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Community Participation in the Sustainability of Developmental Programs: A Case Study of NRSP in

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

By

SAJJAD HUSSAIN

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK

UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR(2010-11)

1

Community Participation in the Sustainability of Developmental Programs: A Case Study of NRSP in

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

By

SAJJAD HUSSAIN

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the award

of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

At

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK

UNIVERSITY OF PESHAWAR(2010-11)

2

Dedications

To the memory of my father Aurang Zeb Khan (late), my brother Muhammad Naseer

(late) who have supported me since the beginning of my studies but passed away during

the period of my studies.

Also to my mother, and my wife who always prayed and wished for the successful

completion of my thesis.

3

Abstract

This research endeavour on Community Participation and the Sustainability of

Development Programs: A Case study of National Rural Support Program (NRSP) in

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa was empirically carried out on an NGO namely the National Rural

Support Program. The researcher adopted case study method to know how NRSP perform

developmental interventions and how the decisions are taken regarding development in

the target area. Staff members of NRSP and members of community organizations of four

operational districts were interviewed using interview guide. A total of 84 respondents

were selected through convenient sampling technique and 10 respondents were selected

from each office of NRSP. In addition out of 435 community organizations 05% from

each of the stratum was selected that constituted 16 male organizations and 07 female

organizations. In this regard, 02 members from each organization were selected that

constituted a total of 46 sample size.

The study analysed the role and importance of community participation in the

sustainability of developmental programs in NRSP interventions in the selected districts

of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. It also critically examines the role of traditional

leaders’ i.e. micro level forces influencing community participation in the sustainability

of developmental programs.

The study concludes that the government co-opted NRSP for carrying out those activities

which the government was supposed to perform. For this purpose, the government

arranged funds from the international donor organizations or provided funds through

other channels like Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF). In this way the donor

agencies compelled NRSP to achieve the pre-determined targets in a specific time.

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Furthermore the micro level forces were also constraint in the way of community

participation due to their socio-political and economic position. They had say in all the

affairs of the community and no developmental activity could be launched without their

due consent. In this way, they monopolized and hijacked the NRSP interventions for their

self-interest.

The study summarised that due to the influence of traditional leaders and the pressure of

donor organizations, NRSP has adopted a target oriented approach and involved the

community in the Project Cycle i.e. planning, implementation and monitoring of

developmental activities for fulfilling the donor’s demand. In addition, due to cultural

constraints and male dominancy women could not meaningfully participate in the

development planning, implementation and monitoring. Thus NRSP has failed to

meaningfully involve the target communities in the project cycle of developmental

interventions and achieve sustained results which are the ultimate goal of participatory

development.

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Acknowledgments

First of all I am thankful to Almighty Allah who gave me the health, strength, courage

and wisdom to accomplish this research work.

I am thankful to my PhD supervisor Dr.Basharat Hussain, Professor and Chairman

Department of Criminology University of Peshawar who continuously encouraged and

guided me at every stage of the research process. It was because of his hard work,

enriched support, and innovative ideas that I accomplished this uphill task. The supervisor

guided me throughout the research work and facilitated me with the precious part of his

time in spite of his tight office schedule. Simply I can say that this research activity was

impossible without his academic guidance, support and encouragement.

I am also grateful to Mr.Saeed Raza, the Regional Program Officer NRSP Nowshehra

KPK, Sections Heads and Staff of NRSP Regional Office, and the staff of field offices for

their support and cooperation in the collection of primary and secondary data for this

thesis. I would also like to mention Muhammad Ali, ManagerNRSP Head Office

Islamabad andMazhar Ali Manager Monitoring and Evaluation Regional Office

Nowshehra for their guidance and support during this thesis.

My special thanks go to my father (late) and my mother for their love, care, patience and

financial support throughout this research thesis. In fact it was because of their prayers

and support that I completed this heavy task of PhD research. I am also thankful to my

brothers, sisters, friends for their assistance and support. Last but not the least, I am

grateful to my wife, daughter Suhana and my sons Zohaib Khan, Hayan Khan who

suffered due to my continuous engagements in this research endeavour but they always

prayed for the successful completion of my PhD studies.

SajjadHussain

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Table of Contents

Contents Page

Dedication i

Abstract ii

Acknowledgements iv

Abbreviations xi

Chapter One

Introduction 1

1.1 Why did I select this topic for my PhD research 3

1.2 Significance of the study 4

1.3 Outline of the study 4

Chapter Two

Conceptual Framework on Participatory Development

2.1 Introduction 7

2.2 Definition and Meaning of Development 7

2.3 Background of Development Theories 9

2.3.1 Modernization Theories 9

2.3.2 Dependency Theories 12

2.3.3 Development Impasse 14

2.4 Women in the Development Context 16

2.5 Participatory Development Approach 19

2.5.1 Rapid Rural Appraisal 21

2.5.2 Participatory Rural Appraisal 24

2.5.3 Participatory Poverty Assessments 27

2.5.4 Participatory Action Research 29

2.5.5 Appreciative Inquiry 30

2.6 Community Participation and Sustainable Development 32

2.7 Community Participation and Empowerment 35

2.7.1 Community Organizing 37

2.8 Socio-Cultural Constraints to Participatory Development 38

2.8.1 Institutional and Regulatory Framework 38

2.8.2 Socio-Economic Factors 39

2.8.3 Participation of women 39

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2.8.4 Political interference 40

2.8.5 Lack of resources 40

2.8.6 Internal and external factors 41

2.8.7 Low level of education 41

2.9 Factors Promoting Community Participation 42

2.10 Criticism on Community Participation in the Development Process 44

2.10.1 Who participates? 44

2.10.2 Powerful segments 45

2.10.3 External and Internal influences 46

2.10.4 Social change /resource distribution 46

2.10.5 Power and Empowerment 47

2.10.6 Participation and Co-option: Adopted by developmental

organizations as a “Fashion”

49

2.11 An Overview of Major Development Programs in Pakistan 50

2.11.1 Village Aid Program (V-AID) (1952-1961) 51

2.11.2 The Basic Democracies System (BDS), 1959-1970 52

2.11.3 Rural Works Program (1963-72) 52

2.11.4 Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP) 53

2.12 Causes of failure of these developmental programs 54

2.13 Summary 55

Chapter Three

Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in Pakistan

3.1 Introduction 57

3.2 Brief history of Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) 58

3.3 The Evolution of NGOs in the World 59

3.3.1 NGOs before World War 1 59

3.3.2 NGOs after the World War II 60

3.4 Classification of NGOs 61

3.4.1 First Generation: Relief and Welfare NGOs 63

3.4.2 Second Generation: Small Scale and Self Reliant Local

Development NGOs

64

3.4.3 Third Generation: Sustainable Systems Development 64

3.4.4 People-Centred Development and People’s Movements 65

3.5 Changing Donor’s and State’s Policies towards NGOs 66

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3.5.1 Donor’s Policies towards NGOs 66

3.5.2 State’s Policies towards NGOs 67

3.6 NGOs: A New form of Colonialism and Imperialism 70

3.7 NGOs Co-option by States 71

3.8 Non – Governmental Organizations in Pakistan – An Introduction 73

3.8.1 NGOs in Pre-Partition Era – Providing Philanthropic

Services

73

3.8.2 NGOs in Post-Independence Period – Relief Services and

Development

74

3.8.3 Mushroom Growth of NGOs in Post Cold War Era (1980s

and onwards)

76

3.8.4 From Relief and Welfare to Participatory Development

NGOs

78

3.9 Aid Flows to NGOs: A Brief Comparison 79

3.10 Government’s Policies towards NGOs 81

3.11 National Rural Support Program (NRSP) 83

3.12 The Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF) 85

3.13 Legislations on the Control and Registration of NGOs in Pakistan 86

3.14 Summary 89

Chapter Four

National Rural Support Program (NRSP) – An Introduction

4.1 Introduction 91

4.2 Organization of NRSP 91

4.3 Functions of Head and Regional Offices 93

4.4 Main Objectives of NRSP 94

4.5 Rural Support Program Network (RSPN) 95

4.6 Program Components of NRSP and Inputs 96

4.6.1 Social Organization 96

4.6.2 Human Resource Development (HRD) 97

4.6.3 Physical Infrastructure and Technology Development

PITD)

98

4.6.4 Natural Resource Management (NRM) 99

4.6.5 Social Sector Services (SSS) 100

4.6.6 Microfinance and Enterprise Development Program 101

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(MEDP)

4.6.7 Gender and Development 103

4.6.8 Monitoring Evaluation and Research 105

4.7 Summary 105

Chapter Five

Methodology of Research

5.1 Introduction 107

5.2 Research Aims and Objectives 107

5.3 Research Questions 108

5.4 Overview of the Research Process 109

5.5 Research Strategy 110

5.6 Location of the Target Area 112

5.7 Procedure for Selecting Respondents 113

5.8 Main Characteristics of the Study Area 115

5.9 Tools of data collection 116

5.10 Preliminary Stage of Data Collection Process 117

5.11 Data Collection Stage 118

5.12 Transcription, Interpretation and Analysis of Data 120

5.13 Limitations of the study 120

5.14 Ethical Considerations 121

5.15 Summary 122

Chapter Six

Data Presentation: Staff Members’ Views


6.2 Activities of NRSP 123

6.3 Ideal Project Cycle 124

6.3.1 Formation of Community Organizations 124

6.3.2 Needs Identification 124

6.3.3 Planning 125

6.3.4 Implementation 125

6.3.5 Evaluation 125

6.4 Staff Member’s Views about the Project Cycle Stages 126

6.4.1 Formation of Community Organizations 126

6.4.2 Needs Identification by the Community Organization 130

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6.4.3 Planning the Developmental project/Scheme 132

6.4.4 Implementation of the Project/Scheme 134

6.4.5 Project Evaluation 137

6.5 Staff Member’s Views about Community Empowerment and

Sustainability

140

6.6 Summary 144

Chapter Seven

Data Presentation: Organizations’ Members’ Views


7.2 Need and Importance of Community Participation 146

7.3 Socio-Political Hurdles (Local Power Structure) Hindering

Community Participation

152

7.4 Views of Community Organization Members on Project Cycle

Stages

155

7.4.1 Formation of community organizations 155

7.4.2 Needs identification 159

7.4.3 Planning 161

7.4.4 Implementation 164

7.4.5 Evaluation 166

7.5 Community Empowerment and Project Sustainability 168

7.6 Summary 174

Chapter Eight

Bridging the Gap between Theory and Practice in National Rural Support

Programme (NRSP)


8.2 The Establishment of NRSP 177

8.3 Changes in Government Policy and NRSP 179

8.4 NRSP and Donor Agencies 180

8.5 Accountability Problems in NRSP 183

8.6 Innovativeness and Flexibility of NRSP 185

8.7 The Role of Traditional Leaders in Influencing Community

Participation (Local power structure)

187

8.7.1 Community Elites and the Local Power Structure 188

8.7.2 Prejudiced Interventional Strategy of NRSP 191

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8.7.3 Weak community organizing 192

8.8 Gender and Development Policy of NRSP 194

8.8.1 Patriarchal Setup 196

8.8.2 Male Centred interventional strategy of NRSP 198

8.9 Summary 199

Chapter Nine

Conclusions, Suggestions/Recommendations

9.1 Summary of the Findings 201

9.2 Macro and Micro Level Forces Hampering Participatory

Development’s Feasibility

202

9.3 Donors, the State, the Local Power Structure and the Co-option of

Participatory Development

204

9.3.1. Participatory Development and the Transformation of

Traditional Leadership

205

9.3.2. Community Participation and the Role of NGOs 206

9.3.3. Political interference 206

9.4 Gaps between Theory and Practice in Project Cycle

Implementation

207

9.5 Suggestions/Recommendations 209

References 212

Annexure 1. Table 1: Progress Report as of March, 2014 264

Annexure 2. NRSP Organizational Structure 266

Annexure 3. A Copy of Interview Guide 267

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ADB Asian Development Bank

AKRSP Agha Khan Rural Support Program

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CBO Community Based Organization

CSO Civil Society Organization

DAC Development Assistance Committee

ECOSOC Economic and Social Council

FSO Female Social Organizer

GAD Gender and Development

GONGO Government Organized Non Governmental Organization

GoP Government of Pakistan

INGO International Non Governmental Organization

MCO Men Community Organization

NGO Non-governmental Organization

NGORC NGO Resource Centre

ODA Overseas Development Administration

OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

PCP Pakistan Centre for Philanthropy

PD Participatory Development

PITD Physical Infrastructure and Training Development

PPAF Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund

RSP Rural Support Program

RSPN Rural Support Program Network

SDC Swiss Development Corporation

SO Social Organizer

SOU Social Organization Unit

SPDC Social Policy and Development Centre

SRSP Sarhad Rural Support Program

TVO Trust for Voluntary Organization

TSO Third Sector Organization

13

UNDP United Nations Development Program

UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

WCO Women Community Organization

WID Women in Development

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Chapter OneIntroduction

This dissertation critically examines the role of community participation in the

sustainability of developmental programs. The study evaluates the participatory

development strategy of National Rural Support Program (NRSP) being adopted in their

developmental interventions. Specifically the thesis examines:

a) The role of community participation in the sustainability of developmental

projects;

b) The role of structural forces at micro level (local power structures) influencing

participatory development feasibility;

c) Getting acquainted with the Project Cycle, that is, formation of community

organization, needs assessment, planning, implementation and evaluation process

in NRSP Projects; and

d) The involvement of women organizations (WOs) in Project Cycle.

Community participation has become a common practice adopted by organizations

working in the development sector. The national and international donor organizations,

very often, demand for involvement of the target community in the project cycle, i.e.,

identification, planning, decision making, implementation and monitoring of

developmental projects – while they give aid to the implementing organizations.

Research studies also confirm that meaningful participation of community in

developmental projects have yielded very positive results. This is because the

stakeholders -- the beneficiaries -- were involved at all stages of the project cycle, starting

from identification till the monitoring of developmental programs, and these projects

were need based as well. However, despite its advantages, like empowering the voiceless,

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cost effectiveness and sustainability, participatory approach has been misused by

International Non Governmental Organizations (INGOs), Non Governmental

Organizations (NGOs) and Rural Support Programs (RSPs) for fulfilling ulterior motives

of the donors.

There is no doubt that participatory approach can lead to sustainable development if the

beneficiaries i.e. people of the target community are involved in the project cycle in the

real sense. Meaningful participation in the developmental interventions is a pre-requisite

for the sustainability of developmental programs.

This study explores the role of community participation in the sustainability of

developmental programs carried out by NRSP in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The

study also evaluates whether the community individuals are involved in the project cycle

of NRSP interventions or not. Moreover, it also aims to inquire whether women

organizations are involved in the project cycle or not. In addition to these factors, the

study investigates the role of structural forces (local power structures) to influence

participatory development feasibility. The study also explores the sustainability of

developmental projects executed with active participation of target communities.

Keeping the mentioned factors in view, the study examines the NRSP’s efforts to

materialize participatory development which can lead the community to self-sufficiency,

empowerment and sustainability.

In order to present a comprehensive picture of community participation in the

sustainability of developmental programs of NRSP, it was necessary to examine the

viewpoint of those who are actively involved in the project cycle. These include

members of male community organizations (MCOs), women community organizations

(WCOs), staff members of NRSP, i.e., Regional Program Manager (RPO), Program

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Manager of each district, head social organizations unit, manger physical infrastructure

and technology, manager monitoring and evaluation, Engineers, senior social organizers,

male and female social mobilizers.

1.1 Why did I Select this Topic for my PhD Research?There were many reasons to select this topic for my PhD research, and to inquire about

Community Participation and Sustainability in NRSP Projects in KP, Pakistan. Before

joining my current position as Lecturer at the Department of Social Work University of

Malakand, KP, I worked with various national and international organizations like Dir

Area Support Project (DASP) and National Commission for Human Development

(NCHD). These organizationsapplied participatory development strategies in

developmental interventions which inspired me to conduct research in this area. In

addition to that, I have also conducted my MA Social Work research project on

‘Community Participation and Sustainable Development in Rural Areas’. Since then, I

had a desire to investigate new areas of research and make contribution to the existing

body of knowledge on community participation and sustainable development in rural

areas of Pakistan. As a Lecturer in the Department of Social Work, I have been teaching

the subject of Community Organization and Development to the students of BS and

Masters in Social Work as well; and have supervised BS and MA students’ theses in same

fields at the University.

Therefore, as a student of Social Work, the study on community participation and

sustainable development was of immense importance, due to its applicability in the

developmental organizations. As far as I know, this is the first study of its kind on NRSP

and its participatory development methodology in Pakistan.

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1.2 Significance of the StudyAs mentioned, this study is the first research endeavour conducted on NRSP in Pakistan.

So far, no such research study has been carried out to examine the participatory

development approach of NRSP in Pakistan. In fact, NRSP has published many progress

reports, research studies regarding their targets and achievements for submission to the

donors/government and concerned departments; but these reports lacked the required

academic depth. Therefore, it is not only significant for the professionals working in the

development sector, but also for the academicians and students at college and university

level who are interested to conduct their researches in the area of participatory approach

and sustainable development. In addition, this study will help in identification of gaps in

the existing studies in the field of sustainable development. This study provides a rich

knowledge about the factors responsible for lack of people’s participation in the

developmental activities. It also highlights the role of traditional leaders in promoting or

hindering community participation in the developmental interventions.

Inaddition, this study also contributes to the theoretical knowledge pertaining to the role

and importance of community participation in the viability of developmental programs.

Hence it clearly signifies whether women are involved, or not involved, in the need

assessment, identification, planning, execution, and monitoring of the developmental

activities.

1.3 Outline of the Study

The First Chapter provides a glimpse of the thesis, while Chapter Two presents

theoretical framework and describe earlier development theories and reasons for their

emergence and decline in the academic circles. This chapter also reviews the related

literature and gives a detailed description about community participation and sustainable

18

development. Moreover, the chapter elaborates the factors promoting and hindering

participation in community development. In addition, it highlights the causes of failure of

rural development programs in Pakistan. It also offerselaborated description of critique on

participatory development.

Chapter Three describes the emergence of NGOs in developing countries in general and

Pakistan in particular. The chapter also highlights social and political issues concerning

NGOs in Pakistan. In addition, it spotlights the relationship between donors and NGOs

growth in Pakistan. The chapter explains the policy changes made by the government of

Pakistan as a result of donors’ pressure to accommodate NGOs. It shows the

government’s stance towards NGOs in general and NRSP in particular.

Chapter Four provides detaileddescription about establishment of NRSP, its

organizational structure, vision, mission, policy, objectives and its components. This

chapter highlights the need and importance of participatory development and the way

NRSP uses it in its interventions.

Chapter Five explains the overall research process and describes each research step in a

specific order. It explains the tools used and also shows how the data was collected.

Chapter Sixpresents the data collected from the NRSP staff members. It elucidates the

ideal project cycle and the views of the NRSP members as to whether or not people

participate in their developmental schemes. It also discusses the role of macro and micro

level forces in the way of encouraging or discouraging participatory development

interventions.

Chapter Seven presents the views of the community organizations consisting of both

men and women. The structure of the chapter is similar to that of chapter VI, however,

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the aim of this chapter is to present the views of the member community organizations in

order to understand the similarities and dissimilarities from those of the staff members.

Chapter Eightpresents analysis of the views of the respondents regarding the

establishment of NRSP and its adoption of participatory development strategy in its

interventions. This chapter offers analytical discussion about NRSP, its establishment, the

changes made by various governments from time to time for providing supportive

atmosphere for setting up of NGOs and its overall impact on participatory development

theory. This chapter also highlights the role of traditional leaders in influencing

community participation in NRSP’s interventions. This chapter spotlights on the factors

responsible such as male dominance and other cultural values which restricted NRSP

from materializing its gender and development strategy.

Chapter Nineis about the conclusions and suggestions/recommendations of the study.

Itpresents the main points primarily from the previous chapters and re-examinesthem in

order to confirm the study’s findings in relation to the objectives of the study and

afterwards elucidate the macro and micro level structural forces that weaken the

likelihood of participatory methods and sustainable development. This chapter explains

the future prospects for community participation and its impacts on the efforts to achieve

sustainable development. At the end of the chapter, a number of

suggestions/recommendations are given in order to improve the participatory

development model with respect to the socio-cultural realities of Pakistan.

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Chapter TwoConceptual Framework on Participatory Development

2.1 IntroductionThe concept of ‘development’ is applied in many fields, and therefore, there is no

consensus over its definition. It is being equally applied to solving the macro problems of

a nation’s growth, and to micro problems of developing a local community. Development

is a process, not an end. Every Society is constantly striving for change. In this process,

some manage to improve and others fail to do so. Development theories aim to provide a

logical explanation to both processes. This chapter examines the available literature on

participatory development and the ways it has been utilized in the developmental

interventions. It summarizes the developmental theories which emerged soon after the

First World War and their potential impacts on the third world countries including

Pakistan. Furthermore, this chapter defines and explains the concept of participatory

development and its related concepts such as Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA),

Participatory Poverty Assessment (PPA), Participatory Action Research (PAR), and so

on. It takes into consideration the role of gender in the developmental process as well.

This chapter also presents an overview of the main developmental programs initiated by

the Government of Pakistan – soon after gaining political independence and the reasons

for their success or failure.

2.2 Definition and Meaning of DevelopmentThe term ‘development’ --as a concept-- is ill-defined; hence its notion remains vague,

and it lacks a concise and unanimous definition. It has been defined differently by various

scholars from time to time and exerts profound implications on the lives of people

worldwide. It has generated controversies and serious debates in the political arena due to

its complex nature and multi-dimensional approach (Thomas, 2004; Francis and David,

21

2012). Although, ‘development’ means different things to different people, however, it is

often referred to as a vague notion of ‘good change’ (Power, 2003:2). It is also interpreted

as improvement in the socio-economic conditions of the people (Rapley, 2007;Norton and

Rogerson, 2012).

For Simon (2004), development is the process of improvement in material aspect, as well

as, in the non-material aspect of life. Similarly, Bellu (2011) defines development mainly

in relation to economic development, i.e., an increase in per capita income, reduction in

poverty, inequality and unemployment. While Remenyi, (2004:25) takes it in the context

of communitydevelopment by calling it a “process by which individuals, groups and

communities obtain the means to be responsible for their own livelihoods, welfare and

future”.

Oxford English Dictionary defines development in relation to 'change' as an event

constituting a new stage in a changing situation or the process of change per se.

The above definitions show that the word ‘development’ is not simple to define due to its

multidimensional approach. Occasionally, it is defined differently in different contexts by

different scholars (Boateng, Heeks, Molla, & Hinson 2008). The problem of defining

development arises because of its various aspects, such as, economic, political, social,

legal and institutional structures (Haynes, 2008; Corbridge, 1995). In short, development

is an ever changing process – aiming at improvement in the socio-economic condition,

ensuring social justice, and sustainable development (Soubbotina, 2004;Staudt, 1991).

Resultantly, the word ‘development’ has no concise and agreed upon definition. Thomas

(2004:1) points out development as ‘contested, complex and ambiguous’. For instance,

when development theories first appeared, development was tied with economic growth;

soon after the realization of the failure of ‘development’ in this sense, it anticipated to

consider socio-economic condition of the people. It was re-conceptualized in terms of the

22

basic needs and sustainable development (Harris, Wise, Gallagher, and Goodwin, 2001)

and participatory development (Dearden and Rizvi, 2008). The theoretical perspectives in

this connection manifest the meaning of development and bring understanding over this

complex phenomenon in the succeeding passages.

2.3 Background to Development TheoriesThe 1950's experienced the process of de-colonialization and the consequent emergence

of new states on the globe. These under-developed states started a rigorous approach of

following footsteps of the Western developed countries. It is important to mention here

that in those days, development was measured primarily in terms of industrialization and

economic growth (Baber, 2001). It was linked with economic up-lift of the masses,

therefore, it was the main reason behind the emergence of development theories which

sprung up soon after the World War II (Joshi, 2005). Gow (2005) has argued that

development theories had to confront basically two challenges. First; that these theories

had to examine the socio-economic phenomenon of ‘under-development’ and

‘development’. Second; that they were required to be based on problem analysis and

would likely present prospect for development strategies in the newly emerging nation

states. The focus of these approaches was primarily on social, economic, political or

cultural factors. In general, modernization and dependency theories are two contradictory

theoretical approaches in the post-colonial development debate (Elliott, 2006).

2.3.1 Modernization TheoriesThe Modernization Theory surfaced between the late 1950's and early 1960's. It is a

theory of socio-economic development which follows the functionalist assumption that

societies need to have harmony among their components (Islam, 2009). This assumption

thus leads to the belief that modern economies demand special characteristics in the

cultural setup, social structures and social relationships (Hoogvelt,2001; Khutkyy, 2017).

23

It is believed by the proponents of this approach that development is largely based on

economic growth; so they consider industrialization as a key factor for the economic

development of a society (Gow 2005; Sellamna, 1999). Moreover, it was presumed that

as a result of economic development, the fruits of development will reach all segments of

a society. Modernization theory stressed on the constructive role played by the First

World Developed countries in modernizing and in achieving the goal of sustainable

development in Third World countries – particularly from 1945 onwards after the

former president of the USA, Truman’s bold program to transfer technology to the

‘South’ (Smith 2003).

The advocates of modernization paradigm believed that all societies must go through an

evolutionary progress from traditional to advance stages. In the process of achieving the

status of a developed state by non-western societies, they must follow the same path the

western societies have already gone through. These stages include traditional society, pre-

condition for the takeoff, take off, the drive to maturity and the age of high mass

consumption

.ThesefivestagesofmodernizationareknownasRostow’sStageTheory(Rostow,1960;Islam,

2009).

From the point of view of Modernization, industrialization, urbanization and cultural

values play key role in bringing about change and improvement in the socio economic

conditions of the society (Hoogvelt,2001). Smith (2003) stressed the developing

countries to cope with the modern world and imitate them in terms of strategic

implementations; otherwise, they would undoubtedly remain undeveloped. In this

connection, the Western countries (developed nations) offered the newly established

independent countries all the necessary modern values, technology, resources and

appropriate culture, necessary for development to take place (Inglehart and Baker,

24

2000). This theory believes that the process of development involves drawing the

population of Third World countries out of traditional isolation through a culture of

participation and democratic values (Forbes, 1986).

