5 of the Protocol1.

Financial and technical assistance was provided under the 1990 London Amendment which set up

the Multilateral Fund (MLF). Activities and projects under the MLF are implemented by four

implementing agencies: UNDP, UNEP, UNIDO and the World Bank.

Article 5 countries were also granted a ‘grace period’ of 10 years to prepare for phase out.

1999 marked the end of that period for production and consumption of CFCs. Article 5 countries

have, since 1999, entered the ‘compliance’ period in which they will have to achieve specific

reduction targets.

The requirements of the Montreal Protocol as of December 2000 for both developed and Article 5

countries are shown in the table on page 10.


9

1 This is often written Article 5(1), indicating that status is defined in paragraph 1 of Article 5 of the Protocol. ‘Article 5Parties’ is also used.


10

Requirements of the Montreal Protocol including amendments and adjustments to the end of 1999**

Controlled Substance Reduction in consumption Reduction in consumption and production for and production for developing developed countries (Article 5) countries

CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC- 113,

CFC-114, CFC-115

Base level: 1986

1989: Freeze

1994: 75 per cent

1996: 100 per cent

Base level: Average of 1995–1997

1999: Freeze

2005: 50 per cent

2007: 85 per cent

2010: 100 per cent

Halon 1211, halon 1301, halon

2402

Base level: 1986

1992: 20 per cent

1994: 100 per cent


2002: Freeze

2005: 50 per cent

2010: 100 per cent

Other fully halogenated CFCs Base level: 1989

1993: 20 per cent

1994: 75 per cent

1996: 100 per cent


2003: 20 per cent

2007: 85 per cent

2010: 100 per cent

Carbon tetrachloride Base level: 1989

1995: 85 per cent

1996: 100 per cent


2005: 85 per cent

2010: 100 per cent

1,1,1-trichloroethane

(methyl chloroform)

Base level: 1989

1993: Freeze

1994: 50 per cent

1996: 100 per cent


2003: Freeze

2005: 30 per cent

2010: 70 per cent

2015: 100 per cent

HCFCs Consumption

Base level: 1989 HCFC consumption +

2.8 per cent of 1989 CFC consumption

1996: Freeze

2004: 35 per cent

2010: 65 per cent

2015: 90 per cent

2020: 99.5 per cent

2030: 100 per cent

Production

Base level: 1989 HCFC consumption +

2.8 per cent of 1989 CFC consumption

2004: Freeze

Consumption

Base level: 2015

2016: Freeze

2040: 100 per cent

Production

Base level: 2015

2001: Freeze


11

0

50

100

150

200

Beijing Amendment

Montreal Amendment

Copenhagen Amendment

London Amendment

Montreal Protocol

Vienna Convention

Agreement

No. of CountriesRatifying

Progress in the ratification of the Montreal Protocol and its amendments

Requirements of the Montreal Protocol including amendments and adjustments to the end of 1999**

Controlled Substance Reduction in consumption Reduction in consumption and production for and production for developing developed countries (Article 5) countries

** The Protocol allows some exemptions, e.g. for "essential uses." Readers requiring full details of phase out for a given substanceshould refer to the Handbook for the International Treaties for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, published by the UNEP OzoneSecretariat, or other accredited sources.

HBFCs 1996: 100 per cent 1996: 100 per cent

Bromochloromethane 2002: 100 per cent 2002: 100 per cent

Methyl bromide Base level: 1991

1995: Freeze

1999: 25 per cent

2001: 50 per cent

2003: 70 per cent

2005: 100 per cent

Base level: Average of 1995-1998

2002: Freeze

2005: 20 per cent

2003: review of reduction schedule

2015: 100 per cent

Source: Caleb Management Services, UK

Chapter summaries

Domestic refrigeration

In the Article 5 countries, transition from CFCs is occurring faster than required by the Montreal

Protocol. Preferred alternatives have been assessed in terms of safety, and of environmental,

functional and performance requirements. Two alternative refrigerants now remain: HFC-134a and

HC-600a. Both of these can provide safe, reliable and efficient domestic refrigerators and freezers.

Analysis of regional requirements and of differences in products selected by consumers provides

insight into selection. The complexity of field repair is increasing with the introduction of new

refrigerants and this has possible implications for several issues. There is a significant difference in

field repair rates between developed and developing countries, at approximately 2 per cent and 10

per cent respectively. Differences arise because of the use environment, extended life, uncertain

power-supply service, aggressive transport conditions and deficient service training. Globally, CFC-12

continues to dominate aftermarket service demand. Increased energy efficiency for domestic

refrigeration is an area of increasing interest.

Commercial refrigeration

Commercial refrigeration uses a wide range of equipment. The refrigeration capacity of centralized

systems in supermarkets varies typically from 20 kW to 1000 kW while stand-alone equipment

capacities are comparable to those of domestic equipment. Stand-alone equipment has traditionally

used CFC-12. Most new equipment uses HFC-134a and some now uses hydrocarbons. The

expected accelerated phase out of HCFCs in Europe has led to the choice of R-404A and R-507A

for new centralized systems. HFC blends – the economically preferred refrigerants – are the usual

choice, although in some European countries certain industries are supplying units that use either

ammonia or hydrocarbons. Units have been installed to evaluate the advantages and the drawbacks

of indirect systems (using a secondary circuit with heat transfer fluids). New concepts for direct

expansion using water cooling, now in operation, are also being evaluated. Other development efforts

are focussing on improving energy efficiency, minimizing charge size, and minimizing refrigerant

emissions.

Industrial refrigeration

Ammonia and HCFC-22 are currently the most commonly used refrigerants for industrial refrigeration,

including cold storage and food processing. It is expected that ammonia will increase in importance in

the future. In these sectors CFCs have been replaced by new systems using ammonia, HCFC-22 and

HFCs where the currently used HFCs are HFC-134a, R-404A and R-507A. The blend R-410A is

expected to become the leading HFC in the future. Hydrocarbons and CO2 are applicable for specific

applications. Retrofit activities in the industrial sectors are lower than predicted several years ago

although various retrofit options have proven to be viable solutions. In some cases, economic or

technical considerations make retrofit impossible. Cold storage and food processing is a more

important sector than industrial refrigeration in Article 5 countries. Here the refrigerants used are, to a

certain degree, CFCs and substitutes, HCFC-22 and ammonia.


12


13

Unitary air conditioning and heat pumps

Air cooled air conditioners and heat pumps ranging in size from 2 kW to 420 kW comprise the vast

majority of the air conditioning market. Nearly all of these units use HCFC-22 as working fluid,

representing an inventory of approximately 423,000 tonnes of HCFC-22. Significant progress has

been made in developing alternatives to HCFC-22 for this category of products. Hydrocarbon

refrigerants might also be suitable replacements for HCFC-22 in some categories of products, i.e. air-

to-water heat pumps and possibly very low charge level air-to-air systems. Article 5 Parties will have a

significant need for transfer of reclamation and retrofit technologies. At least one retrofit candidate for

HCFC-22 is commercially available: the HFC-blend R-407C.

Air conditioning via water chillers

Refrigerants including fluorocarbons (CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs), ammonia and hydrocarbons are used in

the continuously growing number of water chillers used for air conditioning around the world. Chillers

using fluorocarbons predominate in the installed base and in new units, as initial costs are relatively

low. Because HCFCs and HFCs are similar to CFCs physically and chemically, they can often replace

CFCs in new and existing chillers with less modification of chillers and equipment rooms than for

other replacement refrigerants. However, ammonia and hydrocarbon chillers are enjoying some

growth, particularly in Northern Europe. It must also be mentioned that, in recent years: phase out of

CFC-11 use in existing chillers has slowed significantly; use of ammonia in new systems has grown

more rapidly; very low emission chillers are now being installed; and hydrocarbon chillers have been

introduced in several regional markets.

Transport refrigeration

Transport refrigeration includes refrigeration in ships, railcars, containers and road transport

equipment. It also includes refrigeration and air conditioning on merchant ships, buses and railcars.

Most systems that used CFCs have been retrofitted or scrapped, except for refrigerated containers

and trucks where existing CFC-using fleets are large. Severe operating conditions mean that emission

rates can be particularly significant in all segments of transport refrigeration. In ships, nearly all

systems use HCFC-22, but HFCs are the preferred future option. Apart from HFCs, work is ongoing

on alternatives including hydrocarbons, ammonia, air-cycle and CO2 for new systems in transport

refrigeration. About half of the refrigerated containers and road vehicles still use CFC-12 today and

need to be retrofitted (mainly with HCFCs and HFCs).

Mobile air conditioning

By the end of 1994, all automobile manufacturers had converted mobile air conditioning systems to

HFC-134a. Existing vehicles with CFC-12 air conditioning are expected to be phased out due to “old

age” by the year 2008. The major issue remaining is to encourage all countries, particularly the Article

5 Parties, to phase out the use of CFC-12 in motor vehicles as soon as possible and to prevent

unnecessary emissions during servicing. Retrofit technology, recovery and recycling of refrigerant, and

service technician training are therefore of the utmost importance. To minimize global warming

emissions, hydrocarbons and CO2 have been proposed as possible long-term replacements for HFC-

134a. Considerable development work is ongoing, particularly for CO2.

Heat pumps

It is estimated that the total existing heating-only heat pump stock in the residential,

commercial/industrial and district heating sectors is roughly 1.7 million units, with a total heating

capacity of about 13,300 MW. Virtually all heat pumps are in use in the developed countries. HFCs

are the most important alternative refrigerant for heat pumps, both for retrofit and in new installations.

HFC-134a is used in medium/large capacity units as a replacement for CFC-12 where R-404A, R-

407C and R-410A are the most promising HFC blend alternatives to replace HCFC-22. To date, the

number of heat pump retrofits has been lower than expected. In recent years, ammonia has attained

a small but growing market share. Propane, propylene and certain hydrocarbon blends are being

used in a limited number of residential heat pumps, mainly in Europe. Heat-pump water heaters using

CO2 as refrigerant have been introduced to the market and the refrigerant is being evaluated for

several other heat pump applications.

Refrigerant conservation

Refrigerant conservation is critical both to maintaining the stock of existing CFC equipment and to

minimizing any environmental (e.g. global warming) or safety impacts associated with the transition

from ODS. Successful measures in the past have included financial incentives and regulations

making containment compulsory. In Article 5 countries, important first steps include tightening up

systems by finding and repairing leaks, and recovering refrigerant when opening the system for

service. In addition to recovery, consideration of recycling and reclaim procedures is also critical.

To be effective, conservation technologies must be matched by technician training and, in some

cases, adaptation of technology.


14

Prospects for action

Domestic refrigeration

All non-Article 5 countries and many Article 5 countries have completed transition from CFC-12 to

ozone-safe refrigerants in new equipment in the domestic refrigeration sector. In those Article 5

countries where national transition schedules are influenced by local regulatory initiatives, by

availability of components and resources, and by the engineering time required to re-design and

certify CFC-free models, transition to CFC-free models is occurring in advance of the Montreal

Protocol requirements.

