Pr Pr øveforelesning, Oppgitt øveforelesning, Oppgitt Emne Emne Water Phases (Solid, Liquid and Vapor) Water Phases (Solid, Liquid and Vapor) on Mars: Theoretical and Observational on Mars: Theoretical and Observational Evidence for Their Past and Present Evidence for Their Past and Present Distribution, Including Global Inventory Distribution, Including Global Inventory [email protected][email protected]http://joern.jernsletten.name/ http://joern.jernsletten.name/ Mandag, 14. Juni 2004 Mandag, 14. Juni 2004 Universitetet i Bergen Universitetet i Bergen Det Matematisk-Naturvitenskapelige Fakultet Det Matematisk-Naturvitenskapelige Fakultet Institutt for Geovitenskap Institutt for Geovitenskap Doctor Doctor Philosophiae Philosophiae J J ø ø rn Atle Jernsletten rn Atle Jernsletten
– Theoretical evidence= Past & present distribution
– Observational evidence= Past & present distribution
• Solid– (same structure as Vapor section)– Earth / Mars analogs
• Liquid– (same structure as Vapor section)– Earth / Mars analogs
• Global inventory• Summary• References Cited
Chronology Based on Crater CountsChronology Based on Crater Counts
( Adapted from McKee, 2003, after: Hartman and Neukum, 2001; Jakosky and Phillips, 2001; Zuber, 2001; Tanaka et al., 1992 )
[Vapor]:[Vapor]: Early Observations Early Observations• No separable water vapor signal
= Sling psychrometer (Campbell, 1910)• Water vapor ~3% of Earth atmosphere
= Prismatic spectrograph (Adams and St. John, 1926)• Early obs. around λ7200 using large grating spectrograph
= No evidence for water vapor (Adams and Dunham, 1937)
• Partial pressure of water in Martian atmosphere= Based on dissociation pressure of goethite (Adamcik, 1963)
[Vapor]:[Vapor]: Observational Evidence Observational Evidence• <1 – ~100 pr m in atmosphere (Carr, 1996)
= Average ~10 pr m; close to saturation• First shown by Earth-based telescopic observations in the 1960s• Viking Mars Atmospheric Water Detector (MAWD)
= Small amounts in the Martian atmosphere (Farmer et al., 1976)= Global vapor content ~ 1.3 cu km water ice (Farmer et al., 1977)
• European Space Agency (ESA), Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) (Burgdorf et al., 2000)
= Two complimentary spectrometers Infrared
= Total column density 12 3.5 pr m• TES observations (Smith, 2002)
= ~100 pr m north high lat.s, ~50 pr m south, midsummer= <5 pr m, middle & high lat.s, fall & winter both hemispheres
• Some H2O–bearing minerals invisible (Kirkland et al., 2003)
[Vapor]:[Vapor]: TES vs. Synthetic Spectrum TES vs. Synthetic Spectrum
( Adapted from Smith, 2002 )
[Vapor]:[Vapor]: Temporal and Spatial Temporal and Spatial VariabilityVariability
• Seasonal max. 45-50 pr m (Barker et al., 1970)• Obs. at McDonald Observatory 1972–1974 (Barker, 1976)
= 469 individual photoelectric scans of Doppler-shifted H2O lines= Almost 1 full Martian year (Ls = 118−269° and 301−80°)= Planetwide abundance 5−15 pr m= Maximum abundance ~40 pr m
After solstice at about 40° latitude in each hemisphere= Max. amount precedes max. insolation by 10–20° latitude= During the "drier" seasons (5–20 pr m) near the equinoxes on Mars, the atmospheric water vapor changes by a factor of 2–3x over a diurnal cycle with the maximum near local noon= The effects of the 1973 dust storm during the southern summer reduced the amount of water vapor over the southern hemisphere regions to 3–8 pr m
• Lat. of max. pr m northern polar area => equatorial lat.s
= From northern summer through northern fall (Farmer et al., 1977)= Not confirmed by TES (Smith, 2002)
• Deuterium cold trap u. atm. (Bertaux and Montmessin, 2001)
[Vapor]:[Vapor]: TES Geographic Distribution TES Geographic Distribution
( Adapted from Smith, 2002 )
Divided by (psurf/6.1):
[Solid]:[Solid]: Calculated Possible Depths Calculated Possible Depths to theto the
Base of the Martian CryosphereBase of the Martian Cryosphere
( Adapted from tabular data, Clifford, 1993 ). The thermal model used Equation 3.1, and with the following values for parameters:
Minimum: Qg = 45 mW m-2, K = 1.0 W m-1 K-1, and Tmp = 210 K;Nominal: Qg = 30 mW m-2, K = 2.0 W m-1 K-1, and Tmp = 252 K;Maximum: Qg = 15 mW m-2, K = 3.0 W m-1 K-1, and Tmp = 273 K