The Southeast Asian countries who adopted this modernization approach include

Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, and former British colony – Hong Kong; which came

to be known as the “four dragons” (Tuser, 2010). In spite of their meagre natural

resources, these countries managed increase in production of manufactured goods,

especially clothing and electronics; in order to increase their exports, and got their

economies developed with the help of close ties with the developed countries and

following the modernization approach (Lal, 2000).

Modernization theories took up prominent place in the development debate but equally

received strong criticism, at least from the academic circles, for its failure to put the

Third World Countries on the track of modernization (Smith, 2003). Despite numerous

efforts, the process of development that occurred in the West could not be replicated in

Africa and elsewhere in the world – with handful exceptions in Asia (Matunhu, 2011). In

addition, modernization has resulted in increasing the gap between the prosperous states

and poor states (Santos, 1999). Furthermore, due to modernization, the projects initiated

for the progress of the underdeveloped states did not fulfill the needs of the people of

these countries (Chambers, 2008). The aid receiving countries benefited less from the

aid provided by the donor countries asthe balance sheet of trade between China and

Africa shows that the former economy benefited more by exporting its agriculture ideas,

human resources and technology to the latter(Matunhu, 2011). In addition,

modernization theory also failed in the expansion of modern wage economy and the

alleviation of the problems faced by rural people (Eriksen, 2007).

25

Modernization Theory was also criticized for being purely historical – thus

ignoringphasesof prosperityfromabroaderhistoricalreview. It was also considered as

ethnocentrici.e.assumingthatonlyonecultureandonepathweremeans todevelopment(Rist,

2002).

The criticism on modernization theories led to the emergence of Dependency Theories

with a distinguishing theme of development.

2.3.2 Dependency TheoriesDependency Theories were brought in during 1960's as alternative to the imperfections

of the modernization Theories (Hoodvelt2001, Morse, 2008). According to Chilcote

(1974,2011), Dependency Theory conceived that economies of developing countries are

dependent on the economies of dominant and developed countries that have the ability to

grow and expand. This interdependence among nations leads to the supremacy of certain

nations over under developed nations which can have either positive or negative effects

on their development.

Dependency Theorists were of the view that the problems in national development do

not exist inside the national economy but are outside of it (Ferraro, 2008). They also

criticized the idea that the third world countries should follow the West in order to get

developed. According to Reyes, (2001) the interdependence among the developed and

underdeveloped economies does not necessarily lead to development in the

underdeveloped countries. While Ray,(2010) declares the societal relations as

exploitative on the ground that it keeps the developed nations at the top of prosperity,

while they let the others at the verge of vicious cycle of poverty and underdevelopment.

The manipulative relation is prevalent in national, sub-national and cross national

regions (Shareia, 2015).

26

Keeping this exploitative relationship between the developed and underdeveloped nations

in view, dependency theories suggested that underdeveloped countries could be

developed by detachment of their relations with the metropolis-developed countries (Ray,

2010;Foster-Carter, 1991).

Similar to the dependency theory, the World Systems Theoryis of the view that developed

countries take advantage of other countries in draining out them of their resources. But

unlike dependency theory this model acknowledges the trickled down gains that benefit

the less developed countries. Introduced by Immanuel Wallerstein, this theory suggests

that the way a country is integrated into the capitalist world system ascertains how

economic development is realized in that country (Chirot and Hall, 1982; Wallerstein,

2000).

Wallerstein (1974:347) said that a world-system is a "multicultural territorial division of

labor in which the production and exchange of basic goods and raw materials is necessary

for the everyday life of its inhabitants." The division of labor exists in two mutually

dependent areas: core and periphery. The two are dissimilar, geographically and

culturally; one focuses on labor-intensive, while the other on capital-intensive production

(Goldfrank, 2000). The core-periphery relationship is structural, wheresemi-peripheral

domains serve as buffer zone between core and periphery, and havemultiple activities and

institutions that subsist on them (Skocpol, 1977).

Wallerstein states that world-system means"world economy";and it is market oriented

rather than a politically driven, where two or more regions are mutually dependent

because of their necessities in life such as food, fuel and protection; and two or more

nations compete for domination without the emergence of one single center

forever(Goldfrank, 2000).

27

The most distinctive aspect of the world system is the division of society in to "core" and

‘peripheral societies’ where the former exploit the later due to power hierarchy.

Placement of region in the core or the periphery depends on their attainment of

technology as advanced societies are the core, and the less developed are in the periphery.

Development in the Peripheral countries is structurally restrictedin such a way that

development reproduces their subordinate status (Chase-Dunn and Grimes, 1995).

Both modernization and dependency theories were, for the most part, based on economic

growth (Shareia, 2015; Stohr & Taylor, 1981). The Modernization theories could not

manage to improve the overall conditions of the subject masses, even though they

resulted in economic growth.

Not surprisingly, dependency theories were also excessively criticized because of their

inherent defects, theoretical deficiencies and their failure to bring practical solution to the

problems.

The discussion thus concludes that there is a huge gap between theory and practice

because the knowledge has overwhelmed the practical approach, which lacks the concept

of interventionism and termed as theoretical impasse (Moyo, 2010).

2.3.3 Development ImpasseDuring 1980's, the failure of modernization and dependency approaches led to the

Development Impasse due to a number of factors such as: widening gap between the rich

and the poor, the failure of development in the South and declining socio-economic

conditions in the periphery (Hove, 2004;Munck, 1999). This lack of consensus was

termed as the development impasse by scholars like Booth in the decade of 1980 (Booth,

1985). After the identification of this Theoretical Impasse, development theories were

wanting during the Impasse Period, but it does not mean that there was no theory at all

28

(Schurmann, 1993; Kiely, 2007). During this period, various theories were presented but

they overlooked a realistic umbrella such as dependency theory. In addition, no alternate

theories have been framed to reform the collective thoughts in the field of development

(leenders, 2013).

Considering the value of such attempts, Booth (1994) reasoned that the heterogeneous

nature of real-world development has been misjudged by modernization and dependency

theories, thereby bringing a gap between academic inquiry and developmental policy.

This gap had broadened at a time where development experts began verbalizing

reservations about the prospects of any positive significance and relevance of academic

development studies (Edwards, 1989).

While not satisfied with the existing gap between theory and practice, Booth (1994) had

optimistic view about overcoming the gap through active intellectual involvement and a

concern for practical issues (Ali, 2005). Pieterse (2001) argued that the main reasons

responsible for the emergence of development impasse as pointed out by Booth (1994)

includes a range of researches; such as gender and development, participatory

development, need-based development or alternative development by academicians and

development experts alike. These diverging perceptions gave way to evolving a new

development theory which could help resolve the impasse (Both, 1994, Corbridge, 1995,

Ali 2005). Like Booth’s viewpoint, Edwards (1989), emphasized the need and importance

of development studies for addressing practical problems, stressed the need to bring

theory and practice in harmony by the researches at micro level, in addition to analyzing

the broader spectrum of factors, forces and trends from the viewpoints of those who

experience them (Ali, 2005).

29

The complete failure of the macro-level theories resulted in growth of theorizing at

micro-level; that looked at development as bottom-up process – contrary to the macro

theories which considers state responsible for planning and executing developmental

activities (Kiely, 2013).

The micro-level theories did not sprung up at once, but they developed over time.

Development, for instance, was associated initially with the ‘basic needs’ notion; and the

importance thenceforth moved to participatory development – foregrounding community

as centre of development, not the state (Potter, Binns, Elliott, and Smith, 2004; Pieterse,

1998, 2000).

In similar circumstances, discontentment with macro-development approach led not only

to rise of participatory development, but it mobilized feminists as well – to prompt

women into mainstream development process that assured equal status alongside men in

the society.

2.4 Women in the Development Context

In the development context, it was recognized by the academicians and development

practitioners that women are integral part of the society and the goal of sustainable

development cannot be achieved unless they are involved in all decisions that affect them.

This particular term “Women in Development” appeared during early 1970's, used by a

Washington-based female network of women development professionals (Tinker, 1990;

Bhattacharyya, 2012). They critically opposed the “trickle down” theories of development

and argued that modernization was having different impacts on both genders. Their

arguments concluded that instead of uplifting, the modernization approach deteriorated

the socio-economic condition of women (Miller and Ravazi, 1995; Hopper, 2012).

30

The ‘Women in Development’ (WID) approach argues that women are the “productive”

members of society and should not be considered as inactive recipient of welfare

programs. They should rather be active contributors to the economic development

(Kameri-Mbote, 2009). Women can thus be seen as “missing link” in development; so

far, undervalued economic resource in the development process’ (Tinker, 1990).

The exponents of WID approach stressed on women’s productive roles, which meant that

women’s subordination (and by implication, overcoming that subordination) was seen

within an economic framework. The major causes of women suffering and their low

status was attributed to their lack of contribution in economic development and as a

result, they were excluded from market place. WID advocates further argued that if

women are brought into the main stream of economic development by providing them

productive roles, they would be able to fully participate in the economic up-lift of society

and as a result will enhance the socio-economic status of women visa vis men (Miller

and Ravazi, 1995).

However, WID approach also received criticism for its inherent deficiencies. First, the

WID concept was solidly grounded in traditional modernization theory which reflected

the mainstream thinking on development from the 1950s to the 1970s. Modernization

theory regarded development impossible without industrial development. Second, the

WID concept was "non confrontational" and put its main focus on the question of "how

women could be better integrated into on-going development initiatives" (Rathgeber

1990:13). It did not challenge the existing social structures in which the sources of

women's subordination and oppression are rooted. Finally, the WID concept focused

exclusively on the productive aspects of women's work, and overlooked the reproductive

aspects of their lives (Rathgeber 1990: Pittman, 2014).

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In the beginning, the WID approach was appreciated but was criticized later on as Band-

Aid, that is temporary solution; treating the symptoms i.e. poverty; not the illness i.e.

capitalist development (Jaquet and Summerfiled 2006). While Young (1993: 130) pointed

out that the WID approach ignored the 'gender' aspects of the issue, and believed that

"women can become sole agents of their destiny, without any corresponding change in or

reaction from men". Secondly, the WID approach ignored ideological aspects of the

matter. Young (1993:130) argues that "the unequal balance of responsibilities, work and

value was seen perfectly 'natural' if not God given, and therefore unchangeable".

By the end of 1970s, the support for the WID approach was losing its strength.

Consequently, the ‘Women and Development (WAD)’ approach emerged in reaction to

the innate failure of WID approach. The WAD approach primarily highlighted the

unbalanced treatment with women instead of women’s participation (Akerkar, 2001). In

both models, the demand for women in development projects have increased

tremendously, however, women were still marginalized – without proper share in

decision making process (Moon, 1997). What is more, the WAD approach was of the

view that class structures have more influence than gender and poverty accentuation.

Ostracized female are much like men of their respective class than female of the other

class (Akerkar, 2001).

Another approach, Gender and Development (GAD), appeared during 1980s in the UK to

cover the weaknesses of WID and WAD (Monsen, 2010). In contrast to WID approach

which primarily focuses on ‘women’, the GAD framework has focused on the role of men

and women in society and on the power relations and the conflicts between them (Baden

and Reeves, 2000). On the other hand, the roots of GAD as O’Brien (2009) highlighted,

were in socialist feminism that established the relation of production and reproduction to

account for all aspects of women’s lives.

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The GADproponents stressed overgender relations, that is, both men and women have a

role to focus on social organization, politics and economics simultaneously (Baden and

Reeves, 2000). GAD studies/ examines the nature of labour from women –inside and

outside the family –including non-commodityoutput. Moreover, GAD advocates are of

the view that the child care and other inside-the-house tasks – that are considered

women’s responsibility as division of labour based on gender – should be provided by the

state. In addition, GAD exponents do not considered women merely as holders of charity,

but as agents of change (Monsen, 2010).

According to Young (1997), relations between women and men are shaped in a variety of

settings. Some relations are ascribed, i.e. relations by birth or marriage, and some are

achieved through personal efforts. Both ascribed and achieved relations act together in an

intricate matrix which is influenced by a variety of factors such as class, race, religion,

etc.

The above discussion makes it clear that GAD Theory emphasized on balanced gender

relations in all walks of life; it stressed the effort of making structural changes to ensure

social justice and involving stakeholder- irrespective of their bio-physical being, in the

decision making process. Similarly participatory development also believes in social

justice, equal opportunities for both men and women in the decision making process,

planning, and execution and monitoring of development interventions. In other word,

both participatory development and GAD theory believes in self-reliance, and

participation of all stakeholders in the development process at the grass root level.

2.5 Participatory Development Approach

Participation is a complex and multi-dimensional concept (Sinclair 2004, Vos 2005). It

has numerous aspects and can take place in different stages of the project cycle, and at

33

different levels of society – ranging from giving inputs to a pre-planned project, to

information sharing, consultation, decision-making, partnership, and empowerment (Karl,

2000).

As far as the meaning of the term participation is concerned, it varies from area to area –

based on cultural norms. Moreover, it is subject to the interest of the organization

involved (Khanye, 2005). Therefore, the term participation should not be limited to a

single interpretation (Oakley 1991a). The term participation seeks its origin from the year

1945 in relation to underdeveloped countries in the United Kingdom at the Ashbridge

Conference (Rafiq, 1987, Ali, 2005, Dunham, 1963, Moore, 1966). In addition, the links

of community development with people’s participation in development activities was first

formally scouted in 1948 at Cambridge Summer Conference on African Administration.

It came to be enthusiastically promoted by the British Colonial Office describing it as:

“A movement designed to promote better living for the whole community with the active participation, and if possible on the initiative of the community, but if this initiative is not forthcoming spontaneously, by the use of techniques for arousing and stimulating it in order to secure its active and enthusiastic response to the movement” (Colonial Office, 1958 :2).

Likewise, Sanoff (2000) links community development to people’s participation and

states that community development is a social process that results from citizen

participation. Furthermore, with regard to the importance of community development,

Wilkinson (1991) argued that community development is important because it aims at the

betterment of the society as a whole. He also believes in the judicious utilization of

human, natural and man-made resources towards the solution of their problems.

In addition, community development attempts are directed towards bringing upward

positive changes in the society. However, for developmental interventions to be effective,

it should fulfill both the social and economic needs of the society (Luloff and Bridger,

2003). Thetermparticipation orparticipatoryapproachcanbedefined as:

34

“The active involvement of local people/community or their representatives, local organizations, ideas, skills, knowledge and priorities in all the phases of any local project/ programs,, developmental activities and developmental policies, in order to increase the efficiency or to ensure sustainability and equitability, as it is the fundamental right of poor /local beneficiaries or because the local people know more than the government and external professional experts what problems they face and how best to resolve them² (Shah and Baporikar, 2012: 121).

Mansuri and Rao (2013) view participation with relation to development projects; as

people’s involvement in decision making, implementation, sharing in the benefits and in

the evaluation of the developmental program.

As reported by Asian Development Bank (2012), participation is a process in which the

developmental projects are identified, planned, and executed through mutual consultation.

While CookeandKothari (2001) pointed out that participation also means putting the last

first. Muhammad, (2010) considers people’s participation in the development process or

‘participatory development’ as the sine qua non for development. While (Kaler, 1999:

125) thinks that participation has become identical with ‘sharing’ these days.

Participatory approaches to development have rapidly evolved throughout the 1980s and

during the early 1990s with the introduction of methods such as Rapid Rural Appraisal,

Participatory Action Research and in particular, Participatory Rural Appraisal which are

discussed as under:

2.5.1. Rapid Rural Appraisal

Introduced in 1970, Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) was a more accurate, efficient and cost

effective way of collecting information about the needs and resources of community that

can be used for planning interventions in the target area (Kanji and Greenwood 2001).

RRA is a family of methods that has evolved and has been used as quicker and better

technique for practical purposes than large questionnaire surveys or in-depth social

anthropology. This method includes semi-structured interviews, transect walks with

35

observations and sketch mapping and diagramming; all these to be done by the

professional outside of the community(Chambers, 2008). Although, this method is neither

exclusively rapid nor rural but it is cost effective and less time consuming

(Narayanasamy, 2009). In addition, RRA allows a researcher to quickly analyze and

interpret the collected information. Furthermore, it gives the researcher an opportunity to

ask relevant questions and space to employ a variety of tools and techniques to

understand common issues and gather information from different people, representing

different segments of population (Bhandari, 2003).

While conducting RRA, tools like mapping, diagramming and ranking are used with the

objective of collecting information for planners and decision makers in developmental

organizations (Maarten, Cannon, and Burton 2008). One important principle of RRA is

the visualization of questions and results through using signs that are locally

understandable (Uddin and Anjuman, 2013). RRA is usually carried out in one to three

days by a small team of development practitioners in the shape of a workshop. The local

people provide required information for development planning while the RRA team

decides how to use these information (Cavestro, 2003).

The Rapid Rural Appraisal is based on the following principles:

reversal of learning: learning from the people in the community, not a mere

sharing of information and/or transmission of knowledge to them;

rapid and progressive learning: with the emphasis on flexibility and adjustment,

not blueprint learning;

offset biases: particularly the centralist prejudices of ‘rural development’;

optimizing trade-offs: between quality, relevance accuracy and timeliness;

triangulation: learning from several sources and disciplines; and

36

seeking the expression and analysis of complexity and diversity: emphasizing

variation over statistical averages and norms (Brown, Howes, Hussein, Longley

and Swindell, 2002).

The Rapid Rural Appraisal has a number of advantages. For instance, it provides the

researcher with a rapid, well-organized approach for quantitative and qualitative data

collection, analysis and explanation that helps them to deal with the complex, diverse and

interdependent factors influencing various developmental problems (Bhandari, 2003). As

an interactive process, it gives the researcher an opportunity to ask relevant questions. In

addition, due to the use of triangulation, the researchers feel free to use multiple tools and

techniques to understand common issues and draw information from different people who

represent different sections of population (Bradbury, 2015)

Despite its advantages, the participatory rural appraisal is criticized as well. The range of

methods in use as part of PRA can be effective to collect correct information in less time,

however,it primarilyremains asextractive and externally-driven process (Williams, 2004).

The gathered information is maintained, evaluated and utilized byindividuals other than

those people and communities who are part of the research(Cornwall and Guijt (2004).

It is pertinent to mention that numerous researchers using standard RRA techniques have

indicated that during Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA), the concept of 'participation' is

limited to obtaining information by the researcher from the community (Cornwall and

Guijt, 2004). The test is to evaluate what value-addedparticipation provides and who

hasownership of the product. If the community has drawn a map as you instructed them

to, it is RRA. If they get arealization that it is their map, and theywish to have it for their

own goals, then it is PRA (Jamal and Arya, 2004).

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2.5.2. Participatory Rural Appraisal

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) as a method of participatory development was

brought in during 1980s. It involves direct participation of target community in project

planning, mainly through using different techniques such as diagrams and maps. Rapid

Rural Appraisal provides a base to Participatory Rural Appraisal that further links to the

broader approach of participatory development (Long, 2001). PRA was first developed in

East Africa and South Asia and has been widely used in environmental management and

rural development (Duraiappah, Roddy, and Parry, 2005).

Participatory Rural Appraisal is a combination of approaches, instruments and processes

intended to enable the local people to assess their situation in order to plan, execute,

supervise and evaluate their actions (Chambers 1994; Kanji, Greenwood, 2001).

According to Chambers (2002), for PRA, ‘appraisal’ is hopelessly inappropriate now.

Good PRA is a process, not a one-off event and consists of much more than just appraisal.

Participatory Learning and Action is a much more accurate title for what many

practitioners of PRA believe in and are doing. But PRA remains as the usual label. In

Pakistan, PRA now stands for Participatory Reflection Action. During the last few

decades, PRA and similar techniques have become the most favourite method for

participatory development and have been used by INGOs, and NGOs (Brown et al, 2002).

The fundamental philosophy behind PRA is that people are capable of analyzing their

own needs and resources and the outsider should not impose his/her plan and ideas over

the local people for solution of their community problems. The role of the outsider shall

only be of a facilitator in the development process (Thomas, 2013). A properly executed

PRA process gives an opportunity to the marginalized groups including women, children,

aged, who are destitute for participation in planning and development at the grass root

38

level (Uddin and Anjuman, 2013). PRA helps assist the people to identify, share, organize

and initiate activities for positive change (Jamal and Arya, 2004). However, there is no

specific method for conducting PRA. The selection of method or technique depends on

the issue and the context in which the PRA is taking place (Long 2001).

PRA is used by a development professional to acquire knowledge about a community and

develop a plan for the development using the approach which is more adaptive to the

changing situation and for emerging issues (Ozerdem and Bowd, 2010). The techniques

used here are particularly visual tools such as mapping and calendars. They are helpful in

encouraging participation of silent individuals, women and those unable to read

(Duraiappah, Roddy, and Parry, 2005).

Following are the core principles of PRA, which are also applicable to RRA):

‘handing over the stick’: surrendering authority to local people in learning

processes;

self-critical awareness: critical examination by and of the facilitators of their own

roles and learning;

personal responsibility: to use your own best judgment at all times; and

sharing: of ideas and information, very widely (Chambers, 1997:156–8).

As a participatory development method, PRA has certain advantages. It takes in the active

participation of the local people in the form of expressing their ideas at the time of

planning interventions for development (Das and Sikia, 2013). In addition, they can also

share their experiences of the past and reservations about any future activity – concerning

their community. Furthermore, taking part in PRA by local development activists (NGOs,

government or private firms) can give them impetus in support of a project for the

community (Heaver, 1991).

39

Chambers (2002) states that PRA is a process of empowering the marginalized people.

The outsider or facilitator enables the people to do their own assessment, appraisal,

planning and execution, and own the outcome and share the knowledge. As a result, PRA

gives voice to the voiceless; enabling people to take part in the process of their own

development.

PRA is also a means to provide genuine input from the community to the government or

any other developmental organization. What is more, PRA serves as bridge between

communities, developmental organizations or government departments involved in

community development (Schwedes and Werner, 2010).

Through PRA, Narayanasamy and Boraian (2005) argue, actions are adapted in a better

way which yields sustainable results. In addition, local energy and resources can be

appropriately utilized, costs and centralization is reduced and political intervention and

conflicts are resolved at the local level. According to Cornwall and Pratt (2010), PRA is

spread so far and so fast because of its breadth, accommodative approach and easy

adaptation. It is so simple that it can be used by any one in any situation, and so effective

that it can serve any purpose.

Like any other method, PRA has also been criticized. Development practitioners are of

the view that although PRA was designed to empower the people – to enable them

participates in decisions that affect them – it does not provide communities with decision

making control (Swathi, Lekshmi, and Vipinkumar, 2013). It has been argued that PRA

approach is externally driven: the outside managers, government departments, INGOs and

NGOs use it for implementing the pre-planned projects (Pratt 2001). In addition, PRA is

not flexible and cannot be adapted to the changing circumstances. It raises the

expectations of the target communities which cannot be fulfilled, but can lead local

40

people to view PRA as externally-driven development process (Chambers 2008). PRA

also fails to notice the influence of local leaders who can mould the public opinion

against, as well as, in favor of development programs (Brown et al, 2002).

For many, PRA’s success came to be associated with a sense that for all that has been

achieved, something has gone wrong. As an NGO manager and PRA practitioner in

Kenya observed, "we are in a mess – everyone is doing something and calling it PRA"

(Cornwall, and Pratt, 2010:7).

The below given table shows the RRA-PRA Continuum

Nature of processes RRA PRAMode Extractive-electives Sharing-empowering

Outsider role Investigator Facilitator

Information owned, analyzed and used by

Outsider Local people

Method used RRA PRA

Source: Mukherjee (2004)

2.5.3. Participatory Poverty Assessments

Participatory Poverty Assessment (PPA) is a procedure to involve poor in the analysis of

poverty, with the objective of influencing policy decisions. The findings of the analysis

are communicated to the policy makers – thus allowing the poor to have a say in the

policy options (Robb, 2002).

Participatory poverty assessment has three elements:

a. Field Research: By directly accessing and asking the poor and marginalized

people so that their input can be incorporated in the formulation of policy at

national and provincial level for poverty reduction.

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b. Policy Influence: Including Civil Society Organizations (NGPs, policy maker,

civic groups) in the PPA process for promoting ownership at the broader level,

thus increasing the chances that PPA will influence policy decisions.

c. Country’s Capacity: The results of the PPA are mixed with other sources of data,

including household surveys to better analyze poverty situation (Robb, 2007).

PPA is very important to collect information for research purposes only, with limited

participation and weak or no link altogether to policy making which is considered a bad

practice (Dauphin, 2001). In the past, most PPAs were focused only on field research; the

first element and link with policy making was not sustainable. More recently, PPAs are

being intended to include both second and third elements, ensuring a greater and long

term impact (Laderchi, 2001). PPA use participatory research methods to know about

poverty from the point of view of the poor through focus on their needs and priorities.

Contrary to the use of pre-determined questions applied in household surveys, PPA uses a

range of flexible methods that combine both visual (mapping, matrices, diagrams) and

verbal (open ended interviews, group discussions) techniques with the purpose of better

defining the experience of individuals, groups, households and communities (World

Bank, 2003).

The principles of PPA are to make sure that the target beneficiaries have some control

over the research process and instead of collecting information from an interviewee;

communities share their knowledge in analyzing the results. Previous experiences of PPA

show that poor have the capacity to assess, explore, plan and act to a far greater extent

than acknowledge till the present time (Norton, 2001).

PPA receives criticism from development practitioners as well. According to Norton,

Bird, Brock, Kakande, Turck, (2001), the information collected in this method is

descriptive and reveals various perceptions which may lead to difficult decisions. In

42

addition, the information is unreliable and the opinions are not representative of all

sections of society (Dauphin, 2001). The process is too lengthy and the costs cannot be

justified when people are unable to fulfil their basic needs. Furthermore, the PPA process

is based on mere assumptions and ideological passions rather than in ensuring benefits for

the poor (Norton, et al 2001).