There are now, essentially, two alternatives being used: HFC-134a and HC-600a. No significant new

candidates are expected to emerge because of high development costs and of the extensive supply

infrastructure required. Niche candidates, such as HFC-152a and related blends (in China), will

continue to be a focus for development efforts, given regional availability. Development efforts on

various drop-in blends are expected to continue, but only for after-market service. Appropriate

candidate alternatives must successfully complete comprehensive life-cycle assessments that include

analyses of production, transport, use, service and disposal requirements. Criteria for use of

candidate alternatives include safety, environmental, functional and performance requirements, as well

as many other regional requirements.

Both HFC-134a and HC-600a have zero ozone-depletion potential. HFC-134a is a greenhouse gas.

HC-600a is a Volatile Organic Compound, which may raise issues of compliance with local

regulations. Effective refrigerant recovery can mitigate both of these concerns. Levels of efficiency

obtained with HFC-134a and HC-600a are more or less identical. The reduced gas density of HC-

600a reduces gas-borne noise transmission compared to HFC-134a. Both HFC-134a and HC-600a

will provide safe, reliable, efficient domestic refrigerators and freezers with properly designed units.

The millions of units containing either HFC-134a or HC-600a being produced annually already attest

to the reliability of these domestic refrigerator-freezers.

Refrigerant flammability introduces additional requirements that must be considered as fundamental

criteria for product design and for the application environment. In response to needs introduced by

significant differences in the flammability of candidate refrigerants, product standards throughout the

world are being modified to include minimum requirements.

No-frost products containing HC-600a are now being offered in Europe. Either remote electrical

components or premium-cost special fans, switches and defrost controls are necessary. Evaporators

outside the storage volume (cold wall type) may be desirable to minimize risks or redesign needs.

HFC-134a requires a synthetic polyol ester oil and a molecular sieve dryer such as XH7 or XH9.

Polyol ester oils are hygroscopic and require enhanced manufacturing process control to ensure low

system moisture level. Conversion to electrical insulation materials typically used for HCFC-22

applications may be necessary. Careful attention to system cleanliness and avoidance of potential

sources of contamination are essential. HC-600a uses the familiar naphthenic mineral oil and a

molecular sieve dryer such as XH6. Competent manufacturing processes are required for reliable

application but HC-600a does not demand cleanliness control beyond historic CFC-12 practices.

HC-600a has a 1.8 per cent lower flammability limit in air, amplifying the need for proper factory


15

ventilation and appropriate electrical equipment standards. Current manufacturing practice uses

97.5–99.5 per cent pure HC-600a. These high purities ensure both thermodynamic performance and

protection against toxicity of probable impurities.

Field repair

Reliable information regarding domestic refrigeration field repair practices, repair frequency and the

consumption of a given type or quantity of fluid is difficult to obtain. Outside of warranty periods, only

a minor fraction of field repairs are carried out by original equipment manufacturers’ service personnel.

The majority of repairs are performed by a large number of individual and small-company service

shops with no established reporting infrastructures.

The high value of capital goods relative to labour costs in many countries exacerbates the situation by

encouraging component rebuilding in small, decentralized service shops. The variable quality of repair

resulting from this practice increases field repair frequency and thus extends the demand for ozone-

depleting substances and obsolete components. Furthermore, the continued use of components that

have energy efficiencies well below those obtained with current practice maintains pressure on power

generation and distribution systems.

Field repair is a general term that includes service, drop-in, conversion and rebuild options. Field

repair of new production refrigerator-freezers containing either HFC-134a or HC-600a refrigerant

should be restricted to the service technique using the refrigerant specified originally. Specific training

of service engineers and technicians is crucial.

Service field repair uses new or recycled CFC-12 when repairing a unit. The original-equipment

naphthenic mineral oil or alkyl benzene synthetic oil continues to be used. Any failed components are

replaced with parts similar to those used in the original equipment. This is the simplest and most

reliable approach (it will most likely continue as long as CFC-12 is available at a reasonable cost).

Drop-in field repair is a technique which changes the refrigerant without changing the lubricant. There

are numerous candidate drop-in refrigerants, ranging from replacement refrigerants to blends

developed for a certain specified (CFC-12) volumetric capacity. Supply sources range from highly

technical multi-national companies to unknown individual entrepreneurs (see Table 1, page 18).

Potential concerns include:

• possible elevated solvency, which may make polymers used in the compressor incompatible with

a refrigerant;

• when using alternative refrigerants, the performance of any given refrigerator-freezer is almost

always unknown. Required charge quantities and techniques are common uncertainties.

As CFC-12 availability and cost become more of a concern, some progress is being made in the use

of the drop-in technique.

Retrofit field repair techniques range from simple changing of refrigerant, lubricant and dryer (if

required) to extensive changes of compressor, refrigerant, lubricant, and dryer, as well as modification

of the expansion device and purging of the system to remove residual original equipment materials

from the system. The simple retrofit technique has limited acceptance. HFC-134a and HC-600a are

the only practicable refrigerants to consider for extensive retrofit techniques which include compressor

replacement. Technology is readily available to implement this option. Optimum charge level will not

be known for either HFC-134a or HC-600a. This is likely to result in less than optimum performance.


16

In non-Article 5 countries the distribution of failures is estimated to be 1 per cent during the first five

years (primarily driven by manufacturing quality defects) with an additional cumulative 1 per cent

during the typically remaining 10 to 15 years of product life. In Article 5 countries, distribution is

estimated to be 3 per cent and 7 per cent respectively.

Refrigerant recovery during field repair and product disposal is frequently cited as an opportunity to

reduce emissions of ozone-depleting substances and to extend their availability for service. Both

objectives are valid and achievable. Service and disposal recovery of refrigerants is being practiced in

many non-Article 5 and Article 5 countries. In spite of economic and technological limitations, many

developing countries are ahead of schedule in their industry conversions. However, servicing remains

a very important issue in these countries, partly due to the extended working life of appliances and

partly to power-supply problems such as power cuts and voltage fluctuations which adversely affect

product reliability.

The energy efficiency of domestic refrigerator-freezers is a subject of increasing interest worldwide, on

the part of both consumers and regulators. Widespread energy conservation efforts have been driven

primarily by the need to avoid investment in energy production and to avoid excessive peak electrical

demands. The rapid growth of energy demand in Article 5 countries will probably lead to broader

refrigerator energy regulations to avoid these excessive peaks, and the need for extra investment.

Retirement and replacement of significantly less efficient, older, installed units and universal application

of already widely practiced commercially available state-of-the-art technology could result in large

reductions in global energy consumption. For example – and this holds true for many countries – a

typical 1997 refrigerator-freezer consumes only 30 per cent of the energy required by a 1972 model.

Improving compressor efficiency involves several aspects such as enhancement of motor efficiency,

use of lower speed motors, lower bearing friction, improved fluid heat transfer, use of lower viscosity

oils, and optimization of gas flow through valves, etc.

Continuous refrigeration capacity adjustment through frequency modulation of fixed displacement

compressors has been demonstrated using inverter controlled drive motors. Energy improvements

are variable and depend on the refrigerator design for a specific application. Results achieved are

variable, with the general estimate for improvement being about 10 per cent. Product noise level

modulation with capacity modulation is another favourable aspect of these inverter controlled

compressors.


17

Table 1. Field repair of CFC-12/ mineral oil systems

Field Repair Method Repair Type Advantages Disadvantages


18

Use virgin or recycledwith either:compressor and oil, ornew CFC-12 compressorand new mineral oil.

Service Compressor materialcompatibility.

Compressor reliability.

System performance.

System performance.

Minimized service complexity.

Cost and availability of CFC-12CFC-12 good now but futureis uncertain.

Replace CFC-12 refrigerant134a and retain mineral oil and change dryer.

Retrofit Acceptable performance inspecific limited applications.

Insolubility issues: oil with HFC-logging and capillary tube, original restrictions.

Performance.

Material incompatibilities.

Brazing more critical.

Replace CFC-12 refrigerantwith HC-600a / HC-290 blendor C1 (HFC/HC azeotrope),retain original mineral oil andensure flammability safety.

Retrofit Moderate cost.

Cooling capacity sameas CFC-12.

Each appliance manufacturermust endorse service procedure(potential flammability issues).

National regulations may prohibit.

Replace CFC-12 refrigerantwith non CFC “drop-in”alternative:

1. R-401A (HCFC/HFCZeotrope–MP39); alkylbenzene oil with wear additive.

Retrofit Moderate cost.

Avoids dependence on CFC-12 availability.

Inquire to compressormanufacturers regarding materialcompatibility and compressorreliability.

Performance issues for someproduct configurations.

Transitional due to HCFCcontent (excluding R-413A).

Possible flammability concernswith R-406A.

Adds refrigerants to serviceinfrastructure.

2. R-406A (HCFC/HCZeotrope–GHG12); originalmineral oil.

3. R-409A (HCFCZeotrope–FX56); original mineral oil.

4. R-413A (PFC/HFC/HCZeotrope–ISCEON49); original mineral oil.

Drop-In


19

Replace CFC-12 refrigerantwith HFC-134a and mineral oilwith polyolester oil.

Change XH6 dryer to XH9.

Do not change compressor.

Retrofit Moderate cost. Reduced cooling capacity.

Service complexity (mineral oil flush).

Material compatibility issues.

Probable capillary tube plugging.

Brazing more critical.

Replace CFC-12 compressorwith HFC-134a compressorand polyol ester oil.

Change XH6 dryer to XH9.

Retrofit pluscompressorchange

Compressor materialcompatibility.

Compressor reliability.

Issues known and understood.

High cost.

Service complexity (mineral oil flush).

Some performance degradation.

Replace CFC-12 compressorwith HC-600a compressorand mineral oil.

Retrofit pluscompressorchange

Compressor reliability and materials compatibility.

High cost.

Each manufacturer must endorse serviceprocedure (potentialflammability issues).

National regulations may prohibit.

Space and compressoravailability uncertain.


20

Commercial refrigeration

Commercial refrigeration makes use of three main groups of equipment:

• Stand-alone equipment in which all of the components are integrated. Stand-alone equipment

includes wine coolers, beer machines, ice cream machines, and all kinds of display cases sold as

stand-alone equipment.

• Condensing units separated from the cooling (evaporator) equipment which can be a small cold

room, process equipment or a vending machine. A condensing unit is composed of one (or two)

compressor(s), a condenser and a receiver. It may be in a remote location or a machinery room.

• Central systems where compressors are located in a machinery room. Distinction can be made

between two types: direct systems and indirect systems. Direct systems are widespread and

easy to design. The refrigerant circulates from the machinery room to the sales area, where it

evaporates in display cases. Indirect systems comprise primary heat exchangers where refrigerant

cools a heat transfer fluid. This is pumped towards the display cases where it recovers heat and is

then transported back to the primary heat exchanger.

Central systems are found in all kinds of supermarkets. The picture is different for stand-alone

equipment and condensing units. Stand-alone equipment may be either bought or rented, with end

users paying no special attention to the refrigeration system (technical issues are similar to those

encountered for domestic equipment). Only companies installing and maintaining the equipment have

knowledge of the refrigerant used. Condensing units are usually installed by contractors in a wide

variety of shops and convenience stores.