[Solid]:[Solid]: Constitutive Relation Constitutive Relation for Icefor Ice
Glen's Flow Law is widely accepted as the constitutive relationfor ice when shear stress acts on its basal plane:
where έ is the strain rate; A is a temperature-dependent constant; τb
is the basal shear stress; and n is a power law exponent (Glen, 1958)
έ = A τbn Equation 4.15
Regards ice as a plastic substance with a yield stress τ of 1 bar (Paterson, 1981)
Value of n generally taken as 3 (Paterson 1981; Johnston, 1981)
Shear strain rate (flow velocity) is lower for colder ice as a function of A
A varies with temperature, and is equal, for example, to 6.8 x 10-15
s-1 kPa-3 at 273 K, 4.9 x 10-16 at 263 K, 1.7 x 10-16 at 253 K, and 5.1 x 10-17 at 243 K
n varies with applied stress, taking a value of 1 for Newtonian deformation, and 3 for non-Newtonian deformation (Paterson, 1994)
Available evidence indicates that n = 3 for most situations (Russell-Head and Budd, 1979)
[Solid]:[Solid]: Deformation of Frozen Deformation of Frozen GroundGround
The total strain in deforming frozen ground is the sum of aninstantaneous strain, ε(i), and a creep strain, ε(c). The primarycreep of frozen ground (and ice) in a state of constant stresscan be described by the creep law (Andersland et al., 1978):
ε(c) = Kσntb Equation 4.17
where K, n, and b are temperature-dependent material constants
The steady state creep strain is governed by the creep law(Hult, 1966):
έ(c) = G(σ, T) Equation 4.18
where έ(c) is the steady state (secondary) creep rate; and thefunction G(σ,T) is found by plotting the slope dε(c)/dt againstthe applied stress for various temperatures
[Solid]:[Solid]: Temperature Temperature Dependence inDependence inthe Creep Lawthe Creep Law
where έc is the creep rate selected for the laboratory experiment- for frozen soils is often taken as 10-5 min-1 (Andersland et al.,1978); σc is the uniaxial stress for the selected creep rate; σc(T) and n(T) are temperature-dependent creep parameters
The creep law can be rewritten in the form of a power expression(Hult, 1966; Ladanyi, 1972):
έ(c) = έc[σ/σc(T)]n(T) Equation 4.19
The equations for both primary and secondary creep emphasize the temperature-dependence of creep deformation
[Solid]:[Solid]: Map of the Deformation Map of the Deformation Mechanisms of IceMechanisms of Ice
As a function of temperature, applied stress, and strain rate( from Carr, 1996, after Shoji and Higashi, 1978 )
[Solid]:[Solid]: Typical Rock Glaciers in Typical Rock Glaciers inWrangell Mountains, AlaskaWrangell Mountains, Alaska
Rock glacier “a” has a single lobe, and rock glacier “b” has a second lobe that appears to have advanced on top of another lobe that advanced at an earlier time
( Adapted from Whalley and Azizi, 2003 )
[Solid]:[Solid]: Two Possible Rock-Ice Two Possible Rock-Ice SystemsSystems
in Candor Chasma, Marsin Candor Chasma, Mars
Feature “A” resembles a rock glacier, and feature“B” resembles a protalus rampart
( Adapted from Whalley and Azizi, 2003; After Malin et al., 2000 )
[Solid]:[Solid]: Enlargements of Candor Enlargements of Candor Chasma FeaturesChasma Features
Feature “A” resembles a rock glacier, and feature“B” resembles a protalus rampart
( Adapted from Whalley and Azizi, 2003; After Malin et al., 2000 )
Enlargement of feature A Enlargement of feature B
[Solid]:[Solid]: Degradation of Ice-rich Degradation of Ice-rich MaterialMaterial
• Insolation asymmetries → slope asymmetries
– Differential sublimation erosion (Howard et al., 1982; Fenton and Herkenhoff, 2000 )
– Differential ground ice melting (Kreslavsky and Head, 2003 )
• Sublimation erosion in degradation of slopes
– Mars (Squyres, 1979; Howard et al., 1982; Moore et al., 1996; Fenton and Herkenhoff, 2000; Kreslavsky and Head, 2003 )
– Moons; including Triton, Io, and Ganymede (Smith et al., 1989; Moore et al., 1996, 1997, 1998 )
[Solid]:[Solid]: Profiles of Trough in Profiles of Trough in Northern Polar Layered Northern Polar Layered
DepositsDeposits
(Adapted from Fenton and Herkenhoff, 2000)