2.5.4. Participatory Action Research

Participatory Action Research (PAR) is a broad term that covers a variety of participatory

approaches to action oriented research. To put it into simple words, PAR means that the

researcher and participant work together to analyse an unfavorable situation or action and

alter it to favorable one (Kindon, Pain and Kesby, 2007). For over seven decades,

academics in favor of participatory approach have tried to empower common individuals

andget rid of hierarchal role specifications in and through research (MacDonald, 2012).

Participatory, as well as, action researches are quicklyturning into a leading paradigm

within social and environmental sciences (Reason and Bradbury, 2006). The PAR process

is cyclic. Research worker and participants identify amatter or situation that needs to be

changed, andbegin a research that draws on capacities/ abilities and assets to precipitate

relevant action and move forward to a new cycle of research/ action/ reflection

(MacDonald, 2012). United, they evolve context-specific techniques to alleviate these

cycles. These may include the adaptation of traditional social sciences methods like semi-

structured interviews, focus groups and geographic information system (Chandler and

Torbet, 2003).

Participatory action research recognizes the importance of human beings within their

political, economic and social perspective (Chandler and Torbet, 2003). PAR believes in

all participants not just to be respondents of the study but active contributors to the

43

research work, taking part in every step of the process (Kelly, 2005). The PAR process

helps toreconstruct the capacity of the individuals’ “to be creative actors on the world”

whileactively and meaningfullyparticipating in thedecision making process (Maguire,

1987:30).

Participatory action research work suits a researcher in large number of

subjectslikehealth, agriculture, adult education, community development, education,

industry, organizational development, and research into groups that are marginalized and

oppressed (Varcoe, 2006).

Given that PAR focuses oncollaborationby means of participation, members of the

community get empowered and enabled to define their own and community problems and

also, find solutions to them (Gillis and Jackson, 2002). PAR, together with the other

qualitative ways,is able to encourage community participation,deal with health inequities,

and promote individual empowerment (Bailey, Convery, Mort & Baxter, 2006).

PAR can be difficult too, due to the participation of community members in research

team who may strive to fulfill their commitment to the research activity overtime (Gillis

and Jackson, 2002). In addition, there may be disagreement on different social issues

requiring attention and the time frame thus is difficult (McNiff& Whitehead, 2006). The

researcher should access the community which is difficult for those researchers who are

not familiar with the cultural conditions of the target community.

2.5.5. Appreciative Inquiry

Most developmental programs are planned and carried out using a set of participatory

techniques, such as Rapid Rural Appraisal, Participatory Rural Appraisal, Participatory

Action Research and Appreciative Inquiry to identify problems faced by the local people.

44

These approaches encourage and promote participation, stress on the importance of local

knowledge and help resolve the real problems (Duraiappah, Roddy and Parry, 2005)

Appreciative Inquiry (AI) was worked out during 1990s by David Cooperrrider at Case

Western Reserve University (Bushe, 2011; Bushe, &Kassam, 2005. In recent years,

appreciative enquiry has been acknowledged for its focus on positive organizational

characteristics that may cause change (Dick, 2004; Roddy &Parry 2005). Appreciative

inquiry is based on the conceptual/ ontological positions of constructionists who work

from the premise that language, knowledge and action are inextricably linked.

Organizations are the product of their members’ interaction with historical, social,

economic and political developments (Grant and Humphries, 2006).

Various typologies of the appreciative inquiry process are illustrated in the literature. For

example, Cooperrider and Whitney (2000) presented the 4D cycle: ‘discovery, dream,

design and destiny’. Mohr and Jacobsgaard provided the 4I model: ‘initiate, inquire,

imagine and innovate’ (cited in Watkins and Mohr, 2001). Both models follow the basic

dimension of action research proposed by Cooperrider and Srivastva (1987). Rather than

seeking a problem to be solved, organizations are a mystery to be embraced. The process

advocated for is as follows:

i) Appreciating – valuing the best of what there is;

ii) Envisioning – what might be?;

iii) Dialoguing – what should be?; and

iv) Innovating – what will be? (Cooperrider and Srivastva, 1987).

Appreciative inquiry is a type of action research that has been applied to a variety of

settings including individuals, families, organization and even the whole countries

(Rogers and Fraser, 2003). Appreciative inquiry has also been criticized as form of action

45

research method as ‘too Pollyanna-ish’ or exceptionally focused on ‘warm, fuzzy group

hugs’ (Fitzgerald, Murrell and Newman, 2001). Golembiewski (2000) claimed that

Appreciative Inquiry (AI) presently discourages analysis.

2.6. Community Participation and Sustainable Development

The need and importance of community involvement in developmental programs can be

traced back to community and popular participation promoted mainly by NGOs since

1950s till early 1980s through developmental programs (Rudqvist and Woodford-Berger,

1996; Nour, 2011). Previously, one of the main reasons associated to failure of the

developmental programs was the lack of community participation in planning,

implementation and monitoring (AWARD, 2008).

As already mentioned, the emphasis on community participation in sustainable

development process grew after the United Nations Conference on Environment and

Development (UNCED) at Rio in 1992. It was founded on the Brundtland Commission’s

Report known as “Our Common Future” in 1987 (Brundtland Commission, 1987).

The evolution of this agenda signed by the world leaders made it clear that sustainable

development cannot be achieved unless people are involved in the process at the

grassroots level. According to Warburten (1998, 2009), agenda 21 and 1.3 did not

however mean the total exclusion of the state or government apparatuses from the

venture, but suggested a joint enterprise executed by the government and carried out by

the local communities.

A gamut of development researchers, such as Reid (2000) repeatedly argued the

significance of a rational community participation whereby communities raise and utilize

their resources in a thoughtful way for achieving development. In its extended form,

46

social activists like Lisk (1988) was of the opinion that this approach tended to develop

communities in their intangible dimensions such as social justice, protection of basic

human rights and related freedoms. Moreover, participatory development could be more

efficient and effective as it operated on the philosophy of self-help and sufficiency (Shah

and Baporikar 2012).

Furthermore, participation inherently improves the scope of the project/ intervention,

enriches the effectiveness of the intervention and heightens the potential of the

stakeholders (FAO, 2000; Zadesh and Ahmed 2010). In a similar context, De Berry

(1999) reaffirmed this presumption by stating that participatory paradigm of development

helps communities to work even in difficult conditions for identifying and solving their

problems on self-help basis. At the other end of the string, researchers find that any

developmental project designed and implemented from the top without taking

stakeholders onboard is very likely to fail in delivering the desired results (Fox and

Royeen, 2004).

Multiple factors, nevertheless, play significant role for a development program to be

sustainable which include careful planning, proper implementation and effective

supervision (Shrimpton, 1989). The role of community, however, has been echoed

repeatedly by researchers such as Khwaja(2009) on the basis that sustainable

development is more feasible through community participation; as it gives the community

a sense of ownership and responsibility. Any activity vice versa, could be nothing more

than an import from the above in stark contrast with the community needs and

aspirations.

Research studies also validate a positive relationship between participation,

empowerment of communities, viability and sustainability of developmental interventions

47

(World Bank 2000a; Komalawati 2008). Likewise, a research study was conducted

regarding the sustainability of integrated coastal management project in Indonesia and

Philippines which revealed a strong relationship between participation and project

sustainability (Pollnac and Pfomeroy 2005). The above paragraphs highlight that to

achieve sustained development, involvement of beneficiaries is essential in

developmental interventions. However, a questions arises that who should be involved in

the development process?

This question has been approached from different angles by various researchers and

development experts. Croften (2001), for example, argued that all stakeholders –

irrespective of the proposition or opposition to the plan – should be involved in the

program. Cohen and Uphoff (1995), on the other hand, suggested the involvement of

local residents, government officers, and traditional leaders; while others such as

Rabinowitz (2013) has encouraged equal representation of all the segments of the society

in the planning, decision making, implementation, monitoring and after care of the

developmental programs.

For any development project to be successful, participation of all segments of the society

is indispensable. This participation, however, is further subject to the socio-economic

condition of the target community (International Research Forum, 2015). Sometimes, the

nature of the project determines who needs to be participated in, given the technicalities

of the project at hand. It is important to note that some channels of participation are

always open i.e., people’s willingness to provide free labor, material and non-technical

assistance, as well as, financial support (Shah and Baporikar 2012).

Through the open channels of participation, local people may provide inputs in terms of

information sharing, consultation and offering technical and professional assistance (Karl,

48

2000). Considering participation both as a mean and an end in itself, Fallavier (2007)

argued that participation not only enables communities to engage in joint activities for

achieving desired goals but also empower local people by acquiring new skills,

knowledge, experience and control over their lives.

Addressing the time dimension of any participatory scheme, advocates of participatory

approach suggest for the full-time involvement of the community in order to get the

desired results, otherwise, the projects will lack sustainability (Burns et al, 2004).

A wide array of researches on participatory development have acknowledged the fact that

the full-time involvement of local people in the development program yields excellent

results and contributes to the making of holistic governmental policies, that in turn

enhance national development (Ali, Rahman., and Das1983). The World Bank (2000) in

its report ratified the presumption that participation creates a sense of ownership in the

community which further improves the durability and sustainability of the developmental

projects.

Furthermore, there are many national and international organizations, funding agencies

and International NGOs who have launched various developmental programs using

participatory approaches in designing, execution, supervision and appraisal of

development projects because of the fact/ philosophy that sustainable results cannot be

attained without meaningful participation of stakeholders in the project life cyclesuch as

need assessment, planning, implementation and evaluation (Shah and Baporikar, 2012).

2.7. Community Participation and Empowerment

Participatory development primarily focuses on marginalized segments of the society

with the belief that they are the factual subjects and are more prone to their problems

49

having the best ways to solve them because it predominantly depends over local

knowledge to empower the poor (Pretty et al, 1995; Fraser and Lepofsky, 2004). In this

connection, empowerment refers to the enabling of marginalized, susceptible and denied

segments of the society for the utilization of their own resources (Lyons,Smuts&

Stephen, 2001; Oakley, 1991b).

Therefore, to make sure that the voices of the weaker sections of the society are heard and

they are involved in those decisions which affect them, participatory development

changes the established power and economic structure, and provides them equal

opportunities for self and societal development (Potter et al, 2004).Besides, participatory

development employs the social mobilization process to empower the marginalized

sections of society draw advantage from their resources and situation (Brocklesby and

Fisher, 2003).

In this regard, social mobilization may be accorded as the capacity building process

through which community members, groups, or organizations plan, conduct, and monitor

activities on a participatory and sustained basis towards betterment of the socio-economic

conditions – either by themselves or collaboratively (Howard-Grabman, 2007).

Participatory development, thus, pushes the marginalized section of the society up

through the ladder of empowerment in addition to cutting short the role of developmental

oligarchy in community development programs (Haidari and Wright, 2001).

The overall goal of participatory development is empowerment of the powerless by the

way of involving them in the process of development so that they can own their decisions.

To attain such goals, participatory development employs the tool of community

organizing.

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2.7.1 Community Organizing

Community organizing is a systematic and participatory process of enhancing the

capacities and resources of the masses for solving their own problems on self help basis

(National Rural Community Organizing Conference, 1994). Participatory development

tries to build the capacity of community organizations and, ultimately, empower them to

initiate developmental activities for their own up-lift (Patil, 2013). While capacity

building, according to UNEP (2002), means enabling the individuals, groups and

communities to enhance the knowledge, skills, capabilities and technical know-how to

accept the new challenges of changing situations. According to Drier (1996) and Pyles

(2014), community organizing involves mobilizing the resources of individuals, groups

and communities for the overall development of society on self help basis. Regarding the

importance of community organizing, Potapchuk and Kopell (2005) argued that

community organizing helps build power within community groups and enables them to

take initiative and plan better community development projects. Similarly, Sinclair (2003)

held that community organizing helps people to mobilize their innate capabilities and

resources to initiate such projects which develop their socio-economic conditions on

sustained basis. Moreover, community organization also leads poor groups to greater self

reliance, self adequacy and enhances the effectiveness and efficiency of developmental

projects (Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2000).

To sum up, participatory development aims to empower the weaker sections of society by

building their capacities and enabling them to make the best use of their resources, to

create sense of ownership and ensure sustainability in developmental projects (African

Development Bank, 2001, Duraiappah, Roddy andParry, 2005).

Despite the importance and realization of participatory approach in development process,

51

the ground realities are somehow different. The following section explores the socio-

cultural and economic constraints in the way of community participation in the

sustainability of developmental programs. It also highlights the ways and means to

resolves those factors so that the communities attain the goal of sustained development.

2.8Socio-Cultural Constraints to Participatory Development

Community participation is an important factor in the viability of developmental

programs. It is a mean for improving the conventional ways of making decisions, fixing

agendas and framing policies for the overall development of rural people (Rowe and

Frewer, 2004). It is important to mention that participation is not easy to achieve.

People’s participation in any developmental intervention is generally subject to the

environment in which it takes place; it also depends on the socio-economic conditions of

the target community, political affiliations of the people involved and the institutional

framework (Samad, 2002). According to Gupte (2004), socio-economic, cultural and

political factors usually create hurdles for people’s participation in policy/project cycle.

Various socio-economic and cultural factors which inhibit people’s participation are

discussed below:

2.8.1Institutional and Regulatory Framework

The rigid and traditional institutional framework is one of the most important factors

which slow down people’s participation in planning for development. In Pakistan, the

centralization of powers, the rigid administrative structure, and political interference have

withdrawn the poor from the decision making process at the local level (IFAD, 2009).

Muhammad, (2010) opined that loopholes in the intuitional infrastructures also leads to

slow down community involvement in development which hinders the community from

self-help initiatives.

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2.8.2 Socio-Economic Factors

Participation of people in development activities depends on their socio-economic

condition. Due to the existing social structure, the poor, marginalized and even the

minorities are not involved in the decision making process (Heck, 2003). Therefore, the

poor people of the target community have no say in the affairs of their communities. The

well off people, i.e the big land owners(Jagirdars) are involved and their opinion is given

weightage in planning and implementation of the developmental programs, while the poor

and marginalized are excluded (Gupte, 2004). Furthermore, gender, level of education

and person’s influence in the society are also contributing factors which hinder

stakeholder’s participation. In addition, gender inequality and religious affiliation may

undermine some people from participation particularly the women in decision making

process (Muhammad, 2010).

2.8.3Participation of Women

Participation of women in development process is indispensible, without which a

balanced development cannot be achieved. The rural women of Pakistan, for example, are

not able to participate in the developmental activities due to the prevailing cultural taboo

of observing Pardah (veil) (Maria 2001). Furthermore, common religious sentiments are

also against women’s spontaneous participation in development program. Consequently,

women who constitute half of our country’s population are kept back from the

mainstream national development in Pakistan (Malik 2007). It is argued that gender

inequalities in participation in economic activities are generally higher in Muslim and

Hindu societies as compared to Christians and Buddhists (Morrisson and Jutting, 2005).

According to Thomas (2013), participatory development becomes complex when the

underprivileged groups such as women, disable and young people are motivated to

53

participate in the developmental activities without dealing with those issues which cause

their continued disempowerment. In Pakistan, the Rural Support Programs provided

small loans to the women where almost 40 percent of the borrowers and members of the

COs were women. But the money was used by their husbands while the women remained

responsible for their repayment. The program could not empower women and thus

resulted in gender inequality – as it did not address the basic discriminatory attitude of

men in the community. Similar situation can also be observed in other societies too (see

Thomas, 2013).

2.8.4Political Interference

Political interference is one of the important factors for lack of people’s participation in

the developmental programs (Heck, 2003). Due to political interference the projects are

planned according to the wishes and whims of the political leaders rather than catering to

the needs and wishes of the target communities (Kochanek, 2002). Consequently, the

developmental projects are not owned by those who were not involved in the project

identification, planning, implementation, after care service and evaluation (Samad, 2002).

Thus it is safe to argue that such projects are executed to fulfil the agendas of the ruling

elites rather than the poor people of the target communities (Mansuri and Rao, 2004).

Many development professionals and researchers doubt that the community development

projects launched by government are aimed to support the politicians of the ruling elite to

improve their vote bank by spending the community reserved funds (Ahmad and Talib

2011).

2.8.5Lack of Resources

Cleaver (2001) argued that lack of resources with the community also hinders

participation as resources are the basis for the development of a community. In this

54

context,Chifamba (2013)stated that the donors, government policies, strict bureaucratic

control, financial and budgeting procedures and access to resources are the contributing

factors hampering the participation of the people in the developmental programs. Also,

Morgan (1993) stated that participation of community at state level is always constrained

by lack of resources and availability of financial resources.

2.8.6Internal and External Factors

Ahmad and Talib (2011) have classified the factors contributing to the lack of people’s

participation in the development process into two categories. They referred to them as

internal and external factors. Internal factors include lack of technical skills, influence of

different interests groups, gate keeping by different stakeholders, lack of will on the part

of local people to participate and lack of capability to implement the said projects.

External factors include the role played by the donor agencies, experts from other

organizations, role of government in supporting these developmental activities, partiality

of donor agencies in selection of target population and schemes, and their biasness in

presenting reports about the target community (Constantino-David 1992).

2.8.7Low Level of Education

Education is the key to development of any community and nation. Meaningful

participation of people in the developmental projects largely depends on the educational

status of the people of the target area. It is clear that the illiterate people cannot

understand the ‘nitty-gritty’ of a developmental activity. In addition, they are considered

as problematic and cannot put their demands in systematic manners. Therefore, illiteracy

and ignorance on the part of the community people is also one of the main reasons of

their lack of participation (Heck, 2003).

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2.9 Factors Promoting Community Participation

People’s participation is a very complex process and there is no single procedure for its

promotion. Different countries have adopted different methods and approaches for the

promotion of community participation, keeping in view their socio-cultural realities (Shah

and Baporikar, 2012). For promoting community participation, Chambers (1994) argued

that establishing rapport or professional relationship with the members of the VOs or

community individuals is of utmost importance. The implementing agency is required to

establish its field offices at the community where they can live and work with them in

order to know about their problems and resources (Chambers, 1986).

A research study conducted by Chifamba (2013) reveals that participation can also be

promoted by sensitizing and mobilizing the community about the developmental issues.

The donor agency’s staff can also motivate people of the community by utilizing their

knowledge and experience. The community members will actively participate when they

realize that the interventions of the project are targeted to address the problems identified

by them (Chifamba, 2013).

Bass, Clayton and Pretty (1995) believe that for promoting participatory practices,

institutional reviews of the major agencies should promote participation. Furthermore,

trainings in participatory methods should be imparted and early participatory practices

should be closely monitored.

In order to encourage people to participate, the process should be made flexible so that it

can be adapted to the changing circumstances. In addition, such environment should be

created where every person, irrespective of class, caste and gender could express their

views and can participate in decision making process (Nampila, 2005). Kinyashi (2006)

held that after identification of the problems faced by the target community, the

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development professionals assist the community in organizing themselves and when the

community isequipped with necessary skills; possibilities of genuine participation are

thus increased.

Botes and Van Rensburg, (2000) have given the following guidelines to promote effective

participation in developmental projects:

The community development worker should show himself/ herself as outsider for

the up-lift of the target community;

Should work as facilitator and catalyst and motivate the community for self-help

initiatives;

Develop such an environment in the community where decisions are taken in

mutual consultation with the target community – and implemented too;

There should be no communication gap between the project/ staff and the

community. The failures should also be communicated to them in time;

The worker should carefully listen to the community especially the destitute and

vulnerable ones;

Protect the VO from monopolization of interest groups and all community

members or VO members should be involved irrespective of class, creed, religion

and gender. The entire developmental project should be planned and implemented

in consultation with all the beneficiaries (Botes and van Rensburg, 2000: 53-54).

As facilitator, the development practitioners should develop the culture of minimum

intervention and give worth to local knowledge of the marginalized groups in the

community (Rahman, 1993).

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2.10 Criticism on Community Participation in the Development Process

There is no doubt that the participatory development seeks to empower the weaker

sections of society i.e. those people who are excluded from the mainstream development

process. However, participatory development approach does not go without criticism. In

this context, the question of who, when and how people should participate in the

developmental intervention has created a number of confusions (Chambers, 1983). The

following section discusses some of the main criticisms that have been put forward to

participatory developmental approach.

2.10.1 Who Participates?

There is confusion regarding the involvement of people in the developmental

activities, that is, who should be involved in the developmental interventions? Most

community development experts argue that the poor and excluded people should be

involved at all stages of developmental interventions to bring them at par with the

already privileged and empowered people (Rifkin, 1990: VII). In this context, Gujit

and Shah (1998:1) state that:

“The broad aim of participatory development is to increase the involvement of socially and economically marginalized peoples in decision-making over their own".

McGee (2002) opined that in practice, there is a kind of divergence of opinion among the

decision makers, that in which stage of the project cycle people should be involved and to

what extent?

Regarding the empowerment – which is the broader aim of participatory development –

development theorists hold that participatory approaches to development have failed to

empower the poor (Cleaver, 2001). In this context, Mohan and Hickey (2004) state that:

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“The past decade witnessed a growing backlash against the ways in which participation managed to ‘tyrannize’ development debate without sufficient evidence that participatory approaches were living up to the promise of empowerment and transformative development for marginalized people" (Mohan & Hickey 2004:3).

According toNazneen (2004), participation of the poor people in the decision making

process has not increased significantly because the elite’ class puts hurdles in the way of

people participation because of their biasness towards them. As already mentioned,

people cannot be involved in haphazard manner while planning for community

development; a process oriented approach needs to be followed, rather than target

oriented which aims to meet the targets of the donors. Furthermore, the decentralization

of decision-making power to the recipients or local stakeholders as well as partner

organizations is indispensible for ensuring empowerment (Afsar 1999; Eylers and Foster,

1998).

2.10.2Powerful Segments

In rural social structure, the traditional leaders, i.e. the Khan, Malik, Chaudhry or the

religious leaders play a pivotal role in molding public opinion against or in favour of a

decision taken by the government, local village organization, a project or intervention

launched by INGO/ NGO. At times, traditional leaders monopolize the developmental

interventions for their personal interests. In this regard, participatory development

advocates such as Botes and Rensburg (2000) argued that through the bottom up

development efforts, there is possibility that the traditional leaders or elite groups may

monopolize the project benefits against the interest of the poor and disadvantaged people

which may negatively affect the results of the developmental interventions (Fernando and

Devine, 2003).

Likewise, Mathur (1995) stated that the developmental interventions are planned and

executed according to the sweet will of the powerful segments of the society while the

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primary stakeholders – powerless people – are not involved, which results in exclusion of

poor individuals and groups. Research studies affirm that the communal elites and other

vested interest groups restrict local participation in developmental programs that

apparently reflects development as idealistic and unfeasible agenda (Gaventa, 2004).

Similarly, regarding the monopolization of the developmental projects by state and urban

elites, Rahnema, (1992) argued that theoretically, the concept of participation is linked to

alternative development programs, but in practice it is tightly controlled, either by state or

urban elite groups.

2.10.3External and Internal Influences

Besides the monopolization of developmental projects by the state, powerful segments of

society and urban elites, there is risk of developmental projects being controlled by

external authorities such as donors, and/ or implementing agencies (Cernea, 1991;

Takashi 2005). Moreover, the internal environment of the agency is also a contributing

factor in improving the conditions of the target community. As pointed out by Bagadion

and Korton (1991) and Ros, (2010), the norm, procedures, policies and attitudes in

development agencies cannot be overlooked in improving the condition of the local

communities. In addition to staffing, the working environment inside the agency and the

way development agency is operated are equally important in participatory development

feasibility (Schneider and Libercier, 1995). If these factors are not considered during

planning for community development, the developmental efforts may fail to achieve the

declared aim of empowering communities and sustained development (Nefjees, 2000).

2.10.4Social Change/ Resource Distribution

The ultimate goals of developmental activities are improvement in the socio-economic

conditions of the rural poor by changing the socio-economic fabric of society (Cooke

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andKothari, 2001). Although these changes may be positive and valuable for some

people, but may not be for all (Overseas Development Administration (ODA), 1995). In

this regard, Black (1991) stated that urban people usually enjoy the benefits of

development as huge funds are spent on attractive salaries, privileges, and procurement

and purchases; while the fruit of development does not reach to the poor and

marginalized. Brohman (1996) asserts that due to this carelessness, bottom-up

development strategy may result in more disparity in terms of resource distribution and

decision making among local groups.

2.10.5Power and Empowerment

The term empowerment in participatory development has different meanings as it is used

in different contexts (Luttrell and Quiroz, Scrutton and Bird 2009). Since 1980s, the

concept of empowerment has got attention of international development organizations.

According to Swiss Development Corporation (SDC) (2004), empowerment is a process

of emancipation in which the underprivileged and weaker sections of society are

empowered to exercise their rights, attain access to resources and take part in the

developmental process. However, the term empowerment is defined by different

organizations in different ways and in different contexts. To some, empowerment is ‘a

group-based, participatory developmental process through which marginalized or

oppressed individuals and groups are given opportunities of self and society development

by effectively utilizing the available resources to reduce marginalization’ (Maton,

2008:5).

While Whitmore (1988) defined empowerment as:

“an interactive process through which people experience personal and social change, enabling them to take action to achieve influence over the organizations and institutions which affect their lives and the communities in which they live" (Whitmore,1988:13).

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According to Wallerstein (1992), empowerment is a process of social action which

motivates people and community based organizations to achieve the goal of social justice

and to work for the welfare of the target community. In this study, the meaning of

empowerment refers to the decision making power held by community people (both men

and women) in the project cycle.

As discussed earlier, the process of empowerment aims to gain power by actively

involving people in the developmental process (Masterson and Owen, 2006). However,

the definition and typology of power has also been subject to academic debate (see

review by Tew, 2006). In this connection, Rowland’s (1997) categorizes four types of

power relations to stress the difference between 'power over' i.e. an ability to influence

and coerce and 'power within' i.e. an ability to organize and change existing hierarchies;

power that results from collective action and power from individual consciousness)

(Luttrell, Quiroz, Scrutton and Bird 2009).