For stand-alone equipment, the principal refrigerant choice for small refrigerating equipment is similar

to that for domestic refrigeration. For instance, wine coolers, water fountains and vending machines

primarily use HFC-134a. A few companies – mainly located in Europe (UK, Sweden, Denmark,

Germany and Austria) but also in India and Australia – are charging equipment in commercial stand-

alone display cases from about 100 g up to 1.5 kg with hydrocarbons (R-600a, R-290 and various

blends of R-600a/R-290 or R-290/R-170). The limit for an HC charge depends greatly on specific

standards and national regulations. Stand-alone display case prototypes running with CO2 have been

developed in Norway. These units are single-stage systems with water cooled condensers.

For condensing units, use of HCFC-22 in new systems is starting to decrease because of the

availability of zero ODP solutions and of forecast changes to HCFC regulations. For low-temperature

applications, R-404A and R-507A are the major options for new equipment in many countries

(including Article 5 countries). For low-temperature applications, the energy efficiency of this option

is slightly higher than for HCFC-22. However, for medium range temperature applications, energy

efficiency is slightly lower, particularly when the condensing temperature is higher than 50 °C.

This leads to oversizing of condensers. Japanese manufacturers are investigating R-407C for

this application.

Technical options for centralized direct expansion systems are based on the same three groups of

refrigerants as for the equipment described above, i.e. HCFC-22, R-404A (the major option in Europe

in low and medium range temperature refrigeration systems); HFC-134a (for the medium

temperature); and R-407C (although the latter is not considered a major option).

Hydrocarbons are being used for some direct systems, particularly in the UK. Depending on the size

of the system, indirect circuits may be required in order to comply with relevant safety standards.


21

Cascade systems using ammonia at the first stage and CO2 at the low-temperature stage have been

developed (see ‘Cold storage’).

One major disadvantage of direct expansion centralized systems is the large refrigerant charge.

Average charges are in the range of 1 to 1.5 kg/kW (cooling capacity) for medium temperature, and 3

to 4 kg/kW (cooling capacity) for low temperature. This results in total refrigerant charges varying from

300 to 1500 kg depending on the store sales area. New solutions have been introduced to minimize

the circuit and refrigerant charge, and also to improve energy efficiency. The principle consists in

installing condensing units composed of compressor racks and water condensers in sound-proofed

boxes in the sales area itself. The principal advantage is an almost 50 per cent reduction in refrigerant

charge, as well as improved energy efficiency.

Since 1995, much effort has been invested in evaluating indirect systems using heat transfer fluids,

with the aim, in particular, of lowering HCFC or HFC refrigerant charge or of permitting their

replacement by ammonia or HCs. However, “conservative” direct expansion systems with CFCs,

HCFCs or HFCs still represent more than 95 per cent of centralized systems.

The primary refrigerants used in indirect systems are:

For systems with heat transfer fluids, two innovative techniques deserve attention: systems that use

CO2 as heat-transfer fluid; and solid/liquid phase-change HTF, called ice slurries. Both types have

been developed. Some pilot plants exist but technical and commercial maturity has not yet been

reached. Many different technical issues have to be addressed in the case of indirect systems.

Moreover, additional initial cost could be increased by as much as 20 per cent compared to a

direct expansion system and the pay-back has to be justified via reduced servicing cost over

sufficiently long periods. Energy consumption is either in the same range as non-optimized direct

expansion systems or there is a 5–15 per cent energy consumption increase compared to well

designed systems.

Retrofit options depend on the life of the equipment, national regulations and refrigerant prices.

Retrofit options for stand-alone equipment are completely different from those for centralized systems.

For stand alone equipment the same options as for hermetic systems such as domestic refrigerators

should be considered.

There are two widely used options for retrofit of CFC-12 equipment. One is to use blends, usually

containing HCFC-22 (for example R-401A or R-409A), with limited retrofit efforts. The other is

conversion from CFC-12 to HFC-134a. This involves several steps, including change of the mineral oil

to synthetic oil, change of the expansion device and replacement of the filter dryer.

• ammonia: it is estimated that about 50 systems using ammonia are installed in supermarkets

in Europe;

• hydrocarbons: one German company offers either propylene or propane as primary

refrigerant in systems installed in supermarkets. About ten systems are operating with

charges of several kilograms of HC (propane and HC blend systems are also installed in the

UK and in Sweden);

• HFCs: there are a number of systems using R-404A as primary refrigerant and heat-transfer

fluids for the secondary loop.


22

Lubricant requirements dictate that R-502 retrofits are mainly to HCFC-22 based blends (for example

R-402A/B, R-408A). As HCFC-22 is still available for the maintenance of the refrigeration system, it is

essentially a decision related to national regulations. It is technically feasible to change from HCFC-22

to R-404A or R-407C. Oil has to be changed and the system has to be flushed – issues comparable

to those for retrofit from CFC-12 to HFC-134a.

Annual emissions in the range of 15–30 per cent of the initial charge seem to be usual for centralized

systems. A number of emission sources are linked to poor installation, poor maintenance and piping

failures. Refrigerant emissions should decrease in the near future. For details on leak testing, readers

should refer to the chapter on refrigerant conservation. This also applies to recovery during servicing,

particularly when retrofitting.

There are less R-502 systems in supermarkets in Article 5 countries than in developed countries.

Existing large supermarkets built in the last 20 years use HCFC-22 in their centralized systems.

Small and medium supermarkets use CFC-12 in refrigeration systems with condensing units. Use

of CFC-12 is common in stand-alone equipment. Even though CFCs are still available in Article 5

countries, the shift to the use of HFC or other low- or non-ODP refrigerants has begun, especially

in stand-alone equipment. This is because Article 5 country equipment manufacturers export to

non-Article 5 countries.

Large OEM companies are on the way to conversion of their products to non-CFC technologies,

often supported by the Multilateral Fund. There is a problem in the very large segment of national

small and medium sized enterprises manufacturing all kinds of display cases, cabinets, water coolers,

etc. These companies will need special attention in terms of financial and technical support. Some

companies convert equipment from CFC-12 to HFC-134a, others from CFC-12 to HCs. In India, one

manufacturer charges new ice-cream freezers with HCs.

In contrast to the situation in developed countries, repair of used refrigeration equipment, mainly in

the domestic and commercial segments, is common practice. The cost of new equipment is much

higher than that of repair, mainly because of the low labour cost for this activity. In some large Article

5 countries, annual CFC use in the commercial servicing sector is reported to be as much as 50 per

cent of the total CFC consumption. Repair may provide the opportunity to replace CFC-12

refrigerants with “drop-in” HCFC-22 based blends, with, in some cases, the use of HC-blends, with

the proper precautions.


23

Cold storage, food processing and industrial refrigeration

The majority of refrigerating systems for cold storage and food processing are of the direct type, with

the refrigerant distributed to heat exchangers in the space or apparatus to be refrigerated. Such

systems are generally custom made and erected on site. Reciprocating compressors are used most

frequently in the lower capacity range, while screw compressors are common in larger systems, in

particular those with ammonia. According to a survey, three out of four CFC systems are still in

operation. Some 70,000 tonnes of CFCs are estimated to be banked in these systems. Refrigerants

for cold storage and food processing are selected among fluids including ammonia, HCFC-22, HFC-

134a, HFC blends and also hydrocarbons.

Industrial refrigeration uses all types of refrigerants, with HCFCs and ammonia representing the

majority of volume. Historically, CFCs – including R-13B1 for specific low-temperature applications –

have made up some 20 per cent of the total. Hydrocarbons occupy a significant portion of the

market in sectors handling flammable fluids. Industrial refrigeration systems are normally located in

industrial areas with very limited public access, meaning toxic or flammable fluids such as ammonia

and hydrocarbons may be used with minimal additional cost.

Ammonia has excellent heat transfer properties and, due to its low molecular weight and high critical

temperature, also has very favourable cycle performance. As a result, systems with ammonia are

known to be more efficient than similar systems with CFCs or HCFC-22. Given ammonia’s zero

GWP, ammonia systems normally give the lowest total equivalent warming impact when direct

systems are used.

Over a couple of decades, halocarbons have improved their market position in cold storage and food

processing, even in countries with long experience with ammonia. Knowledge about ammonia

refrigeration has decreased and lack of competence with ammonia has been observed to be a

growing problem. Conventional ammonia technology, with large specific refrigerant charges, still

prevails. Modern system designs with refrigerant charges only a small fraction of those of yesterday’s

technology may increase applicability and feasibility of use of ammonia as a refrigerant. The

development in Europe indicates how Article 5 countries should approach ammonia for new systems.

Low charge ammonia technology is regarded as being fully mature. Specific charges below 30 grams

per kW refrigeration output which also achieve maximum efficiency have been reported. The low-

pressure receiver system is an efficient alternative: it has a small charge and may be applied for any

refrigerant. The technology is particularly well suited to systems in the lower to medium capacity

ranges, typical of many Article 5 countries. This may improve the economic feasibility of ammonia in

such countries.

In the United States, ammonia has approximately 90 per cent market share for systems of 100 kW

cooling capacity and above. Ammonia has not been commonly used for cold storage and food

processing in Japan. This may change in the future, although only small market shares are expected.

Ammonia has historically been one of the leading refrigerants for various sectors of industrial

refrigeration (in countries with a tradition of using this refrigerant), in spite of its toxic and flammable

nature. The main reasons for choosing ammonia have been cost and efficiency. Improved secondary


24

fluids, in particular evaporating/condensing CO2, will minimize the energy penalty from additional

temperature differences. Practical experience with new ammonia technology, including low-charge

designs, is steadily growing. Ammonia is believed to cover 50–60 per cent of the industrial

refrigeration market in Europe. Use is expanding slowly in the USA.

HFC-134a and HFC blends with insignificant temperature glide, (e.g. R-404A), are considered to be

technically fully mature for application in this sector. R-404A and R-507A are currently the most used

HFCs in the sector, primarily as replacements for R-502. They are preferred to HFC-134a due to

higher volumetric capacity and lower system cost. As for commercial refrigeration, system

performance may be substantially lower at high condensing temperatures. This is important for

transfer of HFC technology to Article 5 countries, a great number of which are in regions with a

tropical climate. HFC technology for cold storage and food processing systems is nevertheless

regarded as mature for transfer to Article 5 countries.

In the future, the high capacity HFC refrigerant blend R-410A is expected to gain market share and

probably become the leading fluorocarbon refrigerant. In summary, it is possible to manage without

HCFCs in new cold storage equipment and industrial refrigeration.

Hydrocarbons are long-term, proven refrigerants with excellent thermodynamic properties. Historically,

their use has been restricted to applications within the oil and gas industry and other industries

handling flammable fluids. A certain increase in hydrocarbon consumption has been recorded,

appearing mainly in this sector where pure substances are preferred in flooded systems. Current use

of hydrocarbons is believed to be below 5 per cent of the total in industrial refrigeration.