[Solid]:[Solid]: Profiles of Trough in Profiles of Trough in Northern Polar Layered Northern Polar Layered
DepositsDeposits
(Adapted from Fenton and Herkenhoff, 2000)
[Solid]: North-South Components of [Solid]: North-South Components of SlopeSlope
AngleAngle > 5° > 5°
Equatorward Slopes Poleward Slopes
[Solid]:[Solid]: North-South Components of North-South Components of Slope Angle vs. Latitude Slope Angle vs. Latitude
[Solid]:[Solid]: Equatorward and Poleward Equatorward and Poleward CountsCounts
[Solid]:[Solid]: Correlations of Poleward N- Correlations of Poleward N-S Components of Slope AngleS Components of Slope Angle
[Solid]:[Solid]: Correlations of Equatorward Correlations of Equatorward N-S Components of Slope AngleN-S Components of Slope Angle
[Solid]:[Solid]: North-South Components of North-South Components of Slope Angle vs. Temperature Slope Angle vs. Temperature
[Solid]:[Solid]: Depth below the Surface at Depth below the Surface at which Ground Ice is Stablewhich Ground Ice is Stable
(Adapted from Carr, 1996; after Farmer and Doms, 1979)
[Solid]:[Solid]: Map of Epithermal Neutron Map of Epithermal Neutron Flux from the Neutron Spectrometer of Flux from the Neutron Spectrometer of
the GRSthe GRS
Source: Boynton et al. (2002). Low values of epithermal flux indicate high hydrogen concentration (8). Contours (in white)show the regions where water ice is predicted to be stable at 0.8 meters depth as predicted by the model of Mellon andJakosky (1993) (note that no predictions were made poleward of 60° latitude as no thermal inertia data were available)
b. This close-up is centered at 14.5° South, 55.8° West;Image covers an area of approximately 9.8 km by 17.3 km;North is up ( MOC images courtesy of NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems )
a. Context image b. Central ridge close-up
[Liquid]:[Liquid]: Floor Deposits in Floor Deposits in Parallel Trough South of Coprates Parallel Trough South of Coprates
ChasmaChasma
Mars Orbiter Camera image No. MOC2-420;
center of image is at 60.1º West longitude, 15.2º South latitude
( Image courtesy of NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems )
[Liquid]:[Liquid]: Layered Floor Deposits in Layered Floor Deposits in FarFar
Western Candor ChasmaWestern Candor Chasma
Right image is 1.5 km wide, 2.9 km tall;
Mars Orbiter Camera image No. FHA-01278;
Context image Mars Orbiter Camera image No. FHA-01275;
( Images courtesy of NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems )
a. Context image b. Layered floor deposits
[Liquid]:[Liquid]: Nirgal Vallis Sand Waves Nirgal Vallis Sand Waves
Mars Orbiter Camera image No. E02-02651;
( Image courtesy of NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems )
[Liquid]:[Liquid]: Nanedi Vallis Channel Nanedi Vallis Channel
Mars Orbiter Camera image No. 8704;
( Image courtesy of NASA/JPL/Malin Space Science Systems )
[Global inventory]:[Global inventory]: Estimates for Estimates for major Hmajor H22O Reservoirs and TotalO Reservoirs and Total
Present-Day Inventory of Water on MarsPresent-Day Inventory of Water on Mars
( Sources: 1Farmer and Doms, 1979; 2Carr, 1987; 3Smith et al., 1999;
4Johnson et al., 2000; 5Clifford, 1993 )
SummarySummary• 10-12 pr m water vapor in Martian atmosphere
= Always close to saturation= Direct observational evidence from MAWD, TES, telescopic obs.
• Presence of water ice evidenced by= Polar ice caps= Polar layered terrain= Terrain deformation
Analogs to terrestrial rock glaciers & protalus ramparts Poleward / equatorward slope assymmetries
= Direct observational evidence from Odyssey / GRS / HEND Gamma Ray Spectrometer / High Energy Neutron Detector
• Past presence of liquid water evidenced by= Layering / apparent sedimentation= Morphologic evidence
Apparent river channels / lake beds / shore lines Apparent signatures of water flow
= Direct observational evidence from MER-B Opportunity (!) Jarocite, “blueberries” Analog to acidic metal-rich brine pools in Rio Tinto, Spain
• Equivalent ocean 100’s m global inventory
=> Abundant evidence for water on Mars
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