The first phrase, ‘power over’ is taken to emphasize the need for participation in existing

economic and political structures but does not involve changes to those structures. If

power is defined as ‘power over’, it is seen as something that is wielded by those who are

in leading position and can be handed over by one person to another (Luttrell, Quiroz,

Scrutton, and Bird, 2009). Logically, the concept of ‘power over’ is totally against the

essence of participatory development which advocates for social justice, equity and

sustained development (Cooke and Kothari, 2001). Emphasis on ‘power within’ has led

to a focus around building self-confidence while a focus on ‘power to’ has led to an

emphasis on access to decision making, participatory development that empowers people

to decide on their own (Lahiri-Dutt, 2004). In addition, Brohman (1996) held that for

empowering the poor and marginalized segments of society, distribution of power to the

grass root level is the need of the hour, not just scattered reforms. Similarly, the people

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cannot be empowered in a haphazard way; donors and developmental agencies need to

have clear vision, experience, and a strong belief in participatory concepts (Gerrit, 1997;

Oakley 2001).

2.10.6 Participation and Co-option: Adopted by Developmental Organizations as a“Fashion”

The word 'participation' became famous during the last decade and is adopted in almost

all fields like rural development, forestry, environment, health, agriculture, and so on. It

got the attention of the development practitioners due to its expected merits like sharing

the benefits by the poor, project efficiency, effectiveness, cost sharing’ empowerment of

the people and making the state answerable to the people (Ali, 2005, Jennings, 2000). In

spite of these advantages, the concept of participation is subject to criticism (Cooke

andKothari2001). In relation to this, Cornwall (2002) puts that making the community

self-reliant and responsible is very dangerous. According to Cooke&Kothari (2001), the

government stresses the need of community involvement in the developmental projects,

but they do not give any attention to the community problems, though they call it

participation. In addition, participation is usually participation ‘by invitation’, that is

development organizations or the state impose the pre-planned project on community

without their consultation. In other words, participation is used for fulfilling the project

agendas (Cooke andKothari2001).

Similar views have been expressed by Muhammad (2010) and Oakley (1991), pointing

out that despite the fact that people participation is a popular concept among

academician, development experts, UN agencies and most Third World Countries; the

concept still lacks clarity. Relating to this confusion, Ried (2000)held that community

participation is a pre-requisite for development but still there is disagreement on its

operationalisation.

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According to Puri, Byrne, Nhampossa, and Quraishi(2004) the term ‘participation’ has

lost its all-encompassing usage. Most of the INGOs, NGOs, developmental projects and

government departments are using it as a ‘fashion’ due to its co-option under the neo-

liberal agenda. As a bottom-up approach in rural development, participatory development

could not sustain because of being co-opted under the neo-liberalism by donors or by

modernization approach (Edwards, 1993). In response to the argument that participatory

approach has been used as a ‘fashion’ by donors, NGOs and INGOs, Kothari lamented

that participatory development theory has lost its independence and critical edge over the

earlier development theories since their co-option (Nerfin, 1977).

The co-option of participatory development considered state as an obstacle in the way of

development during mid 1980’s when modernization theories appeared and neo-liberal

agendas were introduced (Pieterse, 2001). The goal of neo-liberal agenda is to secure

economic development, demand structural transformations; ensure de-regulation,

privatization, liberalization; and roll back government from development intervention of

the countries that get aid (Mohan and Stokke, 2000).

Moreover, under this agenda, the donors and International Financial Institutions (IFIs)

such as IMF and World Bank restricted direct funding to aid receiving countries and

channelled it through Southern NGOs following micro practices such as participatory

development (Farrington and Bebbington, 1993; Mitlin, Hickey, and Bebbington, 2006).

2.11An Overview of Major Development Programs in Pakistan

Like other developing countries, Pakistan has also introduced various developmental

programs/ projects from time to time for the up-lift of its rural areas (Israr et al, 2009). These

programs included ‘Village Agricultural and Industrial Development Program (VAID)

(1953-1962), ‘Rural Works Program in West Pakistan in 1963 -- which was later on

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renamed as Peoples Works Program in 1972 and was placed under the Federal Ministry of

Finance and Planning till 1983 -- and Integrated Rural Development Program (1972-80);

that were launched for improvement in socio-economic condition of rural masses (Gill,

Mustafa, and Jehangir, 1999, World Bank, 2007).

Various, broadly similar, short-term plans were also launched during mid-1980s. These

programs included: Five Point Special Development Program (1985-88), the Peoples

Program (1989-90) and subsequently the Tameer-e- Watan Program/ People’s Program

(1991-99) the Social Action Programs (SAP) I (1992-93 to 1995-96) and II (1998-99 to

2003-04) (Qureshi, 2001).

2.11.1 Village Aid Program (V-AID) (1952-1961)

Village AID program was the first well organized and concerted effort for the development

of rural areas (Abbas,Lodhi , Aujla, and Saadullah, 2009). The government of Pakistan

launched this program with financial assistance from the United States Agency for

International Development (USAID) and the Ford Foundation (Ahmed, 2005). Village AID

program was designed for development of rural areas with active participation of people by

increasing agricultural productivity, setting up of small scale industries in rural areas and for

improvement of social and physical infrastructure through village councils, youth clubs,

cooperatives and social centers (Mengal, Mirani and Magsi, 2014). The main objectives of

this program were increase in the income of the rural poor through better quality agriculture

practices, establishment of cottage industries, arousing self-help initiatives for solving their

own problems, coordination between nation building departments regarding agriculture

practices, and introduction of welfare related activities in collaboration with government

departments (Mallah, 1993). As part of this program, V-AID workers (both men and

women) were imparted pre-service trainings in the fields such as agriculture, animal

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husbandry, health and sanitation, cooperation, home economics, cottage industries,

education, and youth work (Waseem, 1982;Choudhry, 2002). In addition, development of

leadership qualities, self help initiatives and discipline were also stressed in the program

(Asian Productivity Organization, 1994).

2.11.2 The Basic Democracies System (BDS), 1959-1970

The Basic Democracies (BD) System was introduced by Field Marshal Ayub Khan. The

main purpose of BD system was political empowerment of local people by establishing their

own Union Councils for planning, decision making and implementation of developmental

projects at the local level (Gill, Mustafa, and Jehangir 1999). BD system encouraged

participation of people in developmental process to solve problems related to agriculture,

social welfare, education, infrastructure, health, and economic development (Mengal,

Mirani, and Magsi, 2014).The BD system consisted of four tiers system i.e. Union

Council, Tehsil Council, District Council and Divisional Council in rural area (Waseem,

1982). The union councils being the lowest tier were responsible for developmental

activities including agriculture, education, infrastructure and sanitation. While in urban

areas, the structure of BD system consisted of Municipal Corporation, Municipal

Committee and Town Committee (Muhammad and Yasin, 2011).

2.11.3 Rural Works Program (1963-72)

The V-AID did not achieve the desired results and as a consequence Rural Works Program

(RWP) was planned to make use of the potential surplus manpower for the development of

physical and social infrastructure in rural areas (Qureshi, 2001). It was closely linked with

the BD institution for accelerating the pace of local government in rural development in the

area. RWP supported a wide variety of projects at the district level for fulfilling the needs of

the people. It was sponsored by US Food for Peace Program which adopted a project

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oriented approach for the provision and improvement of physical infrastructure (Shah,

2009). This was a predecessor of Comilla experiment, which was Pakistan’s first pilot

program in developing local cooperatives for executing rural development interventions

(Luqman, 2014). This program was then renamed as People’s Works Program in 1971. The

councils were setup at three tiers i.e. union, tehsil and district level under the Basic

Democracies. The union councils gave support to the program at the grass root level

(Choudhry, 2002).

The Director of the Projects in the BD and Local Government were in charge in the program

at the provincial level, while at the top of hierarchy the policy committee was responsible for

policy guidelines and overall management of the program. Deputy Commissioners of the

districts were exercising vast powers. Tehsil councils were responsible to rout the

developmental schemes while union councils were responsible for completion of the

schemes at the village level (Qureshi, 2001).

2.11.4 Integrated Rural Development Program (IRDP)

In 1970s, the government launched IRDP for the development of rural areas by integrating

the efforts of government departments involved in rural development efforts. The Asian

Productivity Organization (1994) examined that this program mainly emphasized on the

close coordination of all government departments, working for improvement in the socio-

economic conditions of rural poor and decentralization down to the markaz (a group of

union councils) level (Davidson, Ahmed and Ali, 2001). IRDP worked for about a decade

but could not achieve its stated objectives. In 1978, it was absorbed into the Local

Government Department (Asian Productivity Organization, 1994).

Tameer-e-Watan Program was launched in 1991 with the participation of elected senators

and members of national and provincial assemblies (Khan and Khan, 2001). During early

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1990s, the Government introduced Social Action Program (SAP) with the help from

international funding agencies (Azizi, 1999). Due to the political changes in the country, the

program was finished and, a new program was initiated with the name – Khushal Pakistan

Programme (KPP) for the provision of education, health care and subsidized housing to the

people at the grassroots level (Government of Pakistan, 2005). In 2001, ParvezMusharaf,

the then Army Chief and President of Pakistan, introduced Devolution of Power Plan for the

development of rural people (World Bank, 2002). Similarly, after 18th Amendment to the

Constitution of Pakistan 1973, the role of Federal Government has become minimal in some

departments including rural development (Zaidi, 2005).

2.12 Causes of Failure of these Developmental Programs

The above mentioned developmental programs did not yield the desired results and were

aborted due to inherent deficiencies (Khan and Khan, 2001; Qureshi, 2001). The major

reasons for the failure of these developmental programs are as under:

Lack of political determination;

Lack of coordination between nation building departments;

Corruption at various levels;

Lack of proper planning in the design and implementation of developmental

programs;

Bureaucratic control of deputy commissioners;

Lack of funds and top down planning without active participation of stakeholders

(Luqman, Shahbaz, Khan and Safdar, 2013).

The results of these programs and projects executed in Pakistan (as mentioned above)

were much less than the resources utilized (Shah, 2009). This overall failure of the state

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run rural development programs provided space to institutions to work in the field of rural

development including Rural Support Programs (RSPs) and other local organizations

(Jan, 2001).

2.13Summary

The term ‘development’ lacks all-encompassing definition. The development

practitioners and social scientists have defined it in their own ways. Modernization

Theorists, for instance, define development solely in the context of economic growth.

Advocates of modernization approach believe that development is based on economic

growth and consider industrialization as an instrumental factor for the socio-economic up-

lift of society. This theory holds that in order to get developed, the third world countries

should follow the West or First World for modernization and industrialization.

Modernization theory was criticized for being ahistorical and ethnocentric.

Modernization approach believed to have negative impacts on the third world economies.

Thereby, another theory of development, dependency theory, argues that the economies

of the developing countries are dependent on the economies of the dominant countries

which can lead to the supremacy of the former over the latter. This dependency can have

positive or negative impacts on development. Dependency theories proposed that if the

developing countries want to develop, they have to de-link their relations with the

developed states. Dependency theories also criticized modernization theories for its

failure to develop the third world countries.

Like modernization theory, dependency theory was also criticized for its failure to put

forward a practical solution to the prevalent deprivations of the third world economies.

However, the micro development theories such as participatory development came

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forward due to the dissatisfaction with the earlier theories and were hoped to provide a

pathway out of the impasse.

In similar circumstances, the growing discontent with earlier development theories led to

participatory development theory; that also stimulated feminists to find paths that ensure

equal status for women in society. WID, WAD and GAD are the approaches that

attempted to bring women at par with men as independent individuals to address the

issues of social organization, politics and economics simultaneously. These approaches

have close connection to participatory development theory.

In past, the Pakistani governments have started numerous developmental programs, but

they failed to yield any fruitful results. Lack of community participation was one of the

key factors responsible for the failure of these programs. This people’s participation was

further limited by many other cultural and socio-economic factors, like very low literacy

ratio, poverty, absence of political will, gender, customs/ traditions, influence of political

parties/ groups, elites’ interference in developmental programs, and lack of resources.

Regardless of its flaws and problems attached, participatory development approach is

taken as the favoured approach to community development. Participatory approach is

primarily exercised by non-governmental organizations that have been contributing in

nearly all areas of human development. The succeeding chapter is about non-

governmental organizations and their function and purpose in the socio-economic

development of Pakistan.

Participatory development theory is criticized for being ambiguous and of being co-opted

by modernization/ donors under the neo-liberal agenda. In addition, its use has become a

fashion in the project proposals and developmental activities.

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Chapter ThreeNon-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in Pakistan

3.1 IntroductionThis chapterprovides adetailed account of NGOs and their beginning and growth in the

developing countries, with particular focus on NGOs in Pakistan. It examines the central

issues pertaining to social and political underpinnings of non-governmental organization

with special reference to Pakistan. In this connection, it draws attention, especiallyto the

introduction of NGOs in Pakistan and the philosophy of their dependence, at least

initially, on foreign donors instead on the state. It also discusses, at length, the historical

background of NGOs in pre-partition India and the antecedents of their phenomenal

increase especially after the independence. An attempt has also been made to bring in to

light the bulk of NGOs which emerged during 1980s and the causes of their operational

and philosophical shift from ‘relief to ‘welfare’, and finally, to‘participatory

development’.

This chapter also uncovers the policy changes made by the aid recipient countries to

accommodate more NGOs. In the Pakistani context, as per the demand of the donor

agencies, the government amended the existing laws in the country to provide conducive

environment to NGOs establishment and operations. These changes in laws were,

however, criticized by the NGOs forums and other civil society organizations; they

considered it as a move against the independence of NGOs/CSOs. Finally, this chapter

highlights reasons behind the establishment of various Rural Support Programs such as

AKRSP, SRSP, NRSP and other such programs.

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3.2 Brief history of Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)The non-governmental organizations, commonly referred to as NGOs are essential

component of every society these days. The scope of these NGOs vary at regional,

national andinternational level. NGOs and INOGs are operational in all fields of human

lives such as emergency relief, conflict resolution, human rights, women empowerment,

environmental protection etc. (Lewis and Kanji, 2009). It has been the

ineffectiveperformance of the government and its institutions that hasleft space to these

NGOs to fill. NGOs and INGOs were also encouraged by the IMF and World Bank to

come forward and play important role in the national and international development.

These organizations are working for the marginalized sections of the society which had

been overlooked by the government and other official organizations (Miltin, Hickey, and

Bebbington, 2006).

To proceed further, it is important to understand what the term NGO refers to? The term

is very difficult to define because of its complex nature. An NGO is generally defined as

‘self-governing, private, not-for-profit organizations that are geared to improving the quality of life for disadvantaged people (Vakil 1997: 2060).

According to Martens (2002:278), NGOs have been referred to by different names in

different times,like “major group, pressure group, interest group, private voluntary

organization, independent voluntary sector, third sector organization (TSOs), grassroots

organization, activist organization, non-profit body, and professional, voluntary, and

citizens’ organization”. Other alternative names that are being used for the NGOs

include‘Private Voluntary Organization’ (PVO), ‘Private Development Organization’

(PDO), ‘Civil Society Organization’ (CSO), ‘Community Based Organization’ (CBO),

‘Environment and Development Organization’ (EDO), and so on (Cornman Grimm and

Rana, 2005).

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Likewise, an NGO is thought of as an independent, private, not-for-profit bodycommitted

to decrease human miseries and to struggle for thepromotion of education, healthcare,

environmental protection, human rights, conflict resolution, and also, the formation of

democratic institutions and civil society (Salamon and Anheier, 1992; Willets, 2002).

The basic aim of these organizations is to work for the promotion of social, political and

economic change both at local and international level to help solve the necessities of the

poor and distressed people (Lewis and Kanji, 2009).

The main features of these organizations are their emphasis on participatory approach,

cost effectiveness, efficiency, flexibility, innovativeness and their goal of solving

problems of the poor and needy people (Howell and Pearce, 2001).

3.3 The Evolution of NGOs in the World

3.3.1 NGOs before World War 1

As far as the history of NGOs is concerned, it seems that the term NGO was first invented

by the United Nations (UN), however, NGOs came to the world long before the name and

the concept (Bidet, 2002; Anheier, Glasius, and Kaldor,2001). Famous NGOs established

in the late 19th and early 20th century include‘British Anti-Slavery Society (1838),

International Committee of the Red Cross (1864), Sierra Club (1892), Save the Children

Fund (1919)’ etc. (ParkSang-pil, 2002:60). Established in 1942, Oxfam initially strived

for the rehabilitation of victims of war, and later on, expanded its scope (Fitzduff, Church,

2004). A steady increase in the number of NGOs can also be observed which were 32 in

1874 and roseto 1083 in 1914 (Kaldor, 2003).

In fact, NGOs became active at the international arena during eighteen century in the

Western countries aiming at the reduction of slave trade and movement for peace (Lewis,

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2001). At the beginning of the twentieth century, there were NGOs associations at the

World Congress of International Associations in 1910, where 132 international

associations represented, working on different issues like transportation, intellectual

property rights, narcotics control, public health issues, agriculture, and the protection of

nature. Although NGOs came to the front during the League of the Nations – after the

First World War – over issues like rights of the labor; however, from 1935 onwards, the

League became less active due to the increasing political tension in Europe which became

a cause of war and NGOs participation in international affairs became weaker

(Charnovitz, 1997).

3.3.2 NGOs after the World War II

In 1945, Article 71 of the UN Charter formalized NGO involvement in UN processes and

activities, and some NGOs even contributed to the drafting of the Charter itself.

UNESCO and WHO both openly accepted the role of NGOs in their charters (Lewis,

2010). But NGOs role was again affected by Cold War tensions, and the institutional

flaws of UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) were also the contributing factors.

During 1970s, NGOs role was strengthened when they contributed in a series of UN

conferences from the Stockholm Environment Conference in 1972 to the Rio

Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992. In these conferences NGOs

participated both in preparation and in the proceedings of the conference itself. These

conferences approved a series of policy statements related to the role of NGOs within the

UN system in policy formulation and program design, execution and evaluation (Fitzduff,

and Church, 2004).

End of the Cold War led to increase in the number of development NGOs both at the

local and international level,mainly for their lucrative role in the developmental efforts

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(Lewis and Kanji, 2009). According to estimates, globally, the number of NGOs

increased during 1990 by one third – from 10292 to 13206 (Kaldor, 2003). In Latin

America and Canada, INGOs came forward in the post war era and worked,in particular,

on relief and welfare activities (Messoni, and Alesani, 2014). Later on, there was a major

shift in their interventions from mere relief to include development as well. Similarly,

NGOs came to the fore at the local/regional and national levels in third world countries

like Pakistan, India and Bangladesh with major emphasis on relief (Fisher, 2000).

However this growth was not as exponential as it took place mostly during and after the

1980s (Sen, 1998).

3.4 Classification of NGOs

According to Vakil (1997), defining and classifying NGOs is not an easy task because of

the diverse nature of activities they carry out. Moreover, lack of agreementon

theclassification is also a major factor in understanding NGOs both at the theoretical and

empirical fronts.Due to this confusion, some social scientists have classified NGOs on the

basis of membership, while others have classified them on the basis of service delivery,

funding sources, role, purpose and structure. In this respect, Pearce (1997: 259)has

classified NGOs on the basis of “distinguished membership from non-membership

NGOs, international from indigenous NGOs, and service-delivery from advocacy

NGOs”.Farrington and Bebbington (1993) grouped NGOs according to the role, history,

funding, purpose, and structure. Dicklitch (1998: 5) states that “NGOs can be categorized

on the basis of the functions they perform as well as the constituency that they target”.

Vakil (1997) has classified NGOs on the basis of orientation (type of activity it takes

on).These activities or interventions may include protection of human rights,

environmental protection, or development work; while an NGO's level of operation

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signify whether the NGO is delivering services at the local, regional, national or

international level.

According to Lewis and Kanji (2009), NGOs have been classified on the basis of being

large or small, formal or informal, bureaucratic or flexible as well. Similarly,they can be

classified as faith based or secular organizationson the basis of religion. Some NGOs may

be altruistic and paternalistic, others aiming to follow radical or ‘empowerment’-based

approaches. A single NGO may have all of these characteristics or elements at any one

time (Moris-Suzuki, 2000).

Ginsburg (1998) has classified NGOs on the basis of social characteristics of the

participants: (1) grass-roots operations linked to social movements aimed at challenging

and transforming unequal social structures;(2) non-profit businesses run by

‘professionals’; and (3) some NGOs are locally-based institutions, while others are

international organizations – receive funds from government or international funding

agencies.

According to Clark (1991), most development experts differentiate six categories of

NGOs (relief and welfare organizations, technical innovation organizations, public

service contractors, popular development organizations, grass-roots development

organizations and advocacy groups and networks).

Furthermore, based on their nature, Clark (1991) classified NGOs as implementers and

non-operational advocates and lobbying groups. Some of them according to him are

concerned with the provision of relief in times of distress such as floods and famines,

while others are interested in the transfer of technology and ideology into the developing

world.

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Owing to the complex nature of NGOs, diversity of their purpose, role, scope and

experiences, Korten (1987) categorized NGOs into three main categories, i.e., first

generation (relief and welfare); second generation (local self-reliance); and third

generation (sustainable systems development) (Serrano, 1989; Rahman, 2005).

3.4.1 First Generation: Relief and Welfare NGOs

The first generation NGOs were setup as a result of First World War and were mainly

responsible for the provision of relief and welfare at the time of emergency and disaster

situations (Lang, 2000). Classic first generation NGOs were started by churches and

missionary organizations in Africa throughout the colonial era (Manji, 2002). Such NGOs

believed that short term assistance will lead to long term development generated from

local resources, predominantly provided by public sector. According to Korton (1987)

NGOs, such as Save the Children (1919), the Oxford Committee for Famine Relief

(1942), later becoming Oxfam (UK), CRS (1943), CARE (1945), and World Vision

started their activities as charitable relief organizations. Even in recent past Southern

NGOs like the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC, 1971) started its

interventions as welfare agency. These NGOs were called as the ‘first generation NGOs’.

These NGOs mainly provide assistance and relief at the time of emergencies like natural

disaster and refugee repatriation or re-settlement, floods, famine and in war times. Later

on, these organizations delivered services in non-disaster situations but within the sphere

of welfare. Oxfam UK and BRAC, however, have come a long way and deserve a third

generation category (Serrano, 1989).

Korten (1987) was of the opinion that first generation NGOs efforts were helpful at the

time of emergencies but could not offer solution to the socio-economic problems like

poverty and underdevelopment (Lang, 2000).

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3.4.2 Second Generation: Small Scale and Self Reliant Local Development NGOs

In 1970s, due to the innate flaws of relief and welfare approaches, the second generation

NGOs focused their attention towards establishing community development projects like

preventive health, improved agriculture practices, improvement in physical and social

infrastructure (Lang, 2000). The basic difference between the new initiative and former

approach (relief and welfare) was the focus of the later on self-help efforts which may

lead these NGOstowards sustained development.Korton (1987) called these organizations

‘second generation’ NGOs (Chan 1993; Todaro, 2005).

This approach believes in self-sufficiency and the establishment of “self-help groups”,

and is always based at village level. Often, the second generation NGOs services are

considered the same to those provided by the government (Michael, 2005).Moreover, it is

understood that the major cause of the underdevelopment of the people is the lack of trust

in their own initiatives despite having the capacity and resources. In such situations,

NGOs work as catalysts by mobilizing the resources of the community (natural, man-

made and financial) and do not involve itself in direct service provision (Kleinman et al,

1995). According to Korten (1987:148), second generation strategies - by definition - do

not attempt to ‘address the causes of the inadequacy of other service providers or the

larger institutional and policy context of the NGOs own activities’.

They can be useful for far flung areas and local groups which have no impact at all on

broader policy issues and put bad effects on local development initiatives (Serrano, 1989).

3.4.3 Third Generation: Sustainable Systems Development

According to Broadhead (1987), development is completely opposite to welfare and is

based on the concept of community participation. Korten (1987) termed such type of

NGOs as ‘third generation’ NGOs (Banks and Hulme,2012). Serrano (1989) opined that

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the self-reliant local development initiatives may lead to sustainable results only if public

and private organizations work jointly in a supportive system.Thus NGOs will perform

like a catalyst rather than providing service delivery role and also collaborate with

government for broader socio-economic development impacts (Serrano, 1989).

Korten (1987:149) stated that:

“A growing number of NGOs are coming to realize that the need to exert greater leadership in addressing dysfunctional aspects of the policy and institutional setting of the villages and sectors within which they work. This means moving to a third generation strategy in which the focus is on facilitating sustainable changes in these setting on a regional or even national basis. The more fully the NGO embraces third generation program strategies, the more it will find itself working in a catalytic, foundation-like role rather than an operational service delivery role, directing its attention to facilitating development by other organizations, both private and public, of the capacities, linkages and commitments required to address designated needs on a sustained basis”.

3.4.4 People-Centered Development and People’s Movements

According to Fowler (2011), the fourth generation NGOs focus on people-centered

development and the capacity enhancement of grassroots organizations. Fourth generation

NGOs are closely connected with ‘self-help groups’ formed by NGOs that were involved

in the provision of community based services (Kelly, 2006). Furthermore, the philosophy

and beliefs of people-centered development is in line with the Frierian approach to

education, social transformation, and the empowerment of poor and marginalized sections

of society (Serrano, 1989). The third generation NGOs thus depend on third parties to

provide required resources and other technical knowledge from outside the community to

achieve the developmental targets (Srivastava, Austin, and Murtaza, 2012). This approach

also believes that the requisite knowledge and skills for addressing the development

related problems exist within the local community which is a valid reason for people-

centered approach to development (Korten,1987). The function and role of NGOs is to

work as facilitator, to enable the local people to identify their developmental needs and a

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way to fulfil their developmental needs. Thus the main institutions are the people’s

organization through which people-centered development can be achieved. Theorists

believe that developmental initiatives should be decentralized for achieving the goals of

development (Banks, Hulme , and Edwards, 2014).

As already stated, NGOs use to work on self-help basis by involving the local people in

the identification and solution of their problems. Hence ‘participatory development NGOs

are non-governmental developmental organizations (NGDOs) which are local agencies

seeking to serve the people at grass roots level (Padron 1987).