CO2 technology for low temperature applications such as food freezing has reached the practical

application stage. Cascade systems with CO2 in the lower stage (ammonia in the upper) have proved

to be economically comparable to conventional two-stage ammonia systems for medium-sized food

processing systems (300–400 kW cooling effect at-40°C). For large systems (2 MW cooling effect), a

15 per cent saving in investment may be obtained with the cascade system. The two types of

systems are more or less equivalent with respect to energy efficiency. The same holds for industrial

refrigeration.

Due to low cost and simple retrofit procedures, 60–70 per cent of retrofits so far have involved

HCFCs, including blends with HCFCs. HFCs have been preferred in some 25 per cent of cases.

Retrofit to ammonia may be technically feasible for some larger cold storage and food processing

systems where steel is used as construction material. Hydrocarbons may be used without significant

chemical implications, but flammability restricts their use to a very limited number of systems, in both

cold storage and industrial refrigerators.

Most retrofits of CFC-12 systems have involved HCFC-22, R-401A or R-409A (HCFC blends).

R-413A, an HFC/PFC-blend with some isobutane added to improve mineral oil solubility, is another

alternative. This allows oil flushing to be omitted (experience shows that oil return efficiency depends

on temperature). Retrofit to HFC-134a has also proved to be technically safe, although a certain loss

in capacity may result, together with a certain reduction in COP.

Similar to CFC-12 systems, HCFC-22 and blends with HCFC-22 have been the preferred retrofit

fluids in the majority of cases where R-502 has been used (R-402A and R-408A are the most

commonly used blends). HFCs such as R-404A and R-507A are suitable R-502 replacements with

only small temperature glides. They could be charged into all types of R-502 systems, although the

capacity may be reduced by some 5 per cent.


25

Lower price, better efficiency, and probably greater margins with respect to failure, make HCFCs (and

still CFCs) attractive compared to HFCs in many Article 5 countries. In comparison to ammonia,

differences in initial costs may be even more significant than in the developed countries (systems are

generally smaller).

Table 2 shows estimates for halocarbon consumption (CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs/FCs) and

corresponding refrigerant “banks” as of 1996, according to a ‘best guess scenario’. These estimates

are ‘qualified guesses’, indicating only very rough orders of magnitude.

Table 2. Forecast of demand of halocarbon refrigerants

Consumption, tonnes/year Refrigerant inventory, tonnes

CFCs HCFCs HFCs CFCs HCFCs HFCs

Industrialized 7700 17600 3400 77000 109000 6800

countries (2600) (5900) (1100) (26000) (36000) (2200)

Article 5 countries1900 (500) 1900 (500) - 7500 (2500) 7500 (2500) -

Total 12700 25900 4500 113000 155000 9000

* cold storage

** industrial refrigeration

Future demands have been forecast on the basis of current consumption and the existing banks, and

‘most likely’ future development (see Table 3). The future development in Article 5 countries has been

estimated using a separate model.

Table 3. Forecast of future demand for halocarbons

Refrigerant 1998 2000 2005

Developed Countries CFCs 6150 (2050) 4400 (1470) 2090 (700)

HCFCs 16790 (5600) 16160 (5390) 12470 (4160)

HFCs 5040 (1680) 7320 (2440) 9130 (3040)

Total 27980 (9330) 27880 (9300) 23690 (7900)

Article 5 Countries CFCs 1890 (520) 1910 (540) 1590 (430)

HCFCs 1950 (550) 2060 (590) 2650 (780)

HFCs 10 (0) 30 (10) 110 (40)

Total 3580 (1070) 4000 (1140) 4350 (1250)

*to be supplied from recovered (servicing, retrofits) and stockpiled reserves. By 2000 and 2005,

available amounts of recycled CFCs will (by definition) be sufficient to cover remaining service

demands. To achieve this, the activity with respect to CFC system retrofit has to increase very

considerably.

**The first figure indicates the demand for cold storage, the second one for industrial refrigeration.

**

*

***


26

Unitary air conditioning and heat pumps (air-cooled systems)

Air-cooled air conditioners and heat pumps with capacities from 2.0 kW to 420 kW comprise the vast

majority of the air conditioning market. All are electrically driven, vapour-compression systems. They

use hermetic rotary, reciprocating or scroll compressors for units with capacities up to about 100 kW

and semi-hermetic reciprocating or screw compressors for units with capacities up to 420 kW. Nearly

all of these units use HCFC-22 as the working fluid. Refrigerant charge quantities are proportional to

capacity. Assuming an average charge of approximately 0.3 kg per kW of capacity, the estimated

1700 million kW of installed capacity represent around 423,000 tonnes of HCFC-22 (see Table 4).

Air-cooled air conditioners and heat pumps generally fall into four distinct categories, based primarily

on capacity: room air conditioners; duct-free packaged and split systems; ducted systems; and single

packaged units.

Room air conditioners range in cooling capacity from less than 2.0 kW to 10.5 kW (with an average of

2.7 kW). Worldwide, approximately 12.7 million room and packaged terminal air conditioners were

sold in 1996, each containing an average of 0.64 kg of HCFC-22.

In many parts of the world, the greatest demand is for the duct-free split system. Duct-free split

systems include a compressor and heat exchanger unit installed outside the space to be cooled or

heated. The outdoor unit is connected via refrigerant piping to one or more fan coils inside the

conditioned space. Approximately 89 million duct-free units are installed worldwide. Duct-free split

systems, ranging in cooling capacity from 2.0 kW to 20 kW (average 3.8 kW), have average HCFC-22

charge levels of 0.32 to 0.34 kg per kW of cooling capacity.

Ducted residential air conditioners and heat pumps systems dominate the North American market

where central, forced-air heating systems require the installation of a duct system supplying air to

each room of a residence or small areas within commercial or institutional buildings. About 55 million

ducted split systems are currently in service worldwide, the majority in North America. Cooling

capacities range from 5 kW to 17.5 kW (average 10.9 kW) and each has an average HCFC-22

charge of 0.26 kg per kW of capacity.

Approximately 16 million commercial unitary air conditioners and heat pumps are installed worldwide.

They range in cooling capacity from about 20 kW to as much as 420 kW (average 23.0 kW).

Commercial unitary equipment carries an average HCFC-22 charge of about 0.31 kg per kW of

capacity.

Table 4. Estimated 1996 unit population and HCFC-22 inventories

Product Category Unit Population HCFC-22 Inventory (tonnes)

Room and packaged A/C 79 million 51000

and heat pumps

Duct-free packaged and split systems 89 million 112000

Ducted split systems 55 million 155000

Commercial unitary systems 16 million 105000

Total 239 million 423000


27

Current trends indicate that two HFC blends, R-410A and R-407C, are the leading candidates to

replace HCFC-22 in these categories of products, with R-410A being the predominant replacement in

new products. R-407C may be one of the most likely interim to long-term replacements for HCFC-22

in large capacity (greater than 50 kW) unitary products.

In addition, commercialization of HC-290 (propane) is possible for certain applications. Several

research projects are currently being conducted on trans-critical CO2 refrigeration cycles. The trans-

critical CO2 cycle is also being investigated for residential air conditioning and heat pump

applications. Commercial viability needs to be studied further.

A significant concern is the use of hydrocarbon refrigerants as retrofit replacements for HCFC-22 in

systems not redesigned to mitigate safety risks. HC-290 has similar performance (capacity and

efficiency) to HCFC-22 but the flammable nature of this refrigerant, combined with the high charge

levels of this category of products, raises significant safety concerns for this practice. Simply replacing

HCFC-22 with hydrocarbon refrigerants can be very dangerous in many types of unitary products if

extensive system modifications are not made. Hydrocarbon refrigerants may offer acceptable retrofit

solutions in very low charge level systems.

A system life/unit population model was used to predict HCFC-22 usage for the 1996–2015 period.

Three HCFC-22 replacement scenarios were used to predict total annual HCFC-22 requirements, the

amount of HCFC-22 obtained through reclamation, and the net requirement for new HCFC-22. The

total demand for HCFC-22 in 2015 is calculated to be between 46,000 and 100,000 tonnes. The

results also show the benefits of aggressive recycling programmes in both developed and developing

countries. In 2015, 20 to 50 per cent of refrigerant demand (depending on the phase out scenario)

could be met with recycled refrigerant.

The refrigerant usage model was also used to predict the developing countries’ usage for each year

of the analysis. This was done by estimating the percentage of total world production sold in

developing countries for each year of the analysis. Whereas the HCFC-22 amount for the year 2000

is estimated to be about 18,000 tonnes, the amount of HCFC-22 estimated to be needed in 2015 will

be between 29,000 and 75,000 tonnes. The broad range is the result of different assumptions for the

use of non-ODP alternatives.

compressorexpansion

valve condenser coilscooling coils

air conditioned space

refrigerant circuit

cool air inlets

extraction grills

air intake

filtersfan

Basic principle of a ducted, unitary air conditioning system


28

Air conditioning via water chillers

Water chillers cool or heat water which is then pumped through a heat exchanger in an air handler or

fan-coil unit which cools and dehumidifies or heats air. Water chillers using the vapour-compression

cycle are manufactured with capacities from about 7.0 kW to over 35,000 kW. Centrifugal

compressors are used for capacities from 350 kW to over 35,000 kW. HCFC-22 has been used in

small chillers and in large centrifugal ones. CFC-11 and CFC-12 have essentially been replaced in

new equipment production, by HCFC-123 and HFC-134a respectively (see Table 5). HFCs, HFC

blends (including R-410A and R-407C), ammonia and hydrocarbons are beginning to replace some

HCFC-22 based units, especially in the European Union (see Table 6).

Table 5. Air conditioning chillers in service (1997)

Chiller Type and Approx. No. of Refrigerant in Use 1997 Shipments

Refrigerant Units in Service (kt) of New Units

Centrifugal and

Screw Chillers:

CFC-11 88000 33.0 0

CFC-12 15300 6.6 0

HCFC-22 35000 14.0 1500

R-500 5400 0.9 0

HCFC-123 28300 9.8 5600

HFC-134a 15500 2.4 3960

Ammonia 2100 0.24 285

Hydrocarbons Insufficient data available

*Includes CFC-12 in R-500 chillers**Excludes any chillers produced in the Article 5 countries

Table 6. EU chiller production in 1997

Refrigerant Number of Units Per cent of Units

HCFC-22 35687 87.16%

R-407C 2806 6.85%

HFC-134a 2037 4.97%

R-717 285 0.70%

Other 1300 32%

Total 40945 100.00%

Non-HCFC-22 5258 12.84%

The ‘alternative technologies’ most feasible for the current phase out timetable are those which are

already in production. Of these, the three which are deemed to be most suitable for water chilling are

the vapour-compression cycle using ammonia as a working fluid, the absorption cycle, and zeotropic

refrigerant mixtures.