To conclude NGOs are delivering services on non-profit basis for improving the socio-

economic conditions of the poor and needy people. They work either in collaboration

with the government, and sometimes, with INGOs/donors.

3.5 Changing Donors’ and State’s Policies towards NGOs

3.5.1 Donor’s Policies towards NGOs

The 1980s can be called as the “golden age of the international NGOs” as the number of

registered NGOs and International NGOs (INGOs) raised to 38,000,working in more than

one country in 1996, more than double the number of a decade earlier (Scholte and

Schnabel 2002:250).Moreover, the United Nations Development Program (UNDP)

statistics reveal that by the end of the 20th century more than 50,000 NGOs were

delivering services to more than 250 million individuals in developing countries (Besley

and Ghatak, 1999).

Robinson (1993) noted that during the 1980s and1990s, the growth of NGOs was

considered a key factor in development policy. As compared to government sector,

NGOs were considered more efficient and responsive in social service delivery in fields

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http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X14002939



like health, and education. A major shift in the donors’ policy in favor of NGOs was

observed at the end of the Cold War across the globe. Consequently, NGOs, previously

known for small-scale welfare provisions, became “the preferred channel for service

provision, in deliberate substitution for the state” (Edwards and Hulme 1996a:2).

The recent phenomenal increase in the number of NGOs is due to their changing role

from mere service providers to major player, and their capacity and potential to

manipulate policy and decisions (Dahan, Doh and Guay, 2006; Eden, 2004; Keim, 2003).

Now most of the developmental funds come through NGOs as they have access to the

poor and needy people of society (Allard and Martinez, 2008).Furthermore, emerging

ideas about the need to build a more global social policy perspective emphasizes a

proactive role of NGOs, International Financial Institutions (IFI) such as the ‘World

Bank’, ‘International Monitory Fund’ (IMF) and the United Nations (Deacon, Hulse and

Stubbs 1997).

Regarding the collaboration between the donors and NGOs, the OECD (2008) held that

the “funds that industrialized economies - channeled through NGOs - rose from 0.2% of

their total bilateral official development aid (ODA) in 1970 to 17% in 1996”. In Africa,

by 1994, 12% of foreign ODA was already being funneled to the region through NGOs,

and the number has continued to rise (Chege, 1999). In addition,transfer of official

developed-country aid to NGOs in 2006 totaled more than $2bn of total ODA – about

123% more than in 2002 (OECD 2008; Epstein and Gang, 2006).

3.5.2 State’s Policies towards NGOs

The above discussion illustrated the extent to which NGOs and the aid recipient states

showed positive attitude and created conducive environment for NGOs and collaborated

with them in different projects/programs.

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Different research studies on NGOs – government relations reaffirm the global trend

towards greater and more cooperative relationship between the two sectors.Salamon

(1994: 120), for instance, pointed that contrary to the established notion, this relationship

"has been characterized more by cooperation than conflict." He further argued that the

next century will see more collaboration between the two sectors. Evidence from around

the world also supports this observation.

Writing about the United Kingdom, Taylor (1998: 1) pointed out that:

"the changing shape of 'governance', especially at local level, is drawing many [third sector] organizations into the policy process as partners."

Young (1998)noted similar trends in the United States, United Kingdom, Israel and

Japan. Smillie and Helmich (1999) argued that the trend is common across the whole

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) member states.

Reimann (2001) in her research studies on the emergence of Japanese INGOs during the

early 1990s argued that the government created a facilitative environment for the

establishment of INGOs in Japan. This change in policy was the result of international

pressure particularly the integration of INGOs as “partners” within multilateral

institutions such as the World Bank and UN agencies. Likewise, in Latin America, the

state changed her policy of direct implementation and involved NGOs in different

projects and facilitated them as well (Ali 2005). Furthermore, in Peru, the state totally

withdrew itself from direct implementation of developmental activities and NGOs were

given space to accomplish activities for agriculture development (Bebbington, 1997).

The evidence from the developing countries suggests that this trend was not unique to

industrialized countries (Fisher, 1998; Edwards and Hulme, 1996b). The developing

states also facilitated the INGOs by changing their policies. Bangladesh is an excellent

example where the growth of NGOs started with its inception in 1971 for reconstruction

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of the country (Lewis and Sobhan, 1999). Besides, Bangladesh also incorporated changes

in its policies and made its indigenous Third Sector different and distinctive as compared

to the Sub-Saharan Africa (Lewis and Sobhan, 1999). Proshika, a Bangladesh based NGO

is an very good example working for achieving sustainable development through

empowering the poor, has organized 773,400 people in 44,400 groups across the country

and claims to assist nearly 4 million individuals. Bangladesh Rural Advancement

Committee (BRAC) – a Bangladesh based international organization – is also an excellent

example having more than 12,000 staff and its rural development programs have, so far,

reached to 1.42 million households (Lewis, 1997; Islam and Morgan, 2012).

In addition, the NGOs in Bangladesh are striving to improve the socio-economic

conditions of local people by providing micro-credit facilities to over 90 percent people

and more than half are provided with health care services (Gauri and Galef,

2005).Moreover, the Bangladeshi government has also extended cooperation to the

United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and United Nations

Children’s Fund (UNICEF) in the field of health and family related projects (Haque,

2002).

Like Bangladesh, Profamiliain Colombia and Benfam in Brazilareboth non-governmental

networks and both are running the national family planning programs in these countries

for human service delivery and relief, and are best examples of government-NGO

relationship (Najam, 2000). Furthermore, the Indian government did also cooperate and

collaborate with NGOs in various developmental projects that justified the productivity,

and inevitability of NGOs that are replicated in several parts of the world including Africa

and Latin America (Drabek, 1987;Haque, 2004).

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In order to facilitate NGOs, the aid receiving countries have made numerous changes in

their policies for the provision of opportunities to these organizations. However, some

development practitioners and academicians argue that such policies can lead to new form

of colonialism and NGOs co-option to fulfill the state/government determined objectives

(Ali, 2005).Such criticisms are discussed in the following section.

3.6 NGOs: A New form of Colonialism and Imperialism

A blistering critique of the role of NGOs in development is that of James Petras who

considered NGOs as “troy horses” for a new form of imperialism rather than agent of

self-empowerment and grass-root development (Baccaro, 2001). Similarly other social

scientists have criticized NGOs for being harmful to the cultural pattern of the target

communities. There are serious debates and concerns about the role of NGOs in

promoting western culture in the disguise of development and/or relief ventures. These

NGOs are blamed for disturbing the existingnormative patterns of the target communities.

In a nutshell, NGOs are accused ofinvolvement in cultural imperialism (Foley, 2009).

Moreover, an NGO Bureau Inquiry Report in Bangladesh discovered Western-backed

local NGOs engaged in missionary efforts (NGO Bureau, 1992; Prasch, 2005). In

addition, Mercer (2002) is of the opinion that NGOs are engaged in imposing the First

World values and attitudes in the Third World countries as part of their imperialistic

designs. In other words, NGOs are working for promoting imperialism in disguise of

humanitarian efforts for promoting human rights and democracy (Mabee, 2004; Wong,

2009).

As far as funding to the NGOs and their accountability is concerned, affiliation with the

Western INGOs give local NGOs a chance to earn huge funds as major part of foreign aid

is distributed through NGOs (Petras and Veltmeyer, 2001). This aid is usually subject to

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conditionality from the donors, and in many cases,at the cost of sacrificing their

autonomy as Western pressure may compel them to plan and implement those projects

which are not according to the local needs and culture of the target area (Petras and

Veltmeyer, 2001). Furthermore, NGOs are accused of being controlled by Western

donors and are solely accountable to them (Baccaro, 2001).

To summarize, NGOs in the aid receiving countries are accountable to the donors rather

than the community.In such a case, the statement that NGOs play a distinct role in the

promotion of imperialism and neo-colonialism, would stand valid.

This study tries to find out the role of NGOs in the up-lift of target community employing

participatory approaches to rural development. In the next section, an effort has been

made to analyze whether NRSP has been co-opted by the government to carry out those

activities which the government was supposed to do.

3.7 NGOs Co-option by States

As has been discussed before, donor agencies have misused NGOs for fulfilling their

ulterior motive in different parts of the world.On the other hand, states are also criticized

for co-opting NGOs for carrying out responsibilities that the state is supposed to perform.

To proceed further, it is important to know how sates/governments control, co-opt and

utilize NGOs for fulfilling their own inherent interests.

Philip Selznick, an American Professor of Law and Sociology, introduced the concept of

co-optation (co-option) in 1948 in his article on “Foundations of the Theory of

Organization” in which he described it as a “state of tension between formal authority

and social power” (Selznick, 1948: 35; Shafritz, Ott, and Jang,2011).Moststates have co-

opted NGOs for carrying out those functions for which the state was responsible before

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(Kwon, 2010). For instance, China relaxed the laws for NGOs as a result of reforms

introduced by Deng Xiaoping in 1978 to perform those functions which the state was

unable to perform (Kwon, 2010).At the same time, the states used its authority to control

NGOs either by introducing new laws or amending the existing laws. For example the

Egyptian government exerted its influence and authority over NGOs despite the fact that

Law 84 gave this authority only to Ministry of Insurance and Social Affairs (MISA) and

not to the State Security (Human Rights Watch, 2005). Furthermore, NGOs still rely on

government for various matters like registration, funding and even in approval of

developmental projects (Human Rights Watch, 2005). Likewise, another policy

implemented by state to control NGOs was the establishment of ‘fund pools’ in countries

like Bangladesh where funds could be deposited and then released or distributed to the

preferred NGOs (Haque, 2004).

In addition to such controlling measures, states also established their own NGOs to fulfill

their designs. For instance, in China, some NGOs are actually categorized as GONGO or

“Government organized non-governmental organizations” (Santos, 2006). As these

organizations have a direct link with the government,they avoid criticizing the state

(Kwon, 2010). Similar NGOs can be found in Philippines, where the government formed

GRINGOs (Government-run-inspired or initiated NGOs) in 1987 to get funds from

donors and international organizations (Steinberg, 2001). In addition, Najam, (1996)

stated that Government NGOs (GONGO) and Quasi non-governmental organization

(QUANGOs) were formed for getting funds to materialize their plans.

It is clear from the above discussion that different states/ governments have co-opted

NGOs in order to fulfill those functions which the states were supposed to perform.

Furthermore, the donors have also co-opted these NGOs for fulfilling their ulterior

designs. The current study aims to know about the prevalent relations between

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government and NGOs in general and NRSP in particular and its impacts on the NRSPs

participatory development/empowerment theory.

3.8 Non-Governmental Organizations in Pakistan – An Introduction

3.8.1 NGOs in Pre-Partition Era – Providing Philanthropic Services

The history of philanthropic or charitable activities in the Indian sub-continent can be

traced back to the pre-partition era (Pasha, Jafarey and Lohano 2000). The main reason of

these voluntary services was to help the government in the provision of social services in

the field of education, health, social welfare and cultural activities. In addition, a humane

or philanthropic motive was also at work to provide assistance to the needy and deserving

people (Iqbal, Khan and Javed, 2004). Characterized by a diverse ethnic and religious

amalgamation, mainly composed of Hindus, Muslims and Parsis, the region displayed a

compromising yet all-contradictory portrait of social, political and religious affairs. Based

on their religious principles and lifestyles, every faith and its followers would be

contributing voluntarily to the human cause – helping the poor. Philanthropy in Muslims,

however, adhered strictly to the fundamental and old Islamic customs and traditions

(Saljuq, 2005). Sir Sayed Ahmad Khan, in this connection, played a leading role by

motivating and inspiring Muslims to get modern education in order to bring them into the

main stream of development. For this very purpose, in 1870, he established the

“Committee for the Better Diffusion and Advancement of Learning among

Muhammadans of India”. Some five years later, in 1875, he founded “Muhammadan

Anglo Oriental College (MAO)” (Belmekki, 2009). Later on MAO college became a full

fledge University in 1922 and played a leading role in the independence movement.

Meanwhile, followers of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan continued his mission in the West

Pakistan (areas that are now part of Pakistan) and established Sindh Madrasa-tul-Islam in

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Karachi, Anjuman-e-Himayat-e-Islam, Lahore and Islamia College, Peshawar (Iqbal,

Khan and Javed, 2004). Concurrently, some of the non-Muslims also took the lead and

worked hard for the welfare and uplift of the weaker and downtrodden sections of

society. Most notable among them had been, Diyal Singh Majithia, Nadir Shaw, Sir

Ganga Ram, NusserWanjee and the Dinshaws. Most of their charitable work focused on

setting up schools, hospitals and various other intuitions for serving the destitute and

disadvantaged people (Sattar, 2000).

The Christian Missionaries also offered voluntary services in the field of education,

healthcare and social welfare in Indian Society (PRIA, 2001). They established

institutions of high repute and excellence, namely ‘Edwardes Church Mission School of

Peshawar (1855)’, ‘Jesus and Mary Convent of Sialkot’ (1858) and ‘St. Joseph’s Convent

of Karachi’ which provided educational services to large portions of the society (Gopal,

1994). These institutions mainly focused on the rehabilitation of the poorest of the poor

and set up hospitals, dispensaries, orphanages, infirmaries and seminaries. They even

continued their welfare activities after Indo-Pak partition in 1947 (Gopal, 1994). In order

to regulate the activities related to religious endowments trust, laws were enacted such as

‘Societies Registration Act in 1860’, followed by ‘Religions Endowment Act 1863’, the

‘Trust Act, 1882’ and the Credit Societies Act,1904’ (Saljuq, 2005).

3.8.2 NGOs in Post-Independence Period – Relief Services and Development

Since its inception, the newly established state of Pakistan was faced with various socio-

economic problems. The first and foremost problem was the resettlement of refugees who

were pouring in to the newly established state of Pakistan from India (Miles, 1963).At

that time the voluntary sector joined hands with the new and professionally immature

administration to settle refugees and contributed in the field of health, unemployment,

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poverty and illiteracyetc(NGORC,1999). The voluntary sector contributed the provision

of healthcare by establishing new dispensaries, maternity centers and general hospitals

(Saljuq, 2005). In this connection, the role of ‘Girl Guides’, ‘Red Cross and National

Guard’, ‘All Pakistan Women Association’ (APWA) ‘Family Welfare Cooperative

Housing Society Lahore’, ‘Social Welfare Society Lahore’, are worth mentioning(Iqbal,

Khan and Javed, 2004). In healthcare services, it was Abdul SattarEdhi who setup a small

free dispensary in 1951, and later on, EdhiFoundation became one of the most far-

reaching non-profit charitable organizations of the world (Malik, 2007). This was

followed by the establishment of Leprosy Aid Program in 1956 by ‘Catholic Nuns’ which

eventually led to the setting up of the Marie Adelaide Leprosy Centre under the

leadership of Dr. Ruth Pfao (Shamsi, 2011).

Gradually the number of voluntary activities spiraled up particularly in the field of social

welfare. From 1957 onwards, the welfare funds and grants started to be disbursed to the

Non-Profit Sector Organization (NPSOs) (Saljuq, 2005). Consequently separate fund

allocation was made in the second five-year plan (1960-65). As a result of these positive

steps, the number of NPSOs increased from just 7 in 1947 to 200 in 1955 and 14000 in

1997 (Jalalzai, 1998). Likewise, the number of NPOs increased due to the two wars

which Pakistan fought against India. The NPOs served the war victims, the injured,

disabled and other marginalized sections of the society (Saljuq, 2005).

During 1950s and 1960s, there was close collaboration between government and non-

profit sector to deliver social services to the needy people. After 1980s, however, two

major developments took place. First, the number of NGOs increased tremendously, and

second, there occurred a huge shift in their focus due to a change in the geo-political and

social milieu.

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3.8.3 Mushroom Growth of NGOs in Post Cold War Era (1980s andonwards)

This sectionexplains the causes of mushroom growth in the number of NGOs worldwide,

as well as, in this region. It also gives a detailed account of the shift from relief and

welfare to participatory development approach in development sector. Sources of funding

to these NGOs have also been discussed while the factors responsible for the growth of

NGOs in Pakistan and their increased dependence on foreign donor agencies have also

been highlighted.

The increased number of NGOs in Pakistan in the Post-Cold War Era can be attributed to

a multiplicity of factors. Two of them are, nonetheless, worth mentioning. Firstly, since

1980s, as a result of ‘Washington Consensus1’ and its impacts on economicliberalization

and democratization, there has been an enormous increase in funding to NGOs working

in third world countries (Barrow and Jennings,2001). According to this model, the state

was assumed to be inefficient, rigid and run on bureaucratic lines, while on the other

hand, NGOs were considered as cost-effective, efficient, accessible, democratized and

truly dedicated to empowering the marginalized and weaker sections of society (Hearn,

2007; Kamat, 2004). Secondly, the failure of the government to deliver the desired

services and the effectiveness of the NGOs instead, has also been a contributing factor in

the growth of NGO sector (Bagci, 2007). As a result of mainly these two and some other

related situational changes, NGOs sector assumed prominence and has been considered

parallel to government functionaries or state bodies. At this point, the role and status of

1The term “Washington Consensus” is set of ten policies identified by economist John Williamson in 1989: 1) fiscal discipline; 2) redirecting public expenditure; 3) tax reform; 4) financial liberalization; 5) adoption of a single, competitive exchange rate; 6) trade liberalization; 7) removal of barriers to foreign direct investment; 8) privatization of state owned enterprises; 9) deregulation of market entry and competition; and 10) secure property rights. The reference to “consensus” meant that this list was premised on the ideas shared at the time by power circles in Washington, including the US Congress and Administration, on the one hand, and international institutions such as the Washington‐based IMF and the World Bank, on the other, supported by a range of think tanks and influential economists.

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http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X14002939#b0325



NGOs/ Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) was acknowledged as ‘indigenous people’s

organizations’ particularly during and after the 1980s (Bagci, 2007).

Regionally, the 1980s era has been marked by a phenomenal increase in the number of

NGOs in South Asia. As mentioned by Kennedy, (1999:489):

“In Nepal, 220 NGOs were officially registered in 1990. By 1993, that number had grown to 1,210. In Pakistan, less than 300 NGOs were registered in 1990, over 2,000 are now registered and some observers have estimated that there are over 15,000 total NGOs in operation in the state; in Bangladesh the Association for Development Action in Bangladesh (ADAB) had 669 registered members in 1992; this number had grown to nearly 1400 by 1999. Similar rapid growth could be documented for both India and Sri Lanka as well”.

In Africa, the number of NGOs also increased significantly during the 1990s. Brass

(2011) noted that in Kenya, the number of registered NGOs increased from 400 in 1990

to over 6,000 in 2008. Similarly, in Tanzania, the 41 registered NGOs in 1990 had

increased to more than 10,000 by 2000 (Hearn, 2007).

During 1980s, Nicholds andBorton, (1994) mentioned that the number of NGOs grew in

South Asia due to the Soviet assault on Afghanistan which resulted in the influx of

Afghan Refugees into Pakistan. This event diverted the attention of the international

organizations, donors and international community and they introduced various programs

for the assistance of Afghan refugees. Consequently, NGOs became the major

beneficiaries and received huge funds from the donors (Nicholds andBorton, 1994). Other

factors that contributed to the growth of NGOs during the decades of 1980-90s were the

return of democracy in Pakistan, introduction of policy towards deregulation,

privatization, the process of globalization and the worsening financial position of the

government (Pasha, Jamal and Iqbal, 2002).

Edwards and Hulme (1996:961a) argued that since the end of Cold War in 1989,

international donor organizations have followed a “New Policy Agenda” which

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recognizes the role and importance of NGOs in socio-economic empowerment of the

society.

As far as Pakistan is concerned, the total number of registered NGOs is not known

because they are registered at different offices and under different laws (Mirahmadi,

Farooq and Ziad, 2012) and their records are also not routinely updated. But the

government reports reveal that there has been unusual increase in the number of

registered NGOs. According to Naviwala (2010), the number of registered NGOs in

Pakistan can range from 8000 to 16000 while if non-registered CBOs and NGOs are

added, its numbers could be between 25000 and 35000. The last decade observed

enormous increase with government sources estimating 60,000 to 70,000 NGOs in

2001and 100,000 in 2009.

Similarly, a survey results (conducted by Social Policy and Development Centre in 2001)

of about 2000 NGOs reveal that over 27 percent of the currently active organizations

were setup during 1978 to 1987 (Iqbal, Khan and Javed, 2004). According to SPDC

(2002), more than 54 percent of organizations being surveyed were setup during this

period (1988-2001). Hence due to positive developments during the 1980s, the role of

NGOs was recognized in the development process. Furthermore, there was a shift in focus

from relief and welfare to participatory development in the approaches of these NGOs as

well (Iqbal, Khan and Javed, 2004).

3.8.4 From Relief and Welfare to Participatory Development NGOs

The idea of charity or philanthropy is not a new phenomenon to the people of the South

Asian region as the history of charity or philanthropy can be traced back to ancient

timeswithin the geographical area that now constitute Pakistan. At the very outset of the

development of NGOs in Pakistan and elsewhere, their primary focus of intervention was

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on providing relief and welfare services to the needy people (Ali, 2005). In Bangladesh,

for instance, NGOs aimed at the fulfillment of basic needs of the people by providing

direct assistance such as food, shelter and healthcare (Korten, 1987). However during

1980s, NGOs which were initially focusing on relief and welfare activities, diverted their

attention towards long term or participatory development (Davis, 2006). Consequently,

Pakistan decided to encourage the non-profit sector by involving them in the social

service delivery and included them in the Social Action Program, the Rural Support

Programs, the Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund, etc (Iqbal, Khan and Javed, 2004) and

the National Rural Support Program (NRSP)(Read the forthcoming chapter for further

details).

NRSP was established in the 1990s as government organized non-profit organization and

was modeled on the basis of experience of Agha Khan Rural Support Program. The main

goal of NRSP is to empower the local people by involving them in the decision making

process while planning for the development of their communities (NRSP, 1996).

3.9Aid Flows to NGOs: A Brief Comparison

As discussed earlier, the decade of 1980s experienced mushroom growth in the number of

NGOs across the world in general and in developing countries in particular (Bagci, 2007).

This increase of number was generally attributed to democratic culture andconducive

environment for the establishment of NGOs (Howell and Pearce 2001, Lewis 2010), and

the incompetency of the government institutions to provide social services to the people

(Salamon 1994). As far as funding to NGOs is concerned, it is difficult to find exact

andup-to-date data on aid flows to NGOs through official channels (Lewis and Kanji,

2009).

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According to Abbas (1969), during 1960s, only one percent NGOs were relying on

foreign aid, 21 percent were getting funds from government sources, 8 percent on fund

raising, 24 % on revenue generated from sale of goods produced, 2 percent on

membership fees and 44 % on carryover from the budgets of previous years.

Similarly,Naviwala, (2010) is of the opinion that contrary to the popular view in Pakistan

“87% NGOs’ funding is based on indigenous sources. Public sector contributions,

including bilateral and multilateral aid such as grants and contracts, are only 7% of the

revenue base. Private foreign philanthropy, from individual, foundation, and corporate

sources, is 6%. Of that figure, only 0.59% is foreign donations from individuals, probably

Pakistani expatriates” (Naviwala, 2010:7).

With the passage of time reliance on foreign funding increased while dependency on

indigenous funds decreased. As stated by Fernando and Devine (2003), during 1990s, the

number of those NGOs which were getting foreign funding also increased six fold till

2006 and in some cases they were receiving more funds than their government

counterparts (Brass, 2011).

In order to make the best use of the limited funds, most of the donors were channelling

major part of their Overseas Development Aid (ODA) through NGOs. For instance, in

1980s, funding from international donors "accounted for less than 10 percent of NGO

budgets, but by 1990s, their share had risen to 35 percent" (Makoba, 2002:53). Likewise,

another report reveals that "from 1973 to 1988, NGOs were involved in about 15 World

Bank projects a year. By 1990, the number had jumped to 89 or 40 percent of all new

projects approved" (Michaels, 1993:103). According to World Bank (1997), the number

of approved World Bank projects in Third World Countries involving NGOs was 84

percent in South Asia, 61 percent in Africa, and 60 percent in Latin America and the

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Caribbean, while USAID channeled 20 percent of its funds through NGOs (Makoba,

2002).

The following sectiondeals with the policy changes made by the previous governments to

provide a conducive environment to the NGOs. This was made due to the demand of the

donors and the failure of the government to address the problems of the people. In

addition, the involvement of NGOs in development process was also one of the prime

objectives of bringing changes the government policy.

3.10Government’s Policy towards NGOs

Pakistani government has been quite positive about the role and development of NGOs

since the First Five-Year Plan (1955-60). Furthermore, the Seventh and Eight Five-Year

Plans also contained supportive policy statements, many of which have led to government

actions in support of NGOs (Asian Development Bank, 1999). The sixth Five-Year Plan

(1983-88) was more welfare oriented but had totally undermined non-profit organizations

(NPOs). The seventh Five-Year Plan (1988-93) however, acknowledged non-profit

organizations for the first timerevealing categorically that in-efficient states were

responsible for the emergence and growth of NPOs(Pasha, Jamal and Iqbal, 2002).

The eighth Five-Year Plan (1993-98) accepted the contribution of NPOs as welfare

agencies but these (NPOs) have not been considered as autonomous entities (Pasha, Jamal

and Iqbal, 2002).By and large, government policies were inconsistent towards NGOs,

however, a major shift was observed during 1990s towards NPOs(Pasha, Jamal and Iqbal,

2002). The government’s attitude became supportive of the role of NPOs working at the

grass roots level to reach the poor and in the provision of service delivery. On the other

hand government showed hostility towards those NPOs who were involved in social and

political advocacy (Ali, 2005).

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The government acknowledged the role and importance of non-profit organizations, as is

evident from the developmental plans most recently in the shape of the Social Action

Program (SAP) which is part of the Eighth Five-Year Plan (Asian Development Bank,

1999). Under the SAP, the government launched Participatory Development Program as a

joint venture of government and private sector represented by NGOs and the

beneficiaries, i.e., the target community (SPDC, 2002).

Based on the concept of participatory approach, the government also established Rural

Support Programs (RSPs) at the national and provincial level. The aim of these RSPs was

poverty reduction, improving the socio-economic condition of the marginalized people by

self-help initiatives. These RSPs aims to develop strong and effective links between

government departments, NGOs, and organized CBOs for improved service delivery to

the people having lower socio-economic condition (RSPN, 2010). The government

initiated these RSPs on the experience and model of Agha Khan Rural Support Program

based in Northern Areas and Chitral (Mustafa, Gill and Azid, 2000). The AKRSP model

was adopted because it was based on the concepts of community participation. According

to World Bank evaluation in 2001, “the institutional development impact of AKRSP is

among its most notable achievements. It reported that the program’s joint work with

community organizations has been inspiring and, unlike many other donor-funded

interventions, sustained since 1983” (Lewis and Kanji, 2009:64).

The Agha Khan Rural Support Program (AKRSP) is an NGO-run rural development

program launched by the Agha Khan Foundation in 1982 to boost up the socio-economic

condition of the target communities in northern areas of Pakistan (AKRSP, 2015). It has

been financed by Agha Khan Foundation, and also, by a small group of donors

particularly “British Overseas Development Agency, Canadian International

Development Agency (CIDA), Netherlands Government, Norwegian Agency for

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Development, European Union (EU), World Bank, Canada , UK and to some extent, by

the government of Pakistan as well (Settle, 2010).

AKRSP works for the socio-economic up-lift of the poor people through institution-

building and community participation for organizing communities – village organizations

(men) and women’s groups (HRD and NRSP, 1998). For achieving its goals, AKRSP has

strived through various types of operations including “social organization, women’s

development, natural resource management, physical infrastructure development, human

resource development, enterprise promotion, and credit and savings services” (Lewis and

Kanji, 2009). It has also developed a network of village organizations (men and women)

throughout the program area. For this purpose, participatory approach has been applied

for mobilizing village communities for self-help initiatives and sustained development

(Roomi, Rehman, and Newnham, 2000).

Based on the positive results of AKRSP, the government of Pakistan decided to establish

rural support programs, the largest among these is “National Rural Support Program”

(NRSP), followed by Sindh Rural Support Program” (SRSC), “Baluchistan Rural Support

Program” (BRSP), and “Punjab Rural Support Program” (PRSP) to improve the socio-

economic condition of the rural masses (Mustafa, Gill and Azid, 2000).

3.11 National Rural Support Program (NRSP)

National Rural Support Program (NRSP) was set up in 1991 by the government of

Pakistan as a non-profit organization registered under “section 42 of Companies

Ordinance 1984” with the initial capital by the Federal Government (NRSP, 2013). The

main purpose of its establishment was the amelioration of the socio-economic condition,

poverty reduction and organizing the target community for self-help initiatives in rural

communities (Abbey, 2012). NRSP is currently working in 59 districts in the four

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provinces of Pakistan and Azad Jammu and Kashmir (NRSP, 2013). Like other

organizations, NRSP is also dependent on International donors like “World Bank,

USAID, ACCUMEN FUND, UNICEF, ADB, International Labor Organization and

European Union” etc(Bennett, 1998). While at the national level, “Plan Pakistan, National

Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and PPAF” have sponsored its various projects

from time to time (Bennett, 1998). However, PPAF has been the major funding agency as

more than half of its funds go to Rural Support Programs of which NRSP gets the largest

share (Giné and Mansuri 2011).

Besides that, for providing financial assistance to NRSP and other such organizations, the

government introduced financial intermediaries like Trust for Voluntary Organizations

(TVO) which was established in the early 1990s with the endowment fund of 90 million

dollars by the United States Agency of International Development (USAID) (Pasha,

Jamal and Iqbal, 2002). Similarly, in 2000, the first micro-finance bank, i.e., “Khushali

Bank” (KB) was established as part of government’s Poverty Reduction Strategy with a

loan of US$ 150 million from ADB (Mahamoodand Rauf, 2009). As mentioned above,

these organizations were funded by foreign donors for encouraging NGOs working on

participatory development basis.

Likewise, the federal and the respective provincial governments also provided funds to

NRSP to add to the government efforts in organizing communities for effective service

delivery to the beneficiaries. The best examples of such coordination between

government and NRSP are the execution of “Prime Minister’s Livestock Project”, “Crop

Maximization Project”, “Dera Ghazi Khan Rural Development Project”, “Barani Village

Development Project”, “National Program for Improvement of Watercourses” etc(NRSP,

2013).

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In addition to these funding agencies, the government setup Pakistan Poverty Alleviation

Fund (PPAF) to finance NRSP in the implementation of various projects. PPAF being the

major funding agency to the NRSP is discussed below.

3.12The Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF)

The government of Pakistan established Poverty Alleviation Fund (PPAF) in 1997 to

offer financial support to the participatory development NGOs and to assist the poor and

marginalized segments of the society. PPAF is a non-profit, private organization which

strives to build the institutional capacity and to enhance the coverage of the NGOs and

other partner organizations (Giné, Mansuri 2011; Rasmussen, Piracha, Bajwa, Malik and

Mansoor 2004). Initially, PPAF signed agreements with five partner organizations to

distribute 5 billion PKR over a period of first five years. These five organizations

included: “Taraqee Trust, Quetta (Balochistan), Agha Khan Rural Support Program

(AKRSP) Gilgit (Northern Areas), National Rural Support Organization (NRSP) -

Islamabad (Federal Area), Family Planning Association of Pakistan (FPAP) - Lahore

(Punjab) and Kashf Foundation - Lahore (Punjab)” (Yususf, Shirazi and Ghani,

2013).The Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fund embodies a new model of public-private

partnership, mainly financed by Government of Pakistan and the World Bank (PPAF,

2005).

PPAF is dedicated to the well-being of people by using multi-dimensional, integrated and

participatory approaches to address the issue of economic backwardness and to help in

alleviating the problems of the poor, destitute both in rural and urban areas (PPAF, 2012).

It works in three main areas: (a) income generation activities (b) improvement in the

physical infrastructure (c) women economic empowerment (Yususf, Shirazi and Ghani,

2013). Furthermore, the social mobilization component presumes thatthe inherent

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potentialities of the people should be exploited for the overall development of their

communities (PPAF, 2012).

PPAF has recognized itself as one of the major actors in the development sector and the

largest distributer of social funds in the world. From the year 2000 to the end of 2007, it

has distributed a total of “US$ 457 million to 71 Partner Organizations. On cumulative

basis, it has disbursed US$ 348 million for credit, US$ 75 million for community

infrastructure schemes and US$ 34 million for capacity building”. It has proved itself to

be the main channel of rural development and has contributed in the expansion of micro-

finance sector, has provided an integrated approach to rural development (Hussein, 2009).

As already discussed in this chapter, there was a lack of consistency in government

policies towards NGOs. During 1990s, the government attitude was very accommodative

towards those NPOs/NGOs which delivered services at the grass roots level for the

overall betterment of the society (Pasha, and Iqbal, 2002). Consequently, the government

diverted the funds of PPAF towards their preferred NGOs such as AKRSP, SRSP and

NRSP. While on the other hand, government attitude was relatively negative towards

NGOs which were involved in political advocacy against the wishes of the government

(Pasha and Iqbal, 2002). These events compelled the then government to review the

existing laws pertaining to the NGOs registration in order to bring them in their control

and also to keep a check on the increasing number of NGOs during the 1980s and 1990s.

3.13Legislations on the Control and Registration of NGOs in Pakistan

As is evident from various developmental plans, the government of Pakistan has

acknowledged the role and importance of non-profit organizations in socio-economic

empowerment of the people, most recently, in the Social Actions Program (EighthFive-

Year Plan), however, the word “NGO” still lacks a legal definition (African Development

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Bank, 2001). The non-profit organizations are governed by the law under which they are

registered while the internal governance is controlled by the rules and regulations and

their own constitution, or (as amended and approved thereafter) for regulating their

activities provided that these activities should not be detrimental for the state (Ismail,

2002).

In addition, the Constitution of Pakistan (1973) did not make the registration essential.

Article 17(1) states that “Every citizen shall have the right to form associations or unions,

subject to any reasonable restrictions imposed by law in the interest of sovereignty or

integrity of Pakistan, public order or morality” (Pakistan Legal Decisions, 1988).

However, NGOs need to register themselves with the government under a particular Act

or Ordinance to get some benefits like funding from donors, grants from federal or

provincial governments, and opening bank account in the name of the organization or to

represent the organization on certain occasions (African Development Bank, 2001). There

are various laws under which the NGOs/NPOs are registered but the most important,

under which majority of the organizations are registered,are the “Societies Registration

Act, 1860, the Trusts Act, 1882, the Voluntary Social Welfare Agencies (Registration and

Control Ordinance), 1961, the Companies Ordinance 1984 (section 42)” (Ismail, 2002).

During 1994-95, the Ministry of Social Welfare recommended a number of laws to keep a

check on NGOs and their activities. The NGOs showed serious reservations about the

proposed bill and considered it a move against their independence (Mufti, 2000). The

NGOs sector also presented some suggestions to the government for reviewing the

prevalent laws but the government turned it down. As a result of a series of deliberations,

the government and NGOs reached a ‘consensus’ and the suggestions of NGOs were

incorporated (Mufti, 2000).

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In March 1996, the government un-expectedly proposed a bill in the Senate called the

“Social Welfare Agencies (Registration and Regulation) Act 1996”which overlooked the

consultative process between the government and NGOs held during 1995. The Pakistan

NGO Forum showed serious reservations about the said bills and considered it to be a

legitimizing means for unusual interventions in NGO affairs (Hasan and Sabir,

2011).Under this Act,all NGOs were required to re-register with the Social Welfare

Department within a specified time causing problem of duplication of registration for

already registered organizations. Secondly, the Act also deprived the NGOs from their

fundamental right to freedom and association, thus by making registration compulsory

(Hasan and Sabir, 2011). Moreover, the Act also made the government more powerful to

veto any provision of the constitution of the organization and to control its activities.

Lastly, there was confusion regarding the definition of agency as it declared ‘agency’ to

cover all NGOs irrespective of their registration (SattarandBaig, 2001). While the bill was

never made law, it caused strong sense of helplessness among NGOs sector. In 1998-99,

relations between the then government and NGOs became more hostile when the

government de-registered as many as 2500 NGOs in Punjab, Sindh and NWFP (now

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa). However due to the dissolution of Assembly, the bill could not

become a law (Hasan and Sabir, 2011).

As a result of ‘Enabling Environment Initiative’ which aimed “to create a consensus

based regime that provides for a regulatory role of the state without compromising the

autonomy and independence of the CSOs” (Ismail, 2002) undertaken by the Pakistan

Centre for Philanthropy in 2002-2003, an alternative NGO bill was framed by Lawyers

and Civil Society Organizations. In 2004 the Pakistan NGOs Forum made objections over

certain sections of the proposed bill and negotiations were held between the government

and NGO representatives. Ultimately the Pakistan NGO forum suggested an alternate

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draft which is still under consideration of the Standing Committee of Legislature (Sidel,

2007).

3.14 Summary

To conclude, changes in the development paradigm – from modernization theories to

dependency theories – altered the ways and means that the developing countries should

operate their governmental affairs. It also brought a shift from macro-development

approach – top down approach – to the participatory development – bottom up approach

(see chapter 2 for further details). In the later approach, non-governmental organizations

were believed to be effective means for employing the participatory development

approach because they engage community people in the development process that further

ensures sustainable development.

NGOs are not a new phenomenon, they existed in the past as well but their services were

limited to the provision of relief and welfare activities. The term ‘NGO’ was first

formally used after Second World War in Article 71 of the UN Charter. NGOs were

given due importance in UN based development projects/programs.

NGOs also came into sight because the aid recipient countries utilized them as a channel

for getting funds from the donors. Nevertheless, the phrase ‘NGO’ still does not have a

lucid and agreed-upon definition,for the reason that NGOs have been categorized because

of attributes like location, autonomy, orientation, and level of operation. Still, these

categorizations do not develop an articulated and agreed-upon classification that can be

accounted for differentiation of them from each other.

History reveals that during 1980s, national and international NGOs not only grew in

number but they also changed their traditional role of relief and welfare towards

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participatory development. From then on, an increasing trend of policy change has been

seen over both the donor, as well as, recipient countries so as to make NGOs an integral

part of the developmental interventions. It is evident from the available literature that this

trend has adversely affected the essence of participatory development both in theory and

practice. At the theoretical end, it was seen as a strand of neo-colonialism running from

top to bottom through the institutionalized recipe and gear of community participation

thereby legalizing and institutionalizing foreign ideologies, technology and culture in the

garb of sustainable development fueled by the illusion of modernization. At its practical

level, it however lost its ideal after being co-opted by the donor and recipients. The states

used these NGOs for satisfying their hidden objectives and strived to get more and more

funds to maintain their hegemonic position.

Hence, one could argue that this deep co-option at both theoretical and practical levels

left participatory development a mere ‘fashion’. Before partition of the subcontinent, the

non-profit organizations were assisting people in the provision of health, education,

cultural activities and social welfare. But immediately after independence, the nature of

needs changed and the newly established states were facing the problems like refugees

settlement and other socio-economic problems. Besides government, the informal non-

profit sector also contributed in the welfare activities by adopting welfare oriented

approach.

Based on the concept of participatory approach, the government established National

Rural Support Program commonly known as the NRSP copying the successful model of

Agha Khan Rural Support Program (AKRSP). The next chapter provides a detail account

about the creation and working of NRSP.

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Chapter FourNational Rural Support Program (NRSP) – An Introduction

4.1 IntroductionThe previous chapter offered a detailed account of the evolution of NGOs in the world,

and in Pakistan. It also explained the conflicting and ever changing relationship between

the donor agencies, government policies; and the way NGOs sector operated/are

operating their business. This chapter explains how and why the NRSP was introduced by

the government of Pakistan. It brieflydescribes projects/program components of NRSP.

The detailed explanation of the NRSP’s overall components will provide an insight into

the process of social organization,physical infrastructure and technology development as

presented by the organization. The chapter describes program objectives and policy to

understand the basic philosophy and functioning of NRSP.

4.2 Organization of NRSP

National Rural Support Program (NRSP) was established in 1991 by the government of

Pakistan, aiming to assist the poor and marginalized segments of the society by utilizing

their potential resources – employing participatory development approach

(LandmannandFrölich 2013). The primary purpose ofthe formation of NRSP was to assist

the federal and provincial governments (Asian Development Bank, 1999) in effective

service delivery to the rural masses,improvement in the socio-economic condition,

organizing communities through self-help initiatives which will ultimately lead people of

the target communities to a sustainable development (NRSP, January 2013). Based on

participatory development approach, it has established a network of community

organizations (COs) to launch developmental interventions with the help of the target

communities, sponsored by national and international organizations. NRSP is also

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striving for economic empowerment of the target communities and is known as the

largest Micro-Finance Institution (MFI) working in both rural and urban areas (Rural

Support Program Network, 2010). NRSP is currently operating in 59 districts and 120

Tehsils (sub-divisions) atall the four provinces of Pakistan and Azad Jammu and

Kashmir. It has also established a network of 134 Field Offices known as Field Units and

412 Village Branches or Settlement Offices (NRSP, 2013).

The head office of NRSP is in Islamabad and is governed by a 14 member Board of

Directors. Moreover, there are three Ex-officio Directors as well from the government of

Pakistan (NRSP, 2013). Chairman NRSP is responsible for overall supervision of the

Program while Chief Executive Officer (CEO) is responsible for developing linkages

with national and international organizations to adopt NRSP to the changing

circumstances. The General Manager NRSP oversees the operational and organizational

matters (NRSP, 2013).

NRSP has established 9 regional offices in all the provinces of Pakistan including AJK.

One regional office is located in each province/ territory – Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,

Baluchistan, Sindh and AJK – whereas, 5 regional offices are in the province of Punjab.

The regional office in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is situated at Azakhel, District Nowshehra

with its field offices/field units in Swat, Malakand, Mardan, Sawabi, Charsada and

Nowshehra (NRSP, 2012).

According to the Progress report as of March, 2014, NRSP has formed 75,338 men

community organizations, 75, 257 women organizations and 10, 175 mix organizations. It

has also formed 1475 Water User Organizations. In addition, NRSP has completed

28,581 physical infrastructure schemes from which 1,207,373 households have benefited

(see Annexure 1, Table 1 for further details)(NRSP, 2014).

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4.3 Functions of Head and Regional Offices

The management staff in the Head office is responsible for devising vision to the

organization; and keeping in line to that vision, frame policies for the overall functioning

of the organization. It keeps liaison with the government, line agencies, national and

international donors, and partner organizations. It is also responsible for staffing,

directing, capacity building, designing of projects, monitoring and evaluation of the

completed and on-going projects (NRSP, 2009).There are 13 (thirteen) sections working

under the overall supervision of General Manager which include Social Mobilization unit

responsible the mobilization of communities and village organizations(United Nations,

2003).

Gender and Development Section looks after the issues related to gender sensitization,

and micro-finance and Enterprise Development section provides credit to the members of

the organizations (Khan and Khan 2009). The Human Resource Development section is

responsible for the capacity development of staff, as well as, the members of the

Community Organizations (COs). However, the most important – in relation to the

provision of Physical and Infrastructure Development(PID) – is the Social Organization

and Engineering Section (Zafar, Abbasi, Malik and Ahmed 2003).

In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, the regional office, which was situated earlier at Mardan, has

been shifted to Azakhel, district Nowshehra.The Nowshehra region consists of six (6)

districts namely Swat, Malakand, Marian Nowshehra, Charsada and Wasabi (see

Annexure II NRSP Organizational Structure).Regional Program Officer is the head of the

regional office. The third tier is the Social Organization Unit (SOU) which consists of the

male and female social organizers. The SOUs mobilize the communities and organize

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them for efficient and judicious utilization of resources. The engineers assist the SOUs in

the construction and supervision of physical infrastructure schemes (NRSP, 2013).

As already discussed in chapter three, NRSP is heavily dependent on national and

international donors’ funding. It receives funds from donors like World Bank, Asian

Development Bank, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), International labor

Organization (ILO), and so on. At the national level, Pakistan Poverty Alleviation Fundis

the major funding agency to NRSP.

4.4 MainObjectives of NRSP

The core objective of NRSP is to develop a nationwide network of grassroots level

organizations in rural areas to enable them to initiate, plan, execute and supervise

developmental interventions, leading them to sustained development. Furthermore it aims

to increase employment opportunities, reduce poverty to enhance standard of life of

people (Anis, 2011). For achieving the mentioned objectives, NRSP has adopted the

strategy of “harnessing the potential” of men and women to help themselves using the

“Social Guidance” or social mobilization approach (Anis, 2011).

The main purpose of NRSP is to assist small farmers and landless laborers by providing

them with social guidance, micro-credit facilities with the help of active involvement of

target communities (Pasha, Jafarey and Lohano. 2000). NRSP policy is based on the

philosophy of mobilizing and organizing rural communities to utilize their potential

resources (natural, human, financial and man-made), assist the government departments

in the provision of social service delivery, and link the local NGOs with concerned

government departments and donors. While at the same time, NRSP keeps her role

limited to facilitation and leaves the communities and other partner organizations

independent of NRSP (Rasmussen,et al, 2004). NRSP activities include programs in

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human-resource development, rural credit and enterprise development, natural-resource

management, physical infrastructure, and social-sector services (World Bank, 2007).

To conclude, NRSP supports community organizations (both men and women

organizations) at the grassroots level to make them self-sufficient, leading them to

sustainable development.

4.5 Rural Support Program Network (RSPN)

The RSPN was established in 2000 by the Rural Support Programs, and was registered

under Pakistan's Companies Ordinance (1984), as a not-for-profit company. The Board of

RSPN is composed of the heads of the RSPs, development experts, corporate sector

representatives and senior ex-government officials (Rural Support Program Network,

2010). RSPN is a network of ten Rural Support Programs namely the Agha Khan Rural

Support Program, the Sarhad Rural Support Program, the Baluchistan Rural Support

Program, the Ghazi BarothaTaraqiatiIdara (GBTI), the Lachi Poverty Reduction Program,

the Khushhali Bank, the National Rural Support Program, the Sindh Graduate

Association (SGA), the Thardeep Rural Development Program (TRDP) and the Punjab

Rural Support Program (Rural Support Program Network, 2010).

The main purpose behind the establishment of RSPN was to assist the RSPs in their

efforts to improve the socio-economic conditions of the underprivileged people in

Pakistan. In collaboration with the RSPs, the RSPN enhances the capacities of the

communities and their organizations so that they may better manage their own

development (Rural Support Program Network, 2011).It also shares the best practices of

RSPs with the government, the NGOs, and abroad too. The major funding agency of

RSPN from 2001 to 2010 was United Kingdom Department for International

Development (DFID). The role of RSPN – in supporting pro-poor development through

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RSPs approach of social mobilization – has been acknowledged by the government,

donor agencies, private sector and partner organizations (Rural Support Program

Network, 2001).

RSPN is the largest civil society network and a strategic platform for its 11 member Rural

Support Programs of Pakistan. It works with over 5.8 million rural households in 115

districts of Pakistan’s four provinces, AJK, Gilgit-Baltistan and in five FATA areas. The

RSPs have mobilized 368,561 Community Organizations (COs) (Rural Support Program

Network, 2015).

4.6 Program Components of NRSP and Inputs

The program components of NRSP are enlisted and explained in the following section:

Social Organization Unit

Human Resource Development (HRD)

Physical Infrastructure and Technology Development (PITD)

Natural Resource Management (NRM)

Social Sector Services (SSS)

Microfinance and Enterprise Development Program (MEDP)

Gender and Development

Monitoring Evaluation and Research (MER)

4.6.1 Social Organization

The Social Organization Unit (SOU) is responsible for keeping liaison with the target

communities. It informs community people about the ongoing developmental programs

and of their objectives. It also assists people in forming community

organizations(COs),opening bank accounts in the name of organization, maintaining cash

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book, cheque book and other management functions of the organizations (Biltonen and

Hussain, 2001).

Social organizers are responsible for motivating and guiding people to make the best use

of the available resources. Responsiveness and motivation of the community is a pre-

requisite in any developmental intervention (Bajwa, 2001). The social organizers’ job is

to train the members of the community organizations to make them self-reliant and self-

governing, so that the people of the target community can fulfil their developmental needs

on sustainable basis. For this purpose, the social organizers keep regular contact with the

COs until they attain the stage of organizational maturity (NRSP, 2009). NRSP gradually

withdraws its support to provide opportunity to these COs towards organizational

maturity and sustainability. These organizations then develop linkages with government

and other donor agencies to initiate developmental activities on their own (NRSP, 2009).

4.6.2 Human Resource Development (HRD)

Training is an important activity which focuses on the transfer of knowledge and skills to

the people (Vos, 2003). Skill-oriented training enable the farmers to increase yield two-

folds which show that the capacity of a farmer has been built after the training

(Treewannakul et al 2004).Similarly, Human Resource Development (HRD) is an

important component of NRSP and plays the role of catalyst by building the capacities of

the community people, as well as, staff members. According to NRSP (2014), skill

development is one of the key factors in achieving optimal rural development. In

addition, training is a means of transferring modern technologies, skills and attitudes to

enable the rural farmers to play their role effectively. It also enable the farmers to meet

the needs of the present day by adopting new technologies and increase yield per acre

(Ahmad, Ali, Khan and Yaseen, 2005).

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HRD section was setup in 1992 for imparting trainings and skills to enable people of the

target communities to make best use of their own resources forcommunity development.

For this purpose, a series of training programs from management training of community-

based initiative to vocational and trainings in specific fields have been conducted (Giné

and Mansuri, 2011). Likewise, exposure and excursion visits to other organizations were

also arranged for members of village organizations in order toenable them to meet

members of other organizations and share their experiences. Keeping the importance of

the capacity building programs and the success of the HRD section in 2000-01 in view,

the HRD section was upgraded into the NRSP Institute of Rural Management (NRSP-

IRM) (Giné and Mansuri, 2011).

According to Bajwa, (2001),the main objective of the transformation of HRD section into

the NRSP-IRM was to fulfill the training needs of NRSP staff; community in particular

and the development sector in general. In May 2010, the N-IRM was registered as a

separate unit under section 42 of the company’s ordinance. The N-IRM organizes

capacity building sessions as per the needs of NRSP. Since July 2010, the HRD section of

NRSP has collected and coordinated all training related information to N-IRM to organize

trainings for the central and regional level as per the requirement (Bajwa, 2001).

4.6.3 Physical Infrastructure and Technology Development (PITD)

The Physical Infrastructure and Technology Development (PITD) section started working

by the end of 1993. PITD is mainly concerned with the activities related to the

construction and improvement in the physical infrastructure in rural areas. It bridges the

gaps between COs and the concerned government departments, donors and other NGOs

(NRSP, 2013).The main objectives of PITD are to involve the community members or

COs in the identification, planning, implementation and supervision of infrastructure

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development projects; create sense of ownership among the community members for

sustained development; introduce cost effective, efficient and need based physical

infrastructure development schemes. It also aims to ensure the judicious utilization of

available resources in a transparent way (NRSP, 2009).

To create sense of ownership and ensure sustainability, the community is asked to

contribute in cash or in kind, in the execution of the schemes as per their capacity. When

the identified schemes are completed, the responsibility of operation and maintenance

(O&M) is handed over to the community/CO. The physical infrastructure schemes

include supply of safe drinking water, sewerage and drainage, farm to market roads,

culverts and construction of irrigation channels for irrigation purposes. The Engineering

Section of NRSP provides technical assistance to the community in the implementation of

schemes (Institute of Rural Management, 2012).

NRSP executes the community physical infrastructure schemes through a set of

procedures, which are: a) survey of priority schemes, b) assessment of schemes for

execution, c) preparation of estimate and, d) preparation of portfolio of schemes and

financial support respectively (N-IRM, 2010). A recent report by Khan and Aziz (2014),

validates the contribution of NRSP in improving the physical infrastructure (street

pavements) in Thatta and RajanPur areas Pakistan.