HCFC-22 has been viewed for several years as a part of the solution to the problems posed by

phase out of CFC-12 and other CFCs. In terms of efficiency and cost, HCFC-22 is the best HCFC

**

**

*


29

choice presently available for positive displacement chillers, complemented by HFC-134a. The

replacement refrigerants for HCFC-22 that appear most promising in terms of their ability to satisfy

performance and safety criteria are blends of HFCs such as R-407C. The blends which seem best for

use with flooded evaporators, common in chillers larger than 700 kW, are those which, like R-410A,

are azeotropes or near azeotropes. Blends such as R-410A have COPs similar to HCFC-22 in a direct

expansion system, at significantly higher pressure levels requiring substantial product redesign and

retooling.

HFC-134a is being used in positive displacement water chillers as a replacement for CFC-12. The

volumetric flow characteristics of HFC-134a are similar to those for CFC-12. Compressor and

equipment sizes are similar. Chiller costs are not therefore significantly affected by the change from

CFC-12 to HFC-134a, except for the increase in refrigerant and lubricant costs. The excellent heat

transfer characteristics of HFC-134a offset the slightly lower cycle efficiency.

HCFC-123 is used in centrifugal chillers with capacities from 350 kW to 10,000 kW. HCFC-123

combines a relatively low environmental impact with the ability to replace CFC-11 quickly in existing

chillers of recent manufacture. The refrigerant’s low environmental impact is attributable to four factors:

low ODP, low GWP, low emissions of current-design HCFC-123 chillers, and the highest known

theoretical efficiency of all HCFCs and HFCs. HCFC-123 is a key replacement for CFC-11, due to its

relative chemical and physical similarity to CFC-11 allowing it to replace CFC-11 in new and existing

chillers without extensive modifications. This makes HCFC-123 critical to the transition from CFCs in

the chiller sector.

The number of compressor stages required to use ammonia in centrifugal chillers limits the practical

application to machines with positive displacement compressors. With some development and

adaptation, it is certain that ammonia systems could be applied more widely for water chilling,

including a wider range of air conditioning applications. Recommended practice limits the use of

ammonia in public buildings to systems that utilize a secondary heat transfer fluid (intrinsic in chillers),

confining the ammonia to the machine room where alarm devices can ensure safety.

Although hydrocarbon refrigerants have a long history of use in industrial chillers in petrochemical

plants, they have not been used in large amounts in comfort air conditioning chiller applications, owing

to reservations about system safety. Typical HCs promoted as HCFC-22 replacements include HC-

290, HC-1270 and blends. They exhibit favourable materials compatibility, oil solubility and a

thermodynamic efficiency comparable to that of HCFC-22.

CO2 is being investigated by several researchers for a wide range of potential applications using the

trans-critical cycle. The cycle exhibits a significant temperature glide on the high temperature side,

which might be attractive for water-cooled chillers or for water heating. There is no known application

to water cooling chillers to date.

Water is a thermodynamically attractive refrigerant that is non-toxic, non-flammable and has no

adverse impact on the environment. However, it is a very low pressure refrigerant. Traditionally water

has been used in specialty applications with steam aspirators, rarely with vapour compressors except

in the case of mechanical vapour re-compression systems. Recent applications use water as a

refrigerant to produce ice slurries by direct evaporation from a pool of water. Cost increases of up to

50 per cent over conventional systems are likely.


30

Absorption chillers are inherently larger and considerably more expensive than vapour-compression

chillers. Absorption systems have therefore had only limited market success in the Western market. In

Japan, where electricity prices are much higher, absorption chillers dominate the market.

The retrofit options that exist for each chiller are dependent upon the specific refrigerant for which the

chiller was originally designed. HCFC-123 became available in 1989 to retrofit existing CFC-11

chillers. Its solvent properties are different from those of CFC-11. System capacity may be reduced by

0–20 per cent, depending on heat exchanger effectiveness and matching of the compressor to the

load. HFC-134a also became available in 1989, to retrofit existing CFC-12 chillers.

There are currently no satisfactory replacement refrigerants for use in existing equipment designed for

HCFC-123. HFC-245fa is being investigated as a potential alternative. It has similar vapour pressure

and appears to have good stability and low toxicity. It may also be less aggressive to motor insulation

and may thus have advantages as a retrofit refrigerant for CFC-11 chillers.

However, much of the existing stock of installed equipment still requires CFCs for servicing. It is too

early to know whether recycling efforts will provide a sufficient supply of CFCs to meet servicing

needs until the remaining machines are replaced or retrofitted. It has been estimated that over 70 per

cent of the CFC chillers in service in the United States in 1990 were still in service in the last quarter

of 1998. The other 30 per cent have either been replaced or converted to HCFCs or HFCs. Based on

informal data, progress does not appear to have been faster in other countries. This rate of

conversion is significantly slower than predicted.


31

Transport refrigeration

Transport refrigeration includes transport of refrigerated products in reefer ships, intermodal

refrigerated containers, refrigerated railcars and by road transport including trailers, diesel trucks and

small trucks. It also includes the use of refrigeration and air conditioning on merchant ships above

300 gross tonnes and air conditioning in buses and railcars. The transport volume of reefer ships has

decreased in recent years compared to intermodal refrigerated containers, for which the share of the

total volume was estimated at 55 per cent by the millennium.

Since the working environment in all subsections of transport refrigeration is severe, emissions are, on

average, higher than those in other areas.

As many European countries are to ban HCFC-22 in new installations, ships due for delivery in the

next few years will most probably be fitted with long-term HCFC-22 alternatives. To reduce the initial

charge and improve the possibility for reduced leakage, most will be delivered with indirect systems

and a secondary refrigerant in the future. Alternative HFC blend candidates today are R-404A and R-

507 but it is estimated that, as of 2000, R-410A will dominate the marine market as replacement for

HCFC-22 in new systems. Due to the increased refrigeration capacity of the product, systems can be

made more compact with reduced initial refrigerant charge on each ship.

There are approximately 410,000 intermodal container units in operation today. Unfortunately half of

them use CFC-12 as a refrigerant. Each unit contains around 5 kg of refrigerant. Average lifetime of a

container is estimated to be 15 years and 50 per cent of the units in operation today with CFC-12 are

expected to still be operating in 2003 and beyond. Units made in recent years use HFC-134a, R-

404A and HCFC-22.

However, there is a potential for use of non-fluorocarbon refrigerants such as CO2 with a trans-critical

vapour compression cycle with internal heat exchange. Containers are currently being tested and a

high tonnage could switch to this refrigerant in the next 5–10 years if technological aspects meet user

requirements.

Non-fluorocarbon refrigerants such as hydrocarbons and ammonia will not be allowed as refrigerants

in containers as their flammabilities contravene International Maritime Organization (IMO) legislation.

There are approximately 80,000 refrigerated railcars in use worldwide today, of which 60 per cent are

in the former Soviet Union. The majority of these units use CFC-12 as refrigerant. With two

refrigeration units per railcar each containing approximately 15 kg of refrigerant, the total pool is 2,400

tonnes. Out of this, 1,500 tonnes are CFC-12; the rest is mainly HFCs. In North America, it is

estimated that 500 railcars using R-404A are in service.

The total world fleet of refrigerated vehicles is estimated at around 1,000,000. Of these about 30 per

cent are trailer units, 40 per cent are independent truck units and the remainder are smaller units with

the refrigeration unit driven by the truck engine. HFC-134a, R-404A, and HCFC-22 are currently used

in production. This leads to a bank of 1,000 tonnes of HCFC-22 and nearly 3,000 tonnes of HFCs.

Because of the onerous operating conditions, annual service requirements account for 20–25 per

cent of the pool.


32

In a recent development in Germany and other European countries an HC (propane) was tested and

approved. It is now on offer as an off-the-shelf product. The flammability risk of this substance means

that safety precautions should be taken, including a refrigerant leak detector in the trailer and

adequate training for drivers.

There are more than 30,000 ships of all types (tankers, general cargo, cruise ship and ferries) in

excess of 300 gross tonnes. Ninety-five per cent of the fleet uses HCFC-22 as a refrigerant, the rest

still mainly using CFCs. The total HCFC bank may be around 30,000 tonnes, including fishing fleets

and navies. Emission rates for naval vessels are high, due to their special operating conditions.

However, it is estimated that better maintenance and improved quality have reduced amounts leaked

by 20 per cent. Although HCFC-22 is still used for new equipment, use of HFC-134a, R-404A and R-

507 is increasing. In the cruise ship sector, where huge HVAC systems are used, most systems are

delivered with HFC-134a. However, the latest product manufactured in Europe has chiller equipment

using R-410A.

There are an estimated 320,000 buses and coaches with air conditioning worldwide, the majority of

which are now using HCFC-22 (152,000) and HFC-134a (68,000). It is estimated that the largest

growth will be in Europe in the next five years, since air conditioning in buses is not yet fully

developed. HFC-134a will be the preferred refrigerant. Leakage rates are relatively high, estimated to

be 50 per cent of the initial charge annually, due to the fact that most systems use long lengths of

polymer tubing.

In Germany all new high-speed trains will use air cycle systems for their air conditioning. R-407C has

been selected for new trains in France and Spain.

It is possible to retrofit from CFC-12 to HCFC-22. It is also possible to convert to R-401A/B or R-

409A. These have similar pressure and capacity to CFC-12 but are interim solutions that contain

HCFCs. HFC-134a demands a level of system cleanliness that might be difficult to obtain in old

systems operating with CFC-12. It is therefore not recommended, especially as capacity and

performance at low temperature do not compare with those of CFC-12. Interim solutions are

therefore used, particularly when the equipment has few years of operational service left. Long-term

solutions to retrofit from CFC-12 are available today and these offer the best environmental solution.

In transport, in sub-sectors such as containers, buses and trucks, where use may well be for more

than five years, retrofitting to R-404A or R-413A will probably take place. One of the world’s major

LPG/LPN gas carriers has decided to retrofit its HCFC-22 systems to HC-290 and HC-1270.

However, in this situation there is a crew working with hydrocarbons taking daily care of safety

aspects and all the equipment required is intrinsically safe. From a thermodynamic point of view,

the ships converted so far have shown advantages over HCFC-22.


33

Mobile air conditioning

All new vehicles produced since 1995 have been equipped with HFC-134a air conditioning (A/C)

systems (with the exception of very limited production of CFC-12 systems in China, India and Korea).

HFC-134a is therefore clearly the globally accepted mobile air conditioning refrigerant.

There is a significant service concern associated with new vehicles equipped with HFC-134a A/C

systems entering the world market. Given the availability of low cost CFC-12, and the lack of

adequate service infrastructure in Article 5 countries, there is a tendency to convert these

new vehicles systems from HFC-134a to CFC-12. New vehicles are expected to continue to be

equipped with HFC-134a A/C systems until an alternative that offers an economically viable

environmental advantage with respect to global climate change can be identified, developed, and

commercialized.

Mobile A/C systems relate to global warming in two ways: directly as a result of emission of refrigerant

to the atmosphere, (e.g. from system leakage and servicing); and indirectly from the release of CO2from burning fuel to power the A/C system and to carry its weight. To date, two future systems are

under study as potential replacements for HFC-134a: trans-critical CO2 and hydrocarbons.