4.6.4 Natural Resource Management (NRM)

This section is primarily concerned with the use of improved agriculture practices,

enabling farmers to earn more and improve their economic conditions. For this purpose,

NRSP arranges regular training sessions for the farmers; organize exposure and excursion

visits to demonstration plots, so that they can learn about the sustainable use of natural

resources. NRM section also links the COs with the concerned government departments

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to get better varieties of seeds, fruit, forest plants and better breed of livestock (Idrees,

Ahmad, Yaseen and Mahmood, 2007).

In addition, training and awareness sessions are arranged for community members

regarding preventive measures for livestock treatment and improved crops, pests and

plant management. NRM-section activities can be divided in to three categories: capacity

building; demonstration, dissemination; and the development of linkages (NRSP, 2003).

NRM section, in collaboration with Human Resource Department (HRD), organizes

trainings for farmers in collaboration with government departments and private training

institutes. While in the ‘field days’, the farmers, experts from the agriculture department

and line departments staff share their knowledge and experience (NRSP, 2003). NRM

sector carryout interventions in collaboration with other sectors like PITD and provides

technical assistance in the execution of irrigation sector projects, while microfinance

section provides loans to farmers (NRSP, 2010).

4.6.5 Social Sector Services (SSS)

NRSP believes that investment in human development; especially in the sectors of

education, primary health care and population planning; are a pre-requisite for sustainable

development at the grassroots level (NRSP, 2009). For this purpose, NRSP extends

support to the CO members to develop linkages with the concerned government

departments for improved service delivery. NRSP also assist the COs in the establishment

of non-formal schools at primary level to improve education in the rural areas, the cost of

which is shared by the COs and NRSP. In this respect, NRSP provides technical

assistance in the form of imparting training to the teachers as well (NRSP, 2009).

NRSPs Social Sector Services (SSS) is also providing preventive and reproductive health

services to community. The main objective of this section is to train the CO members

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regarding preventive health and reproductive care and to develop linkages between the

concerned health departments, relevant NGOs and private sector (Rural Support

Programs Network, 2012). With the active and meaningful participation of the

community, NRSP implement small pilot projects concerning health and education

facilities and manages them for specific period of time to show how such services can be

made efficient through better management practices and community participation (RSPN,

2010). Later on, these education and health facilities are owned and run by the

communities, or, are handed over to the government departments, or, are managed by

somewell-off people. Furthermore, NRSP aims to serve the poor and disadvantaged

people to bring them to the main stream of development (RSPN, 2010).

4.6.6 Microfinance and Enterprise Development Program (MEDP)

The Microfinance and Enterprise Development Program offers three types of financial

services; including credit, savings, and micro health insurance respectively (Haq, 2008).

NRSP is providing small loans to the rural men and women, so that they may improve

their well-being. According to Pakistan Microfinance Network (PMN), outreach of NRSP

is 329,975 poor households. Due to its sustained expansion, it has become the largest

Microfinance Institute for poverty reduction in rural areas (Ayub, 2013).

a. Micro Credit

As mentioned above, NRSP provides credit to the target communities but it does not have

pre-determined package. The credit is provided only for the productive activities which

motivates COs to use the natural and human resources in a judicious way. Micro-finance

and Enterprise Development Program (MEDP) is responsible for provision of credit to the

rural communities, while in urban areas, it is executed through Urban Poverty Alleviation

Program (Lodhi, Luqman, Javed and Asif, 2006).These productive activities, in general,

include:

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Agricultural inputs; seeds, fertilizers, pesticides etc.

Livestock

Small business/enterprise development

Lift irrigation, land-leveling and other productive infrastructure

The criteria adopted for credit disbursement varies from region to region and also

depends on the type of proposed activity. For the first time, the upper limit for borrower is

set at Rs.10,000, however, the regions have the authority to issue credit to the COs up to a

maximum ofRs. 30,000. NRSP strives to keep the credit amount to the lowest possible

limit, to make sure that maximum number of households get benefited (Ghalib, 2011).

b. Credit Appraisal

The Community Organization (CO) is principally responsible for the assessment of the

applications received for credit. The CO submits the applications to the NRSP in the form

of resolution which should be signed by at least 75% of the community organization

members. The CO then verifies whether the applicant is eligible for the said loan or not,

and also tries to ensure its proper utilization and repayment. The social organizer also

checks the applications, and if required, seeks the assistance of engineering staff (NRSP,

2009).

c. Collateral

NRSP credit facility does not require any guarantor or security as it intends to provide

assistance to the poor and marginalized. However, in case of non-repayment, social

pressure is exerted. Moreover, each loan application is signed by at least 75% of the

community organization members – each member taken as guarantor for all other

members (Javed, Luqman, Khan and Farah 2006). In addition, NRSP motivates the CO

members for regular savings before filing request for loan. However, the NRSP staff

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always tries to make the compulsory savings flexible, not to discourage the poor people

(Javed, Luqman, Khan and Farah 2006).

d. Saving and Internal Lending

As discussed above, saving is a condition for community organization membership,

which is deposited in a bank account in the name of CO. When the member’s savings

reach a sizeable amount, the process of lending starts with the consensus of the CO. The

CO then constitutes a credit committee which assesses the applications for granting loan.

If the committee is satisfied and the applicant fulfils all the conditions, credit is provided

from the savings pool on the specified terms and conditions. NRSP also train CO

members in basic accounting, cash book management and record keeping (Zaidi, Jamal,

Javed and Zaka 2007).

e. Enterprise Development

NRSP also builds the capacity of COs in initiating new enterprises and strengthening the

existing ones through its Vocational Training Program (VTP) and NRM Program. As part

of the VTP, the CO members are trained in business development and financial

management (NRSP, 2014).

4.6.7 Gender and Development

a. Gender Mainstreaming Policy

After long debate and deliberations, the NRSP Board of Directors granted approval to the

‘Gender Mainstreaming Policy’ in its 36th meeting held on September 28, 2004 and

informed NRSP management to implement it immediately. The draft document was

prepared on the basis of organizational experience spread over 12 years. Before

submitting it to the Board of Directors, it was widely circulated to the regional and

sectoral heads of NRSP. The draft was modified several times on the basis of feedback

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from the relevant quarters, their input was included as a result of deliberations at the

regional level (NRSP, 2004).

The gender mainstreaming policy of NRSP aims to uphold the endeavors for poverty

reduction; address the causes of economic under-development and ensuresustained

human development. The objectives were to include gender equality concerns into major

policy decisions, planning, execution and evaluation of project activities in all areas. In

addition, it required to develop linkages with other RSPs, NGOs and government working

for achieving gender parity (NRSP, 2010).

b. NRSP’s Vision of Gender Mainstreaming

NRSP believes that gender should be integrated at all levels of policy making, that is, in

planning, implementation and evaluation of all developmental activities. It also stresses

that the objective of poverty reduction cannot be attained until and unless the socio-

economic and cultural barriers to women empowerment and participation are removed

(NRSP Institute of Rural Management 2010). The key features of this policy are to

recognize and exploit the available resources of the people (both men and women) of the

rural areas, increasing their productive capacity and removing those socio-economic and

cultural obstaclesthat do not allow women’s participation in the socio-economic

development of the society at large (NRSP Institute of Rural Management 2010). For

empowering women, the women of the target communities are motivated to form their

own organizations at the village level so that these women can initiate developmental

interventions on their own. For this purpose, the women of the target communities are

imparted necessary skills to run women organizations with the help from men of the

locality (NRSP, 2012).

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4.6.8 Monitoring Evaluation and Research

This section of NRSP is responsible for undertaking monitoring and evaluation studies of

the ongoing and completed projects on quarterly, half yearly and annual basis to assess

the progress of the projects against their objectives. These progress reports are then

shared with the public for information,as well as, with the donors. The Field Units (FU)

collect ‘ground level’ data about every CO and share it with the District Offices and then

the Regional Offices,from where it is verified and is included into Monthly Progress

Reports. The Regional Monthly Progress Reports and the Sector-wise data are combined

into a single monthly Program Update at the Head office (NRSP, 2009).

4.7 Summary

Established in 1991, NRSP aimed to assist the poor and marginalized people by utilizing

the available resources through participatory development approach. The purpose of the

establishment of NRSP was to provide support to the federal and provincial governments

in service delivery, enhancement of socio-economic conditions of the rural people and to

ensure sustainable development. NRSP is also a member of RSPN which is ablend of ten

rural support programs established with the purpose to assist the RSPs in improving the

well-being of the weaker sections of society.

Based on the concept of participatory development, NRSP has established a network of

COs who have initiated community development projects financed by national and

international organizations. It is also known as the largest microfinance institution

working for the economic empowerment both in rural and urban areas. NRSP’s basic

philosophy is based on the notion that the rural people have the potential and resources;

they need skills which are developed through capacity building programs of NRSP.

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NRSP has various components, such as social organization, human resource

development, physical infrastructure and technology development, natural resource

management, social sector services, microfinance and enterprise development program,

gender and development and monitoring evaluation and research. Social organization is

the foremost step for its interventions to mobilize and organize people of the community

in the form of COs to plan and implement its activities themselves. Similarly, Physical

Infrastructure and Technology Development (PITD) is responsible for improvement in

the physical infrastructure through involvement of the people in the identification,

implementation and monitoring of the projects. These infrastructure development projects

are launched on cost sharing basis for the creation of a sense of ownership and

sustainability. Both men and women organizations are encouraged to bring them into the

mainstream of development. It also provides trainings to the members of CO to equip

them with the necessary skills for performing the organizational activities. NRSP also

arranges capacity building sessions, i.e., workshops, seminars and trainings to improve

their skills; so that they can perform their duties in a professional way.

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Chapter FiveMethodology of Research

5.1 Introduction

The origin, organizational structure, field activities and other related information about

National Rural Support Program(NRSP) are presented in Chapter Four. While this

chapter five deals with the methodology of research. It explains how the study in hand

was planned and executed. It clearly describes main research steps carried out in the light

of research objectives and research questions.

5.2 Research Aims and Objectives

It is human nature to describe, investigate, explain, and predict day-to-day experiences.

This instinct of curiosity is the basis of social science research, or whatwe may call the

act of re-examining the social world, with an aim to better understand or explain why or

how people behave (Marvasti, 2004). For Blaikie (2000: 9), it is about “answering

research questions”.The centralaim of research is to contribute new information to the

social world, to address confusions about how social world works and how exactly it is,

and also, to find outpaths to change and solutions of the problems.

At the heart of research process are research aims and objectives. These provide direction

and focus to the researcher in the field (See Francis, 2000; Blaikie, 2000). Even the

selection of research strategies and methods depend upon research aims and objectives.

They are also needed to define the nature and scope of the research (Baikie, 2000).

Research is a travel and the objective of the research is destinations to which the

researcher aims to arrive. It is, consequently, very necessary to cautiouslyregard the

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destination;otherwise, the work could misguide the research-worker and their research

findings (Punch, 1998).

This research aims to evaluate the Participatory Development Theory which examines the

role and importance of community participation in the sustainability of developmental

projects in rural areas.

The specific objectives of this research are:

1. To examine the need and importance of community participation in the

sustainability of developmental programs

2. To get acquainted with the different components of a project cycle used in

NRSP’s community development interventions

3. To identify the role of structural forces at micro level (local power structure)

influencing community participation in the developmental programs

4. To know about the extent to which different stakeholders (community

organizations, women organizations, local power structure etc.) are engaged in the

planning and implementation of developmental programs

5. To suggest study based policy recommendations for the proper utilization of

participatory development approach in NRSP’s community interventions.

5.3 Research Questions

Research question, along with research aims and objectives, is what sets the direction of

the entire research process. Research question focuses and delimits the boundaries of

research (Baiki, 2000). It is the most critical part of research. However, according to

Blaiki (2000), formulating research question is also the most difficult part of any

research. No matter how difficult its formulation might be, it is worth formulating one or

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more research questions, for it is through research questions that successful outcomes can

be anticipated (Blaiki, 2000).

The main research question of this study is:

1. What theoretical approach guides the community development intervention, and is

used in different projects carried out by the NRSP?

However, other specific questions are:

1. What is the role of community participation in the sustainability of developmental

programs

2. What is the mode of community intervention used in NRSP’s projects?

3. To what extent the members of community organizations participate in the

planning and implementation of developmental programs?

4. Whether local power structure (traditional community leadership) creates hurdles

for public participation in NRSP’s development interventions or not.

5. What is the role of Women Organization in participatory development approach

used in NRSP’s projects?

5.4 Overview of the Research Process

According to Whitemore, and Melkus(2008), while designing research, the entire

research process should be kept in mind from the development of research questions till

the finalization of results. In this regard,Polit and Beck (2004) explicate five phases of the

research process, which, according to him,includes the conceptual phase, the design and

planning phase, the empirical phase, the analytic phase, and the dissemination phase.

In this research endeavor, NRSP was taken as a case study because of its participatory

development strategy and the projects it had undertaken in the rural areas of Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa (KP). In addition, my previous work experience in development sector was

also one of the reasons for taking NRSP as a case study. After the selection of the area,

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the respondents or the interviewees were selected. As the study aimed to know the role of

community participation in the sustainability of developmental programs, therefore, the

members of community organizations (both men and women) who were involved in the

physical infrastructure (PI)schemes were selected as respondents of this study. In addition

those CO members were also interviewed who initiated small businesses from the small

loan provided by NRSP. After deciding the areas and respondents of the study, the next

stage was to select the tool of datacollection, keeping the nature of the study in view.

Therefore, interview guide was selected for getting information from the respondents.

5.5 Research Strategy

This research adopted the case study method, which according to Vaughan (1992),

enables the research to link micro level, or the actions of individuals, to the macro level,

or large-scale structures and processes. In case study, the researcher examines many

features of a case or a few cases (Neuman, 2003). Case study is not a specific technique

(Goode and Hatt, 1952),rather it is a method of organizing data in terms of some chosen

unit, such as NRSP for example. In order to obtain such data, one may use all the

techniques which any other mode of organization uses: intensive interviews,

questionnaires, self-histories, documents, case reports by others, letters, etc (Goode and

Hatt, 1952).

According to Hagan (1993) and Yin (1994), case study method consist of gathering

information in a systematic way about a particular phenomenon, occasion or a group to

enable a researcher to know how it works. Furthermore, case study may spotlight an

individual, a group or a community and may use different methods for information

gathering like papers, participant observation and in-depth interviews. In addition, its

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investigation is detailed, in depth and rich,in contrastto the large-scale survey research

(Champion, 1993).

As far as a single case study is concerned, research studies reveal that a researcher

conducts case study of an organization to show how the activities are performed in an

organization and how the decisions are made in certain situation (Berge, 2001).

For the present research, I selected NRSP as a case study. NRSP is an umbrella

organization that functions through its associated smaller organizations working at

community level in different parts of Pakistan. NRSP is the largest Rural Support

Program in the country. It was established in 1999 and registered under section 42 of

Companies Ordinance 1984. The main aim of NRSP is to reduce poverty by utilizing

peoples’ potential through developmentalactivities in Pakistan. NRSP’s strategy is to

exploit the potential of people to make them self-sufficient (NRSP, 2013), and is working

in 56 Districts throughout Pakistan. It has established Regional and Field Offices and is

working with more than half a million poor households. These people have been

organized into a network of more than 115,076 Community Organizations.

Over and above, NRSP’s approach of operations is of social-mobilization byprovision of

social counseling (enlisting local men and women who are going to take leadership roles).

Through offering opportunities of generating income, setting up community schools,

assisting physical infrastructure and extending help to increase agriculture

productivity;NRSP facilitates the target communities.What is more, NRSP has

evenbrought indifferent projects for reducing poverty and shouldering rural development

in the country(NRSP, 2013). Keeping the approach of NRSP and its interventions in

view, on December 2009, a total of 1,458,411 rural men and women across Pakistan

decided to take part in NRSP’s social mobilization process, believing it to be the best

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means to deal with the problems of poverty and under-development in their communities.

The members of the community organizations (MCO/ WCO) are enabled to acquire new

ideas through this membership. They find out how to save and invest money in the

community development schemes.2

An established justification for case study research is that it allows the researcher to

conduct research with limited budget and collect a detailed and manageable data for a

single case (Blaiki, 2000). Likewise, the reason NRSP was selected as a case was the lack

of resources, as well as, time shortage. After deciding the case study, the next step was

the selection of the target area.

5.6 Location of the Target Area

After deciding to adopt the case study method, the next step was to identify the target

areas. For this purpose the researchervisited the regional office (head office at the

provincial level) and got all the necessary data regarding the operational districts of

NRSP. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, NRSP is working in four districts, namely;Nowshehra,

Sawabi, Mardan and Charsada. Although NRSP has worked in district Swat, however,

none of the physical infrastructure schemes was completedduring last two years. District

Bunerwas not selected because nophysical infrastructurescheme has been launched there

so far. Among the four mentioned operational districts, some physical infrastructure

schemes were completed while some were on going.

As has been explained earlier, the main emphasis of this study was to know whether

NRSP has involved the members of the community organizations (CO) and women

community organizations (WCOs) in the project cycle, and also, to know the role and

importance of community participation in the sustainability of developmental programs.

2National Rural Support Program (July 7, 2013). Retrieved July16,2013 from http://nrsp.org.pk/

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http://nrsp.org.pk/

To answer these questions, the researcher selected those areas, where some development

projects were completed by NRSP and some were on-going. In this context, it was

important to know whether the members of the community were provided the opportunity

to participate in the decision making, planning and execution of developmental programs

which affects them. Similarly, the reasons for including the completed projects was to

know whether the people participate in the monitoring and after care service of

developmental activities, and to know about the sustainability of developmental programs

being completed by the community organizations and women community organizations.

Therefore, all the four operational districts namely, Nowshehra, Sawabi, Mardan and

Charsada fulfilled the criteria as some schemes were completed while some were in

progress.

Table – 5.1: Operational Districts of NRSP in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

S.No Districts Status

1 Nowshera Selected

2 Sawabi Selected

3 Mardan Selected

4 Charsadda Selected

5 Swat Not Selected

6 Buner Not Selected

After making a decision about the location of the study area, the next stage was to decide

the sampling procedure, which is elaborated below.

5.7 Procedure for Selecting Respondents

For the selection of the respondents, lists of men and women community organizations

were obtained from the regional officewho have completed the physical infrastructure

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schemes during last two years, or were ongoing. These community organizations were

active and according to the staff members, held regular meetings and savings. In addition,

they were also in regular contact with the NRSP staff. The list provided by NRSP

contained the names and locality of the organization while the names of the office bearers

were available with the presidents and managers of the organizations.The details of men

and women community organizations in each district are mentioned below:

Table – 5.2: Details of Community Organizations

District Men’s Organizations Women’s Organization

Frequency 5% sample Frequency 5% sample

Nowshehra 70 04 26 01

Sawabi 101 05 53 03

Mardan 60 03 33 02

Charsadda 70 04 22 01

TOTAL 301 16 134 07

For obtaining detailed information, the area was stratified into 04 wards (districts) while a

total of 84 respondents were selected through Convenience Sampling technique. The split

of sample size wasmade in the sense that 10 respondents were selected from each office

of the NRSP in each district (40 sample size from 04 districts). In addition, a total of 435

village organizations (301 male and 134 female) were working in the mentioned districts

where 05% from each of the stratum was selected that constituted 16 (male organizations)

and 07 female organizations. In this regard, 02 members (One President/General

Secretary and one member from the general body) from each organization were selected.

This constituted a total of 46 sample size (32 men and 14 women members from

community organizations).

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Similarly, staff members – both from the regional office as well as the field offices – were

included. Among the regional office staff; regional program officer, head social

organization section, manger monitoring and evaluation section, human resource

development section, gender and development section and head engineering section were

included. From the field offices in each district; district program manager, senior social

organizers, social organisers both male and female, field engineers and credit officers

were interviewed in this study.

5.8 Main Characteristics of the Study Area

The province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa covers an area of 74, 521 square km and is the

most important province because of its strategic location. It shares a long border with

eastern and southern Afghanistan, Punjab province on the east, Baluchistan province on

the south and China in the north. It is the smallest province in terms of area among the

four provinces and is placed almost 1,500 kilometers from the country’s major ports in

the south (Planning and Development Department Government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

2013). The province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa has population of about 26.6 million with

average increase of 2.8 percent per year with 39.2% of population living below the

poverty line as compared to 34.0 percent for Pakistan as a whole(Mustafa, 2012).

Majority of the people of the province are Muslims and Pashtuns – Pashto speaking

people (Shah and Amjad, 2011). In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, the study was conducted in

four districts namely;Nowshehra, Sawabi, Mardan and Charsada where majority of the

people are Pashto speakers. These districts where NRSP launched it interventions were

predominantly rural and were lacking basic facilities like clean drinking water, health

facilities, roadsetc (Chaudry, Malik and Ashraf 2006).

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With respect to the landholding, the study area of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa can be stratified

into two categories, i.e., land owners (Khan, Malak, etc.) and landless people (Dehqan) –

those poor people who cultivate the lands of the gentry(Khan/Malak) on share cropping

basis or on tenancy(Bennett 1998). The unequal distribution of lands andaccess to

resources has increased the already existing gap between the rich and the poor. Similarly,

the women were also deprived of their basic right to education. This resulted in enabling

the big land owners to increase their hold in the area and to decide upon all matters

relating to the development of the local people(Khan, 2012).

Participation of women in the developmental activities was subject to cultural conditions.

Due to strict cultural conditions, the women of the target areas observePurdah(Veil) and

are usually not allowed to participate in developmental activities outside household. The

male dominant culture and patriarchal structure was hurdle in the way of women

participation in any developmental activity outside the household (Khan, 2007). These

constraints deprived the women of the target area from getting education, healthcare, and

access to resources and resulted in decreased status in all spheres of life(Noreen and

Khalid, 2012;Maslak and Singhal, 2008).

5.9 Tools of Data Collection

The choice of tools for data collection depends upon the objectives of the study. The

objectives of the study in hand do not focus on quantification of data. Therefore, in order

to collect a qualitative data, interview guide was selected as a tool of data collection

(Blaxter, Hughes, and Tight, 2001). An interview guide is needed before a researcher

actually conducts a research interview. In interviews, most of the time, the data is not

expressed in numbers or numerical terms.

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This interview guide can be used to help direct the conversation towards the topic and

issues that the researcher wants to learn about (Kennedy, 2006). Interview guide vary

from highly structured to loosely structured. However, all forms of interview guides share

certain features: they help the researcher to know what question to ask, in what order,

how to put a question and how to pose a follow-up. The interview guide provided

guidance about what to do or say next in a research interview.

Interview guide is useful when a researcher wants detailed information about some

phenomena, event, environment, or a person. It is also useful when the researcher wants

to explore a new issue (Boyce and Neale, 2006). Data collected through interview guide

provides context to other data and a more complete picture is obtained of the topic under

investigation.

Keeping in view the nature of the study,interview guide was designed for conducting

interviews in the field. While developing interview guide, utmost care was taken to

incorporate questions according to the objectives of the study.

5.10 Preliminary StageofData Collection Process

Before starting data collection in the NRSP target areas, a visit of the regional office

(main provincial office) was made and the research problem/topic was introduced to the

staff members. This helped the researcher in developing link with the staff members of

NRSP which was essential asthe study was about NRSP and cooperation of the staff

memberswas important in data collection. The NRSP officialsgranted permissionand

provided necessary information about activities in the target districts. They also informed

the field offices about this research study and asked them to cooperate in this regard.

After this, the researcher visited the field offices in the respective districts and discussed

the topic, as well as, shared tentative schedule for data collection. The researcher also

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attended their meetings with the community organizations (COs) and got the basic

information about the interventions in the target area. The researcher also drafted

interview guideand discussed it with the regional office staff, as well as, the field staff in

the district offices and incorporated their suggestions regarding the need and importance

of community participation and project cycle. This was essential for collecting all

relevant and required information for the study.

5.11 Data Collection Stage

The field area of this study was not far away from the place of abode of the researcher.

Therefore, field visits were made for the sake of data collection from the respondents.In

the first visit to the community,the researcher took help of the social organizers and other

relevant staff of NRSPfor introduction with the members of community organizations.

After that the researcher visited the concerned community organizations so that the

members of the community may accept the researcher, not as official of NRSP or other

donors. As the researcher had the list of community organizations which contained only

the names and locations of the community organization members, therefore they were

contacted personally and sought their consent for interviews. Occasionally, the members

of the community organizations helped the researcher in accessing the community

organizations in the nearby villages. This helped the researcher in minimizing reliance on

NRSP staff, as well as, the influence of staff members on the members of the community

organizations. Furthermore, regular visits to the community for data collection helped the

researcher to develop a rapport with the community people who freely expressed their

views regarding the project cycle stages and their involvement in developmental

activities.

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Interviews were conducted in an informal manner with the respondents, with the purpose

to develop trust and friendly relations (Fontana, and James 1994). During interviews, the

researcher avoided to get involved in irrelevant discussionor provide personal opinion on

the issues discussed.

Special care was taken in the interviews of women community organizations. For

instance, in district Sawabi and Nowshehra, the researcher personally interviewed the

women members in the presence of their male member of the family. While in district

Mardan and Charsada, interviewing women even in the presence of their male family

member was not consented due to the strict cultural values. This was due to the weak

social mobilization process and the target oriented approach of NRSP. In addition

interviewing women by a male interviewer was not possible due to the possible threat of

extremist elements in the target area. While in district Sawabi and Nowshehra, no such

elements were reported by the local people.

For interviewing purpose the researcher hired a female research assistant, having

extensive experience of working with various national and international organizations.

She was trained into this study and was later on sent to the field for data collection.

Field notes pertaining to important events, information and observations were recorded

during the course of data collection. They were refined later on and were made part of the

data analysis.

After the completion of the data collection, it was transcribed, interpreted and analyzed,

which is presented in the next chapters.