The CO2 system and its applicability to mobile air conditioning have been studied as part of a

European Union project known as the RACE Project. The results of this were released recently in the

form of technical papers. The consensus emerging from the RACE Project is that – although many

questions remain concerning safety, quality, efficiency, maintenance and commercialization – the

trans-critical CO2 system appears to be a promising technology for mobile air conditioning. Significant

system development remains necessary prior to commercialization. CO2 systems were projected to

cost 20 per cent more and weigh 2.5 kg more than HFC-134a systems.

The use of flammable hydrocarbon refrigerants in future vehicles has been proposed for reasons

similar to those for CO2, i.e. they are non-ozone depleting and have very low global warming

potentials. While they are excellent refrigerants, flammability makes them a significant potential safety

hazard for use in mobile A/C. A recent paper by a major A/C system supplier suggests that

hydrocarbons should be considered if safety concerns are adequately addressed through cooperation

between vehicle and A/C system manufacturers. Concerns about flammability can be significantly

reduced, if not completely eliminated, through the use of a secondary circuit with the flammable

refrigerant contained in the engine compartment. Such indirect systems may require 5–10 per cent

additional energy to operate.

The existing CFC-12 fleet is expected to be phased out by the year 2008. Efforts to accelerate

complete phase out would, of course, be environmentally beneficial. Refrigerant recycling has been

proven to be of value, both economically and environmentally. Experience with multiple refrigerants

(CFC-12, HFC-134a, and several retrofit refrigerant blends) has shown that, with refrigerant recycling

and reuse, it is very important to prevent refrigerant cross-contamination in mobile A/C systems.

Mixing of refrigerants can lead to high compressor discharge pressures, loss of cooling, deterioration

of A/C system materials and possible system failure.

Retrofitting of the CFC-12 based fleet has occurred, but not nearly to the extent predicted. This is

probably due to stockpiling prior to the ban on CFC production, to CFC-12 recycling, and to

smuggling of CFC-12 into developed countries, especially those where the cost price of CFC-12 is


34

high. HFC-134a is the only retrofit refrigerant recommended and supported by vehicle manufacturers.

With adequate supply of CFC-12, the service industry has only recently started to retrofit the CFC-12

fleet. A typical time to consider retrofitting is when a major component fails and the system requires

servicing. Replacement components should have comparable performance levels if the cooling

performance after retrofit is to be comparable to the original system.

Hydrocarbons have been used in some countries (e.g. Australia) as a retrofit refrigerant for CFC-12

systems. Use of a flammable refrigerant in CFC-12 mobile A/C systems not specifically designed to

handle such refrigerants safely is a dangerous practice, due to the risk of passenger injury from fire

and/or explosion. The use of flammable refrigerants in HFC-134a mobile A/C systems has been

banned in some states in Australia and in the United States. Supporters of flammable refrigerants

have acknowledged safety concerns and have recommended A/C system modifications prior to their

use. These considerations should be taken into account in any effort to design new systems using

flammable refrigerants.


35

Heat pumps (heating only and heat recovery)

The vast majority of heat pumps currently in operation are electrically driven, closed-cycle

compression type systems. Systems driven by gas engines or absorption cycle heat pumps, directly

fired or employing waste heat, have found niche markets. Refrigerants currently used in heat pumps

are CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs, ammonia and hydrocarbons (HCs).

Heating-only heat pumps are used for space and water heating in residential, commercial/institutional

and industrial buildings, and in district heating and cooling plants. In industry, heat pumps are used

for heating of process streams, heat recovery and hot water/steam production. They are often an

integral part of industrial processes used for drying, evaporative concentration and distillation, etc. It

is estimated that the total heating-only heat pump stock in residential and commercial sectors

(including district heating) is roughly 1.7 million units, with a total heating capacity of about 13,300

MW. The corresponding figures for industrial heat pumps are 8,500 units and a total heating capacity

of 3,000 MW.

In developed countries, HCFC-22 is still used as one of the main refrigerants in heat pumps. In

developing countries (e.g. China) CFC-12 still accounts for a large portion of the refrigerants, together

with HCFC-22. Developed country manufacturers have introduced HFC alternatives to replace their

HCFC heat pump models. HFC-134a and R-404A have been on the market for more than five years.

The first models using R-407C entered the market in 1996/97, units using R-410A in 1998/99. Non-

ODP and low-GWP refrigerants are environmentally safe alternatives to CFCs and HCFCs in heat

pump systems. The most promising potential refrigerants in this group are ammonia, hydrocarbons

(e.g. propane, propylene, and blends of hydrocarbons), carbon dioxide and water.

The thermodynamic and physical properties of HFC-134a are similar to those of CFC-12 and R-500

and it is regarded as the main successor to CFC-12 in medium-temperature heat pump systems.

HFC-134a is used in many new heat pump installations. HFC-152a was considered a promising

alternative refrigerant to CFCs because of its favourable thermodynamic and physical properties and

low GWP factor. There are many examples of successful small heat pumps using HFC-152a, e.g. in

the United States, Scandinavia and China. However, its flammability makes adequate safety measures

necessary to ensure safe operation and maintenance.

R-404A, R-407C and R-410A are the preferred HFC-blends for replacement of HCFC-22 in heat

pump applications. The systems have to be optimized in order to bring performance in line with

HCFC systems (large-surface heat exchangers, control systems, improved compressor design, etc.).

Ammonia has excellent thermodynamic properties and ammonia based heat pumps typically achieve

3–5 per cent better energy efficiency than systems using CFC-12, HCFC-22 or HFC-134a. The

volumetric refrigeration capacity is approximately the same as for HCFC-22. Ammonia gives high

compressor discharge temperatures and, at high temperature lifts, two-stage compression is

necessary to avoid operational problems. Initial costs will therefore increase. However, energy

efficiency will also increase by 30–35 per cent.

As for all sectors, the most important hydrocarbons for medium-temperature heat pump applications

are propane (HC-290), propylene (HC-1270) and blends of propane/iso-butane and ethane/propane.

Several North European manufacturers of heat pumps are using HC-290 or HC-1270 as refrigerants

in small residential and commercial water-to-water and air-to-water heat pumps. A number of

prototype heat pumps with HC-290 and other hydrocarbons have been installed. The units are limited

in size and are also designed for low refrigerant charge.


36

Heat pumps with CO2 as the refrigerant are now being commercialized for tap water heating. A CO2heat pump may produce hot water with temperatures up to 95 °C, much higher than traditional heat

pump water heaters, without operational problems. CO2 requires components with higher pressure

ratings and smaller flow channels than are commonly used today. Such components have been

developed for a large range of capacities. Investigations are ongoing into use of CO2 as refrigerant for

several applications such as heating in residential buildings and heat pump dryers.

Heat pump refrigerants can be re-used or recovered or heat pumps can be retrofitted with alternative

refrigerants. In general, the number of heat pumps retrofitted so far has been lower than expected. It

was not technically feasible or economically justifiable to retrofit or dismantle all heating-only heat

pumps using CFCs by 1995/96. Reuse and recovery of refrigerants still play an important role.

As in most sub-sectors, retrofitting from CFC-12 to HFC-134a is quite common and the precautions

that need to be taken are well known. Common ternary blends for retrofitting of heat pumps

manufactured to use CFC-12 and R-500 are R-401A, R-401B and R-409A. There have been

discussions about using hydrocarbons as retrofits for CFC-12. Retrofitting from CFC-12 to

hydrocarbons is more likely to use an HC-290/600a blend than HC-290, since the blend better

matches the characteristics of CFC-12. Flammability means that use of hydrocarbons for retrofit

applications may be limited by local ordinances and safety codes. To date, retrofits from CFC-12 to

hydrocarbons in heat pumps are not common.

HFC blends for retrofitting heat pumps using R-502 have been commercially available since 1993/94.

The retrofitting procedure for HFC-blends is similar to that for HFC-134a, with a change of lubricant

from mineral oil to a polyolester lubricant. The most frequently used retrofit blend in heat pumps is R-

404A. A number of HCFC blends have been developed as short term alternatives to retrofit R-502

units. Common near-azeotropic retrofit blends are R-402A, R-402B, and R-408A. The retrofit

procedure is simple and inexpensive.

R-290, propylene (R-1270) and HC blends are possible retrofit candidates for HCFC-22. The

volumetric refrigeration capacity of propane is almost the same as with HCFC-22, and no compressor

modifications are needed. However, the above comments regarding flammability apply.

Estimated CFC and HCFC demand for heating-only heat pumps in 1998 was 480 tonnes for CFC

and 710 tonnes for HCFC. Assessments indicate that the total annual refrigerant demand for heat

pumps will be about 2,000 tonnes in 2005, of which 70–80 per cent will be HFCs and the rest

HCFCs, ammonia and hydrocarbons. Availability of high-quality recovered refrigerants for service

purposes is an important factor.

compressor

expansionvalve

condensing coils

coolwater

warm water

pump

riverheat

source

evaporatorrefr

iger

ant

circ

uit

swimming pool

Basic principle of a heat pump system


37

Refrigerant conservation

Refrigerant conservation is now a major consideration in refrigerating system design, installation, and

service. Environmental impacts from refrigerant release include not only ozone depletion but also

global warming. Safety issues come into play for refrigerants such as hydrocarbons or ammonia.

Conservation also addresses the servicing needs of existing equipment. Since CFC and HCFC

production is reduced and will be halted in future, refrigerant supplies will dwindle and recovered

quantities will be necessary for both non-Article 5 and Article 5 countries. While progress has been

made in limiting refrigerant emissions over the last three years, refrigerant conservation is an issue that

continues to require full attention. Conservation can be obtained for all kinds of refrigeration and air-

conditioning equipment in all phases of equipment life cycle, through design and construction of leak-

tight and easily serviced systems, leak detection and repair, recovery during service, and recovery at

disposal.

Recovery/recycling/reclaim requirements have been implemented for some years in certain countries

and have shown positive results. However, many countries have yet to implement such requirements.

Few countries have developed comprehensive containment policies including both recovery and leak

tightness. Initiatives generally come from the field, where refrigerant is beginning to be regarded as too

expensive to be wasted.

In addition to phasing out ODS production under the Montreal Protocol, governments can help to

reduce ozone depletion by strongly encouraging containment. One basic approach is simply to make

refrigerant recovery compulsory. In addition to direct regulation, both non-Article 5 and Article 5

governments can encourage containment in a number of ways including research and development,

information dissemination, and financial incentives.

Every attempt should be made to design sealed systems that will not leak during service life, and to

minimize service requirements that require opening of the system. The potential for leakage is first

addressed by system design. The lower the charge of refrigerant in a system, the lower the emission

in case of system rupture.

Proper installation of refrigerating systems contributes to proper operation and containment during the

useful life of the equipment. Refrigerating systems must be tested regularly to ensure that they are well

sealed, properly charged, and operating correctly. Refrigerant should not be released during

maintenance and scrapping of the system.

Service must be improved in order to reduce emissions. However, such improvement depends in part

on the price end-users are willing to pay, as emission reduction has always, so far, proved more

expensive than topping up cooling systems with refrigerant. It is necessary to make end-users

understand that the money they pay for refrigerant must be saved and spent on improved

maintenance. Such steps have already been taken in some cases. For example, in the United States

a tax on refrigerant makes containment more cost-effective. Of course, full technician training is

essential for proper handling and containment of refrigerants.

There are three general types of leak detection: global and local methods, and automated

performance monitoring. Global methods indicate that a leak exists somewhere, but they do not

locate leaks. They are useful at the end of construction and whenever the system is opened for repair

or retrofit. Local methods pinpoint the location of the leak and are the usual methods used during


38

servicing. Automated performance-monitoring systems indicate that a leak exists by alerting operators

to changes in equipment performance.

Refrigerant recovery equipment has been developed and is available with a wide range of features

and prices. Some special explosion-proof equipment also exists for recovery of flammables.

Refrigerant conservation requires definition of the efficiency or completeness of recovery.

The need for refrigeration containment has led to the development of a specific terminology; the

following definitions apply:

Recovery of the liquid is the quickest method, and should be the priority when recovering quantities

above 50 kg, as time-loss is a decisive argument against carrying out recovery. Vapour recovery is

necessary, since the only way of checking that all liquid has been evaporated is to lower the pressure

in the system below the saturation vapour pressure of the refrigerant. Recovery by compressor is the

most common solution. Most compression recovery units are suitable for recovering vapour even for

low pressure values down to 10 kPa.

Recycling is one of three available options for dealing with recovered refrigerants. The other two are

direct reuse and reclaiming. Unlike direct reuse, recycling equipment is used to remove oil, acid,

particulates, chloride, moisture, and non-condensable (air) contaminants from used refrigerants.

Recycling performance can be measured by applying standard test methods to contaminated

refrigerants. Some restrictions have been placed on the use of recycled refrigerant because it is not

necessarily analysed before each use. This has even led to legal restrictions on recycled refrigerant.

For example, in France recycled refrigerant can only be used in the system from which it came.

A range of recycling equipment is available at a wide range of prices. At present, the automotive air-

conditioning industry is the only sector where recycling is preferred. Acceptance in other sectors will

depend on national regulations, recommendations from cooling system manufacturers, existence of

other solutions such as a reclaim station, variety and type of systems, and the preference of the

service contractor.

Reclaimed refrigerant means refrigerant that has been processed and verified by analysis to meet new

product specifications, such as those given in ARI 700-93. This has the advantage of avoiding

possible system breakdowns which would lead to further refrigerant emission. As reclaimed

refrigerant meets new product specifications, it often has the support of equipment manufacturers.

Recover: means removing refrigerant in any condition from a system and storing it in an external

container.

Recycle: means reducing contaminants in used refrigerants by separating oil, removing non-

condensables, and using devices such as filter-dryers to reduce moisture, acidity, and

particulate matter.

Reclaim: means processing used refrigerant to new product specifications. Chemical analysis of

the refrigerant is required to determine that appropriate specifications are met. The identification

of contaminants and required chemical analysis has to refer to national or international

standards for new product.

Dispose: means destroying used refrigerant in an environmentally responsible manner.


39

More and more technologies are being developed for destruction and several have become

economically attractive. Two technologies, liquid injection and rotary furnace incinerators, are widely

used. They have been specially tested for the destruction of CFCs and have the required destruction

efficiency of 99.99 per cent.

Although the wide range of specific conditions in Article 5 countries makes generalization difficult, a

few characteristics emerge across the refrigeration infrastructures of those countries that distinguish

them from the refrigeration infrastructures of developed countries. These characteristics favour the

adoption of strategies for containing and conserving refrigerant in Article 5 countries that are slightly

different from those applied in developed countries. Characteristics include:

• The relatively low price of CFC refrigerants. Because CFCs are not scheduled to be phased out at

short notice in most Article 5 countries, they remain relatively inexpensive in the majority of them.

This decreases economic incentives to conserve CFC refrigerants.

• The relatively low cost of labour compared to equipment. Low labour rates may favour

conservation approaches that are more labour-intensive than those historically pursued in

developed countries. Technician training is the only solution here.

• Absence of refrigerant reclamation infrastructures. A well-developed infrastructure for reclaiming

refrigerant requires large numbers of reusable refrigerant containers, refrigerant purification centres,

a system for tracking returned refrigerant and a means of disposing of irretrievably contaminated

refrigerant. The amount of refrigerant to be recovered in countries using small quantities of

refrigerant is not likely to justify operation of a centralized “Reclaim Centre” for one country only.

obsolete

recycledrefrigerant

to recovery depot

analysis

use in refrigeration equipment

treatment

disposal ofnon–recyclable fluid

recovery

Steps in the recovery and recycling of refrigerants

• Uneven maintenance. In many Article 5 countries, routine maintenance of air-conditioning and

refrigeration equipment has been rare in the past. To successfully implement conservation

approaches, which rely heavily on regular maintenance, countries would have to change attitudes.

• Unreliable power and parts supplies. In many Article 5 countries, frequent voltage fluctuations

increase the incidence of compressor burnouts aggravating refrigerant contamination problems

and discouraging refrigerant recycling. These fluctuations may also damage electrical recovery

equipment.

There is no shortage of leak detection devices, conservation methods, or recovery/recycling

equipment available from developed countries. However, provision of such equipment will not, of itself,

guarantee refrigerant conservation in Article 5 countries. Experience has shown that in order to be

effective, containment programmes must match equipment with training and with continuing

incentives to use the equipment. Incentives may be: financial (e.g. deposit-refund systems similar to

those used in Australia and France); professional (building on technicians’ pride in completing training

and in using the most advanced equipment and techniques); or environmental (showing technicians

that they have the power to help heal the ozone layer). Refrigerant Management Plans (RMPs) which

focus on low-volume consuming Article 5 countries include these different aspects. The RMP is a key

component for reduction in consumption of all ODS, because a significant portion of all ODS used is

consumed in refrigeration and air-conditioning. To meet the target of CFC phase out, emphasis should

be placed initially, but not only, on replacing CFCs in new and existing equipment as well as on

refrigerant conservation through recovery/ recycling/reclaim and leak reduction.


40


41

Resources

Secretariats and Implementing Agencies

Multilateral Fund Secretariat

Dr. Omar El Arini

Chief Officer

Secretariat of the Multilateral Fund for

the Montreal Protocol

27th Floor, Montreal Trust Building

1800 McGill College Avenue

Montreal, Quebec H3A 6J6

Canada

Tel: 1 514 282 1122

Fax: 1 514 282 0068

E-mail: [email protected]

Web site: www.unmfs.org

UNEP Ozone Secretariat

Mr. Michael Graber

Acting Executive Secretary

UNEP Ozone Secretariat

PO Box 30552

Gigiri, Nairobi

Kenya

Tel: 2542 623-855

Fax: 2542 623-913

Email: [email protected]

Web site: www.unep.org/ozone

UNEP

Mr. Rajendra M. Shende, Chief

Energy and OzonAction Unit

United Nations Environment Programme

Division of Technology, Industry and Economics

(UNEP DTIE)

39-43 quai Andre Citroen

75739 Paris Cedex 15

France

Tel: 33 1 44 3714 50

Fax: 33 1 44 3714 74


Web site: www.uneptie.org/ozonaction

UNDP

Dr. Suely Carvalho, Deputy Chief

Montreal Protocol Unit, EAP/SEED

United Nations Development Programme

(UNDP)

304 East 45th Street

Room FF-9116,New York, NY 10017

United States of America

Tel: 1 212 906 6687

Fax: 1 212 906 6947


Web site: www.undp.org/seed/eap/montreal

UNIDO

Mrs. H. Seniz Yalcindag, Chief

Industrial Sectors and Environment Division

United Nations Industrial Development

Organization (UNIDO)

Vienna International Centre

P.O. Box 300

A-1400 Vienna

Austria

Tel: (43) 1 26026 3782

Fax: (43) 1 26026 6804


Web site: www.unido.org

World Bank

Mr. Steve Gorman, Unit Chief

Montreal Protocol Operations Unit

World Bank, 1818 H Street NW

Washington DC 20433

United States of America

Tel: 1 202 473 5865

Fax: 1 202 522 3258


Web site: www.esd.worldbank.org/mp/home.cfm


42

Airconditioning and Refrigeration Institute

1501 Wilson Boulevard, 6th Floor

Arlington, VA 22209-2403

United States

Tel: 1 703 524 8800

Fax: 1 703 528 3816

Online: www.ari.org

Alternative Fluorocarbon Environmental

Acceptability Study

The West Tower Suite 400

1333 H Street NW

Washington DC 20005

United States

Tel: 1 202 898 0906

Fax: 1 202 789 1206

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and

Airconditioning Engineers

1791 Tullie Circle, NE

Atlanta, GA 30329

United States

Tel: 1 404 636 8400

Fax: 1 404 321 5478

Online: www.ashrae.org

Chinese Association of Refrigeration

Building 11, South No. 1 Lane

2nd Section of Sanlihe

100045 Beijing

Tel: 86 10 685 30717

Fax: 86 10 685 36262


European Council of Chemical Manufacturers

Federations (CEFIC)

(Mr. B. Jenssen, Secretary)

Avenue E. Van Nieuwenhuyse, 4

1160 Brussels

Belgium

Tel: 32 2 676 7240

Fax: 32 2 676 7301


Eurovent / European Committee of Manufacturers

of Refrigeration Equipment (CECOMAF)

Reyerslaan 80

1030 Brussels

Belgium

Tel: 32 2 706 7985

Fax: 32 2 706 7966


French Institute of Refrigeration (AFF)

c/o Union Syndicale des Constr. de Materiel

39–41 Rue Louis Blanc

92400 Courbevoie

Cedex 72, 92038 Paris

France

Tel: 331 4717 6292

Fax: 331 4717 6427

German Refrigeration Society (DKV)

Pfaffenwaldring 10

70569 Stuttgart

Germany

Tel: 49 711 685 3200

Fax: 49 711 685 3242


Institute of Refrigeration

c/o Miriam Rodway, Ass. Secretary

Kelvin House

76 Mill Lane

Carshalton

Surrey SM5 2JR

United Kingdom

Tel: 44 20 8647 7033

Fax: 44 20 8773 0165


International Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration

1200, 19th Street, NW, Suite 300

Washington, DC 20036-2412

United States

Tel: 1 202 857 1110

Fax: 1 202 233 4579


Contact Points


43

International Institute of Refrigeration

177 Boulevard Malesherbes

75017 Paris

France

Tel: 331 4227 3235

Fax: 331 4763 1798


Japanese Association of Refrigeration

San-El Building

4th Floor, No 8

San-El-Cho, Shinjuku-ku

Tokyo

Japan

Tel: 81 3 3359 5231

Fax: 81 3 3359 5233

Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Association

Environmental Activities Staff

GM Technical Center

30400 Mound Road

Warren, MI 48090-9015

United States

Tel: 1 313 872 4311

Fax: 1 313 872 5400

UNEP Refrigeration Technical Options Committee

c/o co-chair Dr. L. Kuijpers

TEMA - TDO

Technical University Pav A58

PO Box 513

5600 MB Eindhoven

The Netherlands

Tel: 31 49 247 63 71

Fax: 31 40 246 66 27



44

Further reading

AFEAS 1997, Energy and Global Warming Impacts of HFC Refrigerants and Emerging Technologies,

J.R. Sand, S.K. Fischer and V.D. Baxter, AFEAS, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

ASHRAE Standard 34-1989R, Number designation and safety classification of refrigerants – First

public review draft, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers,

Atlanta, USA, 1991.

Baker, J.A., Mobile Air Conditioning and the Global Climate - A Summary of the Phoenix Alternate

Refrigerant Forum - July 15-18,1998, Proceedings The Earth Technologies Forum, October 26-28,

1998, Washington DC.

Bivens, Donald B., Minor, Barbara H., Fluorethers and Other Next-Generation Fluids, Proceedings of

the Refrigerants for the 21st Century Conference, Gaithersburg, Maryland, October 1997.

Bullock, C. E., Theoretical Performance of Carbon Dioxide in Subcritical and Transcritical Cycles,

Proceedings of the Refrigerants for the 21st Century Conference, Gaithersburg, Maryland,

October 1997.

Calm, J.M. and Didion, D.A., Tradeoffs in Refrigerant Selections: Past, Present and Future,

Proceedings of the Refrigerants for the 21st Century Conference, NIST, Gaithersburg, MD USA,

October 1997 (see also International Journal of Refrigeration, 21(4), 308-321, June 1998).

Clodic, D. and Sauer, F. for the French Association of Refrigeration (A.F.F.), Paris, The Refrigerant

Recovery Book, 1994 ASHRAE Edition.(Vademecum de la Récupération des CFC, 1993 PYC

Edition).

Clodic, D. Zero Leaks. ASHRAE Edition. 1998. (Zéro Fuites, 1997 PYC Edition).

Clodic, D., and Cai, W., Tests and Simulations of Various Hydrocarbons in Room Air Conditioners and

Refrigerators, Proceedings of the IIR Natural Refrigerants Conference, Aarhus, Denmark, 1996.

Gentner, H. (BMW), Passenger Car Air Conditioning Using Carbon Dioxide as Refrigerant,

Proceedings IIR Natural Working Fluids ‘98 Conference, June 2-5, 1998, Oslo, Norway.

Kuijpers, L., Lessons Learned-From Montreal to Kyoto? The Imperative of Full Implementation,

Proceedings 1998 Earth Technologies Forum Conference, Washington D.C., 26-28 October 1998.

Kuijpers, L., The Impact of the Montreal and the Kyoto Protocol on New Developments in

Refrigeration and A/C, Proceedings IIR B2 Meeting, Delhi, India, 18-20 March 1998.

McLinden M. O., Optimum refrigerants for non-ideal cycles: An analysis employing corresponding

states, Proceedings IIR Purdue Refrigeration Conference and ASHRAE Purdue CFC Conference, W.

Lafayette, lndiana, July 17-20, 1990. pp 69-79.

Midgley, T., “From the periodic table to production”, Ind. and Engr. Chemistry 29 241-244, 1937.

Nekså, P, et al., CO2 Heat Pump Prototype Systems-Experimental Results, EA/IIR Workshop on CO2

Technology in Refrigeration, Air Conditioning & Heat Pump Systems. Trondheim, Norway, May 1997.

Tiedemann, T., Burke, M., Kruse, H., Recent Developments to Extend the Use of Ammonia.

Proceedings of the 1996 International Refrigeration Conference at Purdue, University of Purdue,

Indiana, USA, July 23-26, 1996.

United Nations Environmental Programme, 1998 Assessment Report of the Refrigeration, Air

Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee, UNEP, 1998, ISBN 92-807-1731-6.


45

Wertenbach, J. and Caesar, R. (Daimler-Benz), An Environmental Evaluation of an Automobile Air

Conditioning System with CO2 Versus HFC-134a as Refrigerant, Proceedings IIR Natural Working

Fluids ‘98 Conference, June 2-5, 1998, Oslo, Norway.

WMO, Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project – Report No.44, Scientific Assessment of

Ozone Depletion: 1998, WMO, February 1999, ISBN 92-807-1722-7

Wuebbles, D.J. and Calm, J.M., An Environment Rational for Retention of Endangered Chemical

Species, Science, 278, 1090-1091, November 1997.

“Designation and Safety Classification of Refrigerants,” ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 34-1997, American

Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE), Atlanta, GA, 1997

J. M. Calm, “Refrigerant Database,” Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute (ARTI),

Arlington, VA, August 1998

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), “Climate Change 1995 – Contribution of

Working Group I to the Second Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change,” edited by J. T. Houghton, L. G. Meira Filho, B. A. Callander, N. Harris, A. Kattenberg, and K.

Maskell, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1996

“Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1994,” chaired by D. L. Albritton, R. T. Watson, and P. J.

Aucamp, report 37, World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Global Ozone Research and

Monitoring Project, Geneva, Switzerland; United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), Nairobi,

Kenya; National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Washington, DC, USA; National

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Washington, DC, USA; February 1995

Glossary

AFEAS Alternative Fluorocarbon Environmental Acceptability Study

CEIT Country with Economy in Transition

CFC chlorofluorocarbons

COP Coefficient of Performance

DTIE Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (UNEP DTIE)

GWP Global Warming Potential

HC hydrocarbon

HCFC hydrochlorofluorocarbons

HFC hydrofluorocarbons

HTF Heat Transfer Fluid, or “secondary refrigerant”

MLF Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol

ODP Ozone Depleting Potential

ODS Ozone Depleting Substance

OEM Original Equipment Manufacture

PAC Packaged Air Conditioner

RAC Room Air Conditioner

TEAP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel

TEWI Total Equivalent Warming Impact

TOC Technical Options Committee

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

VOC Volatile Organic Compound


46

About the UNEP DTIE OzonAction Programme

Nations around the world are taking concrete actions to reduce and eliminate production and

consumption of CFCs, halons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, methyl bromide and HCFCs.

When released into the atmosphere these substances damage the stratospheric ozone layer – a

shield that protects life on Earth from the dangerous effects of solar ultraviolet radiation. Nearly every

country in the world has committed itself under the Montreal Protocol to phase out the use and

production of ODS. Recognizing that developing countries require special technical and financial

assistance in order to meet their commitments under the Montreal Protocol, the Parties established

the Multilateral Fund and requested UNEP, along with UNDP, UNIDO and the World Bank, to provide

the necessary support. In addition, UNEP supports ozone protection activities in Countries with

Economies in Transition (CEITs) as an implementing agency of the Global Environment Facility (GEF).

Since 1991, the UNEP DTIE OzonAction Programme has strengthened the capacity of governments

(particularly National Ozone Units or “NOUs”) and industry in developing countries to make informed

decisions about technology choices and to develop the policies required to implement the Montreal

Protocol. By delivering the following services to developing countries, tailored to their individual needs,

the OzonAction Programme has helped promote cost-effective phase out activities at the national and

regional levels:

Information Exchange

Provides information tools and services to encourage and enable decision makers to make informed

decisions on policies and investments required to phase out ODS. Since 1991, the Programme has

developed and disseminated to NOUs over 100 individual publications, videos, and databases that

include public awareness materials, a quarterly newsletter, a web site, sector-specific technical

publications for identifying and selecting alternative technologies and guidelines to help governments

establish policies and regulations.

Training

Builds the capacity of policy makers, customs officials and local industry to implement national ODS

phase out activities. The Programme promotes the involvement of local experts from industry and

academia in training workshops and brings together local stakeholders with experts from the global

ozone protection community. UNEP conducts training at the regional level and also supports national

training activities (including providing training manuals and other materials).

Networking

Provides a regular forum for officers in NOUs to meet to exchange experiences, develop skills, and

share knowledge and ideas with counterparts from both developing and developed countries.

Networking helps ensure that NOUs have the information, skills and contacts required for managing

national ODS phase out activities successfully. UNEP currently operates 8 regional/sub-regional

Networks involving 109 developing and 8 developed countries, which have resulted in member

countries taking early steps to implement the Montreal Protocol.

Refrigerant Management Plans (RMPs)

Provide countries with an integrated, cost-effective strategy for ODS phase out in the refrigeration and

air conditioning sectors. RMPs have to assist developing countries (especially those that consume low

volumes of ODS) to overcome the numerous obstacles to phase out ODS in the critical refrigeration


47

sector. UNEP DTIE is currently providing specific expertise, information and guidance to support the

development of RMPs in 60 countries.

Country Programmes and Institutional Strengthening

Support the development and implementation of national ODS phase out strategies especially for low-

volume ODS-consuming countries. The Programme is currently assisting 90 countries to develop their

Country Programmes and 76 countries to implement their Institutional-Strengthening projects.

For more information about these services please contact:

Mr. Rajendra Shende, Chief, Energy and OzonAction Unit

UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics

OzonAction Programme

39-43, quai André Citroën

75739 Paris Cedex 15 France


Tel: +33 1 44 37 14 50

Fax: +33 1 44 37 14 74

www.uneptie.org/ozonaction.html

UNEP�


48

About the UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics

The mission of the UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics is to help decision-makers

in government, local authorities, and industry develop and adopt policies and practices that:

• are cleaner and safer;

• make efficient use of natural resources;

• ensure adequate management of chemicals;

• incorporate environmental costs;

• reduce pollution and risks for humans and the environment.

The UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (UNEP DTIE), with its head office in Paris,

is composed of one centre and four units:

• The International Environmental Technology Centre (Osaka), which promotes the adoption and use

of environmentally sound technologies with a focus on the environmental management of cities

and freshwater basins, in developing countries and countries in transition.

• Production and Consumption (Paris), which fosters the development of cleaner and safer

production and consumption patterns that lead to increased efficiency in the use of natural

resources and reductions in pollution.

• Chemicals (Geneva), which promotes sustainable development by catalysing global actions and

building national capacities for the sound management of chemicals and the improvement of

chemical safety world-wide, with a priority on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and Prior

Informed Consent (PIC, jointly with FAO).

• Energy and OzonAction (Paris), which supports the phase out of ozone depleting substances in

developing countries and countries with economies in transition, and promotes good management

practices and use of energy, with a focus on atmospheric impacts. The UNEP/RISØ Collaborating

Centre on Energy and Environment supports the work of the Unit.

• Economics and Trade (Geneva), which promotes the use and application of assessment and

incentive tools for environmental policy and helps improve the understanding of linkages between

trade and environment and the role of financial institutions in promoting sustainable development.

UNEP DTIE activities focus on raising awareness, improving the transfer of information, building

capacity, fostering technology cooperation, partnerships and transfer, improving understanding of

environmental impacts of trade issues, promoting integration of environmental considerations into

economic policies, and catalysing global chemical safety.

www.unep.orgUnited Nations Environment Programme

P.O. Box 30552 Nairobi, KenyaTel: (254 2) 621234Fax: (254 2) 623927

E-mail: [email protected]: www.unep.org

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