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5.12Transcription, Interpretation and Analysis of Data

The interviews were recorded with the help of anaudio recorder and were saved in the

computer for interpretation andanalysis. Besides audio recording, the researcher’s

fieldobservations were recorded in a separate notebook so that it can be included in the

analysis of data (Mathers, Fox, andHunn, 1998).The interviews were then translated from

Pashto to English in such way that it will accurately communicate its meaning

(Rosenblatt, 1982).The researcher knew the difficulty in translating some Pashto words

into English, however, special care was taken and the opinion of experts was taken in

translating and explaining Pashto words into the English.After transcription, the views of

CO members and staff members were presented in two different chapters.

5.13 Limitations of the Study

Every research activity, alongside its strengths, has certain limitations as well. NRSP is

currently operational in 59 districts in the four provinces of Pakistan and Azad Jammu

and Kashmir. This study was limited tothose districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa where

NRSP is operational i.e., Sawabi, Mardan, Charsada, Nowshehra, Swat and Buner.In the

above mentioned six operational districts, the researcher could not collect data from

District Swat and Buner due to the presence of extremist elements and growing security

threats. Furthermore, in district Swat the physical infrastructure schemes were ongoing

and were not completed during the last two years.

While in district Buner, NRSP has not launched any physical infrastructure scheme,

therefore, the researcher did not select the mentioned district for data collection. Another

limitation of the study area was the cultural conditions,i.e., Purdah and male dominant

patriarchal structure in two districts, i.e.,Mardan and Charsada due to which the

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researcher could not interview the members of women community organizations

personally. For this purpose a qualified female research assistant was hired.

The researcher used interview guide as tool of collecting information from the

respondents both literate and illiterate. Though interview guide proved to be very useful

in collecting the required information especially from the illiterate respondents, but

sometimes the researcher felt difficulty while interviewing the educated respondents.

Although other tools like interview schedule and questionnaire could also be used, but

keeping in view the nature of the study and advantages, interview guide was used for

collection of information.

The study was focussed on participatory approach, mobilization issues, and women

participation in NRSP’s interventions. This study did not aim to know about the

relationship of NRSP with donors, government, and any other issue related to

accountability to the government or donors.

5.14 Ethical Considerations

Social science research has long been concerned with ethical issues in research as it

investigates social, cultural and economic issues (Freed-Taylor, 1994). This complexity

imply that social science research must comply with the “moral integrity” to make sure

that the research process and results are reliable and valid (Bibby,2000). While

conducting this study, effort was made to carryout research in accordance with the ethical

guidelines. Ethics in research is ‘set of moral principles and rules of conduct’ while ethics

in research is the ‘application of a system of moral principles to prevent harming or

wronging others, to promote the good, to be respectful, and to be fair’ (Sieber 1993:14).

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Thus, before commencing the interviews, the respondents were informed about the

purpose of the interview and were assured that the information will not be disclosed or

sharedoutside the professional relationship (Backer, 1999).Similarly, for recording

interviews, permission was sought from all the respondents. In addition, the names of the

women members who gave interviewswere also kept undisclosed as the prevailing

cultural conditions do not allowwomen members to speak to a person other than their

family member. However, their interviews were important because participatory

development believes in the participation of both men and women in the development

process.

5.15 Summary

The research was carried out to assess the performance of NRSP – an NGO working for

the socio-economic development of target communities employing participatory

development approach. The data was collected in those four districts of Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa where NRSP has completed developmental interventions:Mardan, Sawabi,

Nowshehra and Charsada. Likewise, those community organizations, women community

organizations were selected which have completed physical infrastructure schemes one

year before the data collection of the study.In relation to the nature of the study, interview

guide was used for collecting detailedinformation from the members of the male

community organizations and women community organizations and the NRSP staff.

Before the commencement of data collection, interview guide wasdiscussed with the

NRSP officials’ time and gain to ensure itsvalidity and the data was collected

accordingly. Afterdata collection,it was transcribed, interpreted and analysed. Extreme

care was taken regarding the ethical guidelines and effort was made to make sure that the

respondents are not hurt in any way and all the responses are kept secret.

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Chapter SixData Presentation: Staff Members’ Views

6.1 Introduction

The previous chapter described NGOs in Pakistan and gave a detailed description about

the aims and objectives of National Rural Support Program (NRSP). This chapter offers

details about the views of NRSP staff members regarding the ideal project cycle and the

one which is being practiced in NRSP’s interventions. The first part of this chapter is

about the views of the staff members about how each step of the project cycle was carried

out; while the second part describes their views regarding community empowerment and

sustainability in developmental interventions. Views of the staff members concerning

women involvement in the project cycle have also been discussed in detail.

6.2 Activities of NRSP

As discussed in the previous chapter, NRSP strives to improve the physical infrastructure

and provide small loans for businesses to the target communities (see Chapter IV for

further details). It also offers technical skills to the CO members so that they can earn

their own livelihood in a respectable manner. The main physical infrastructure projects

initiated by NRSP include:

Street pavements

Water courses and irrigation channels

Water supply and sanitation

Latrines construction

Culverts and bridges

Farm to market roads

NRSP initiated various schemes in different areas keeping the needs and resources of the

local people in view. According to the NRSP staff, most developmental schemes were

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identified by the community or their representative COs who were well aware of their

local needs. In the past, cash credits were provided to the needy members for starting

small businesses to make them self-reliant. Trainings were also provided to the COs

involving management skills for the efficient and effective utilization of these credits (see

Chapter IV for further details).

6.3 Ideal Project Cycle

As has been explained in chapter IV, NRSP applies participatory development approach

in their projects/schemes. In this regard, it involves community organizations in planning,

execution and monitoring of developmental activities, aimed for sustained development.

The NRSP’s approach of an ideal project cycle – as expressed, from Regional Program

Officer down to the field staff – is elaborated in the following section.

6.3.1 Formation of Community Organizations

NRSP believes in community mobilization and organization to enable people to make the

best use of their resources (natural, human, man-made and financial) for the betterment of

the weaker sections of society, including women and children. It restricts herself merely

to the role of facilitator so that the people can take decisions on their own towards the

goal of common good.

6.3.2 Needs Identification

The identification of community needs is the pre-requisite for the initiation of a

development project. NRSP’s approach is based on providing opportunity to the people to

identify their needs through mutual consultation. It argues that infrastructure schemes

should be given to those COs who are active, dedicated, and hold regular meetings and

savings. The role of NRSPs staff is that of a facilitator who is required to ensure

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community-based need assessment. The job of NSRP staff is to provide technical

assistance to ensure the feasibility and viability of developmental projects after the

withdrawal of NRSP support.

6.3.3 Planning

After needs identification, the CO members are supposed to decide on the type of

schemes such as street pavements, drainage, water supply etc., whichthe people want to

initiate. The CO members plan those projects which arevitalto the needs of the

community. The role of the NRSP staff is to ensure the feasibly (technical and financial)

of the scheme. NRSP staff members prepare the project plan in the presence of the CO

members. Any change in the project plan is permissible before the final approval of the

NRSP head office.

6.3.4 Implementation

The NRSP field staff asks people to form different committees for the operation and

maintenance of the scheme(s). These committees include, purchase and audit, and

supervisory committee, for ensuring the sustainability and transparency of the project. In

order to create a sense of ownership, the beneficiaries are supposed to contribute 20

percent of the total cost in cash or in kind.

6.3.5 Evaluation

This stage consists of monitoring and evaluation. Monitoring is carried out on regular

basis while evaluation is carried out at the middle level and after the completion of the

scheme/ project. In NRSP’s schemes, the members of the CO,as well as, the beneficiaries

monitor the schemes. Beside this, the engineering staff of the NRSP also visits the

schemes on regular basis in order to ensure the progress and quality of the developmental

scheme.

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6.4 Staff Member’s Views About the Project Cycle Stages

Having discussed the staff members’ views of the ideal project cycle, the following

section presents staff member’s views about what practically happens/ happened on the

ground in each stage of the project cycle.


The formation of community organizations (both MCO and WCO) is a pre-requisite in

NRSP’s sponsored development interventions. The main task of the community

organizations is to identify local needs, prepare project, discuss it with the NRSP field

staff and seek approval and support from NRSP – both technical and financial. The

community members are required to form both men and women community organizations

in order to cater the needs of all segments of the society. In this respect, the District

Program Manager Sawabi expressed views on the formation of community organization.

He stated that;

There are three principles required to form a CO; social viability, geographical proximity and common interest(District Program Manager Sawabi).

The initiative to form a, CO depends on the nature of the project: if NRSP is launching a

development scheme for the first time, the initiative is taken by NRSP; however, if NRSP

has already worked in the same locality before, then the activist asks the NRSP officials

to form MCO/WCO. According to a staff member:

CO formation consists of these steps: selection of the area, situation analysis, identification of focal person, program introduction to the community. The members pass a resolution and afterwards a bank account is opened in the name of CO with joint signatories, i.e., President and District Program Manager (Senior Social Organizer Sawabi).

It is important to mention that the formation of community organization is not always an

easy task. Access to the community has always been an issue, but is important factor in

the success of any development scheme. To be able for form a community organization,

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the NRSP staff approaches the community gatekeepers – local influential people such as

Khans, Malaks, Imams of a mosques, teacher of a school etc. – to gain access to the

community and introduce the project objectives. This person then serves as a ‘Focal

Person’ who is required to help in organizing ‘village based meeting’ in the ‘Hujra’of the

Khan or Malak or in the mosque or any such place easily accessible to both the

community members and the NRSP social organization staff. In the first village based

meeting, the NRSP introduces the aims, objectives and philosophy of the proposed

project. PRAtechnique is used to identify and prioritize the needs of the community

which could be addressed by the NRSP. A senior staff member expressed that:

In the first place, we conduct situation analysis at the Union Council level in which we meet the people and inform them about our project. In this meeting, activists are identified and with their help an activists’ workshop is organized at a common place for dialogue so that we can introduce our organization and the project to be launched in the target area. Once community members agree with the aims and objectives of the project/ NRSP interventions, we ask them to form a representative CO of about 15-25 members. The members then elect or select their President and Manager or General Secretary through a democratic process. Sometimes, election or ballot is not possible in the first meeting because of the fear of competition and jealousy. To avoid such a situation, the election or selection is conducted through show of hands or on consensus basis. Afterwards, Terms of Partnership (TOP) is signed between NRSP and the newly established CO, clearly describing the responsibilities on both sides. In the next step, a joint account is opened in the name of CO in which the District Program Officer and President become the joint signatories. The basic purpose of this process is to organize and streamline the activities of the concerned CO (District Program Manager Nowshehra).

The Social Organizer Mardan stated that the basic conditions that must be met for getting

membership in any community organization are as follows:

The interested person seeking membership in CO should belong to the same village or muhallah where the organization is formed. He or she should spend sometime for the welfare of other people, should have ‘we feelings’ instead of ‘me’. Another condition for the membership is that he/she should be the permanent resident of the village and should not stay outside his house overnight‘Cheshpe la kor ta raze’ (Social Organizer Mardan).

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The staff members of the NRSP stated that the procedure for the formation of women

community organization (WCO) is somehow different from that of the male community

organization (MCO). They explained that the female social organizer from NRSP visits

the concerned community and brief local women about the aims and objectives of the

NRSP interventions. She informs local women about their role in the development

process and motivates them to form the WCOs. It enables women to take part and

contribute in the development of their respective communities. Moreover, WCO provides

opportunity to women for communicating their problems to the NRSP officials and other

donor agencies to help resolve the problems of the local people in general and that of

women in particular. Usually, the members of the male community organizations were

responsible for purchasing; operation and maintenance of developmental activities

because the local cultural conditions do not allow women to personally operate and

maintain the developmental interventions. A staff member expressed:

For the formation of WCO, the female social organizer visits the community after taking the Pesh Imamor Khan, Malak, elected member of provincial or national assembly of the respective communityinto confidence, otherwise, they create problems in any development interventions at village or muhallah level (Female Social Organizer Sawabi).

Similarly, the formation of WCO was elaborated by a staff member in these

words:

Women organizations are formed by the women themselves with the prior consent/approval of their male head of the house (usually father/brother or husband). The female social organizer visits the community and forms the WCO. Women sign the forms/papers and the male members of the community submit them to the NRSP for registration (Senior Social Organizer Sawabi).

As already mentioned, in most of the NRSP target areas, women were not allowed to take

decisions independently due to cultural compulsions like Purdah. They were dependent

on their male head of the house for all those activities outside the walls of the house.

Women were involved in household chores like caring and rearing of children, cooking,

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cleaning, caring for the cattle and so on. The exceptions to this was in District Sawabi

where an aged woman formed CO, started her own business (grocery shop) with the help

of NRSP small credit program. She also setup embroidery centre where the local poor

women were imparted technical skills. In this connection, a staff member held that:

The women community organizations were formed when the NRSP staff entered the community and briefed the people about the plan of NRSP in the target area. They also informed the community members about the formation of WCOs. As a result, women organizations were formed and their numbers are increasing day-by-day (Female Social Organizer Mardan).

On the same issue, a staff member of the NRSP expressed his views in the following

manner:

With the passage of time, the ratio of formation of WCOs is increasing. The women of the community form the community organizations and they plan schemes on their own (Field Engineer Sawabi).

As far as the procedure of the formation of CO is concerned, a senior staff member

opined that:

As a result of first meeting with the community, the male members provided names of women who showed interest to be a part of the WCO. Afterwards, the female social organizer visited the community and formed the WCO (Social Organizer Charsada).

NRSP, in consultation with the concerned communities, also frame rules of business to

carry out the routine activities of the community organization in a smooth manner. As per

rules, the wife of a member of MCO cannot become member of WCO. A staff member

held that:

As per rules, the wife of a member of MCO is not allowed to contest election for the membership of the WCO (Female Social Organizer Nowshehara).

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6.4.2Needs Identification by the Community Organization

After the formation of CO, the members were asked to prioritize their needs. After needs

prioritization, the CO members inform the NRSP staff about the crucial scheme. The

NRSP staff carries out feasibilityto assess whether the scheme was technically feasible.

This feasibility is carried out by the field engineers while the financial feasibility is

carried out by the staff members in the district and at the regional office. Likewise, the

social feasibility is conducted by the social organizers, both male and female, to know

whether it is socially desirable. The proposed project is then submitted to the head office

for further approval after fulfilling the above mentioned requirements. A senior staff

member explained that:

For needs identification, we conduct a baseline survey to prepare a multi sectoral plan regarding the needs, problems and resources of the target community. The people are also asked to prioritize schemes and select the one, which fulfils the need of the majority of the people (District Program Manager Sawabi).

Regarding the needs assessment, a staff member stated that:

When we visit the community, we inform them that we (NRSP) are not working for the solution of problems, rather we want the fulfilment your dire needs. If the community identifies three schemes like street pavement, water supply and education; we assist the community in the final selection of the project (Senior Social Organizer Nowshehra).

NRSP staff members do not make community visits with a pre-conceived package; rather

they ask the community about their needs. A staff member mentioned:

We leave it to the community to decide on the type of scheme they want to initiate. As these are the needs of the people therefore they should decide it themselves (Credit Recovery Officer/ Junior Social Organizer Male,Sawabi).

Sometimes, NRSP offers a specific project to the community, like health and hygiene that

was launched in district Mardan. In this case, the community had no option to implement

the scheme. NRSP mobilized and organized the community regarding the need and

importance of sanitation. A senior staff member stated:

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As part of the health, hygiene and sanitation project, we asked the community to construct latrines in their houses, the total cost of which will be borne by the household. NRSP trained the masons of the village in construction of latrines which were built in houses where they were needed (Social Organizer Mardan).

For identification of a scheme, consensus and agreement of at least 75 percent of the

members is essential to avoid problems in the future. A staff member shared his personal

experience regarding the problems in identification of local needs and stated that:

After needs identification, when the engineer visited the community for feasibility, a conflict raised among the CO members over the said scheme. The issue was resolved but it took almost three weeks (Senior Social Organizer Charsada).

Thus, defective needs identification, sometimes, leads to such type of conflicts in the

community which results in the wastage of time and resources.

The process of needs identification by women community organization is somehow the

same as that of the men community organizations. For needs assessment, the FSO visits

the community and meet the women in order to know about their needs. The women of

the community identify their needs using participatory approach and then inform FSO

about the problems faced by them. A staff member said that:

The women of the village shared many problems, but I informed them that instead of sharing your personal problems, select the one which is faced by most women of themuhallah/village and which can benefit majority people in general and women in particular (Female Social Organizer Charsada).

Needs assessment was carried out at the time of the formation of WCO. The needs

regarding community physical infrastructure or trainings were identified in the said

meeting. A staff member informed that:

The members of WCO carried out needs assessment themselves. The women members identified their needs and after prioritization, it was decided to pursue the scheme which could benefit majority of people (Female Social Organizer Mardan).

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Members of WCO and MCO carry out the needs assessment and the men also know

about the problems faced by women of the locality. A staff member informed

that‘womenmembers list the needs and decide one scheme on priority basis’ (Female

Social Organizer Nowshehra). Another staff member held that:

The CO communicates the community need to the concerned female social organizer in the form of resolution. After checking its social feasibility, the female social organizer forwards that resolution to the field engineers for checking the technical feasibility. The field engineer then visits the field, and based on these reports, the scheme is submitted for approval to the regional and head office of NRSP (Field Engineer Sawabi).

The staff of NRSP developed a multi sectoral plan in which the people were asked to

identify their needs. After mentioning their needs, the people prioritized their top most

needs. Sometimes the fulfillment of the need is beyond the resources of NRSP, and then

the staff members of NRSP inform them about the available options or package in which

the WCO was asked for needs identification.

6.4.3 Planning the Developmental Project/Scheme

Planning depends upon the nature of the project. For instance, if NRSP is launching a

micro credit project for poverty alleviation sponsored by NRSP herself, then at the time

of planning, the economic conditions of the community is the sole criteria for the

selection of area. However, if the project is planned by the donors other than NRSP, then

the donors identify the areas for the interventions. In both cases, social mobilization and

participatory approach is employed. As far as planning by the COs is concerned, a senior

staff member stated that:

The CO plans for their own interventions, NRSP only gives them social guidance and technical assistance (District Program Manager Mardan).

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NRSP plan interventions, on the basis of situational analysis, were carried out at tehsil

level and union council level. This information gives an idea about the needs of the area

in general. The information collected at the village and mohllah level is used for the

selection of village or muhallah as part of the planning process. Participatory approach is

utilized for obtaining information regarding the needs and resources of the community.

The NRSP staff came across many problems while working in different areas which were

dealt accordingly. To avoid any change in the planning, utmost care is taken at the time

of identification of the scheme. CO members are asked to prioritize their schemes. After

the finalization of the scheme, CO inform the concerned social organizer through a

resolution about the needed scheme. Regarding the changes in planning, a staff member

said that:

Change in planning is possible before the formal approval of the scheme from the regional and head office (Senior Social OrganizerSawabi).

If a conflict or disagreement arises among the CO members of community over the

selection of a scheme, the CO members are asked to resolve the issue using the informal

means like Jirga, otherwise, the implementation of the scheme is stopped, which results

in wastage of time and resources. A staff member stated that:

In very rare cases, the planning is changed under the Term of Partnership (TOP), and this is the responsibility of CO to resolve the local issues, if any (Senior Social Organizer Nowshehra).

Any change in project plan depends upon the nature of changes. Minor changes can be

done by the CO in consultation with the social organizers and field engineers but these

changes should not disturb the design and estimate of the scheme. In addition, major

changes in the project plan are not allowed after the approval of the scheme. Senior staff

members opined that:

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The changes can be made in the scheme if these are justified and do not affect the plan and estimate of the scheme (Regional Program Officer Nowshehra).

Another staff member stated that:

Changes can be incorporated if they are communicated in time. We initiated a street pavement scheme in District Sawabi that was identified by the community. After the completion of fifty percent of the scheme, the CO members stated that they need pipeline to shift the septic tank from the vicinity of village. The changes were reported to the regional and then head office of NRSP and upon the approval; the remaining budget was spent on the construction of pipeline (Social Organizer Sawabi).

The members of Women Community Organization also took part in planning projects in

their respective areas. As part of the Village Development Plan, the NRSP staff asked

women to identify their needs and submit a project proposal. The staff of NRSP provided

technical support in order to check the feasibility of the project. A staff member held in

this regard:

As women have their own needs and priorities, therefore, they plan their schemes accordingly (Female Social Organizer Mardan).

Changes in the on-going scheme have not been reported so far, because at the time of

planning we ask them time and gain to prioritize the needs and select the one which

fulfils the need of the majority.

Sometimes the CO selects a scheme and, prior to the implementation of the proposed

project, government or any other organization or line agency initiates the same or project

of similar nature. In such a situation, the CO informs the NRSP filed office and

concerned social organizer for alternate scheme or cancellation of the planned scheme.

6.4.4 Implementation of the Project/Scheme

Members of the CO implement the schemes themselves. As per Terms of Partnership

(ToP), the organization members contribute 20 percent of the total cost either in cash or

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in kind. In most of the developmental projects, the NRSP asks the COs to contribute in

cash; to create a sense of ownership among community members, thus ensuring

sustainability. However, the cash contribution is also dependent on the economic

conditions of the target community because community members in some COs were not

able to make cash contribution. In such cases, community members were asked to

contribute in kind. The NRSP released the rest of the 80 percent of the total cost when the

20 percent community share was spent on scheme. The 80 percent share of the NRSP

share was released to the CO in three different installments, subject to the satisfactory

progress in the project/ scheme. Regarding the implementation and supervision of

developmental activities, a senior staff member expressed:

As there is no contractor, therefore the CO implements and supervises the physical infrastructure schemes themselves. When the poor people could not afford to pay in cash, they contribute in kind in the form of providing labor (Regional Program Officer Nowshehra).

As has been expressed before, the CO members are responsible for the project

implementation.The social organizers of the NRSP asked the CO members to form

different committees responsible for daily operations and maintenance of the schemes.

These committees included purchase or works committee, audit committee, and

supervision committee. These committees are formed to ensure timely completion of the

project, monitoring, supervision and transparency. A staff member explained their role by

narrating that:

We regularly monitor the work on physical infrastructure schemes to check whether the used material is up to the standards or not. We provide technical assistance while the CO members are also present on the site to ensure the quality (Monitoring and Evaluation Officer Nowshehra).

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Members of the COs regularly monitor and supervise the scheme, assisted by social

organizers and engineering staff from the NRSP. In addition, people from the muhallah

or the beneficiaries of the scheme also kept eye on the progress of the scheme.

The projects which were submitted by the women organizations, or, were initiated by the

NRSP aimed at women’s empowerment were also implemented with the help from the

members of the male community organization. The WCO nominate two members from

MCO for audit and works committees. In addition, engineers from NRSP also visit the

scheme on regular basis to ensure the progress and quality of work as per design and

specifications.

A staff member elaborated that:

The WCO implement the scheme on their own; however, they have to seek help from the male community organization for site supervision and other related activities. Cultural barriers restrict women for on-site supervision of the scheme (Female Social Organizer Mardan).

In exceptional case, a staff member of the NRSP stated, an elderly member of women

organization in Sawabi implemented a physical infrastructure scheme by herself. She was

the president of the WCO who not only initiated the scheme but also managed to

implement it on time. She also started her own cloth shop with the help of a small loan

provided by NRSP. It is important to mention that not every woman can take the risk of

challenging the cultural barriers due to possible serious social repercussions.

Another staff member shared a success story of a Women Organization in District

Mardan that initiated and implemented the installation of a hand pump project for the

provision of safe drinking water. The staff member mentioned that:

The WCO initiated a hand pump scheme in their muhallah because it was needed there. The president of the MCO helped them in the implementation by assisting them in the purchase of material and in supervision of the scheme (Senior Social Organizer Mardan).

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The female social organizers held that the WCOs were more efficient in savings as

compared to MCO. For women’s economic empowerment in the target area, the members

of WCO started saving money. The members started collecting money in fortnightly

meetings and small loans were issued to the needy women for small businesses. The

provision of loans also helped women to overcome some of their health problems. For

example, the female social organizer stated that;

A women member needed money for her treatment on emergency basis. The president granted the required money, which was repaid by the member in monthly instalments (Female Social Organizer Sawabi).

In district Sawabi, it was observed that the ratio of women participation was more as

compared to the rest of the districts. The main reason behind this motivation was the

successful social mobilization carried out by NRSP during last few years and the projects

completed by NRSP, especially for women empowerment. In addition, conducive

environment for women participation and belongingness to the same community was

another factor for women participation in NRSP interventions.

6.4.5 Project Evaluation

According to staff members, evaluation consists of monitoring and evaluation.

Monitoring is carried out on regular basis and evaluation is carried out at the mid-level

and after the completion of the project. As has been discussed before, the audit and works

committees are responsible for monitoring the scheme. In addition, the engineers, and

social organizers from NRSP visit the scheme to check progress and quality of work. A

staff member held that:

We visit the scheme on regular basis to ensure the quality and quantity, and completion in time. If any problem arises, we try to resolve the issue in consultation with the social organizers and CO members (Field Engineer Mardan).

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Regarding the importance of monitoring, a staff member stated that:

Monitoring of schemes is important because in the absence of monitoring, there is chance of embezzlement. Sometimes, the CO members accomplish construction which is not part of the plan. Such type of mistakes at the time of execution causes wastage of time, labour and money. In order to decrease the chances of embezzlement and loss of resources, monitoring is of extremely important(Senior Social Organizer Charsada).

Quality and quantity could not be ensured without regular monitoring. Furthermore, due

to presence of technical staff, minor changes could be done on-the-spot. A staff member,

while highlighting the need and importance of monitoring, described that:

If we do not monitor the scheme, many technical problems may arise which could not be dealt with by the CO members due to their lack of technical knowhow. Even we do not allow CO to carry out work on off-days on any PI scheme in our absence (Social Organizer Sawabi).

Project evaluation is carried out during the mid of the project, as well as, after the

completion of the project. Evaluation is carried out either by donors like Pakistan Poverty

Alleviation Fund (PPAF) and German Central Bank KFWand the Planning Monitoring

and Evaluation Section of NRSP Head Office as well. A staff member held that:

Evaluation is carried out by the donors after every three months. Similarly, NRSP’s internal audit also conducts evaluation after every three months, for on-the-scene checking and evaluation. They also meet the CO members and ask about the schemes (District Program Manager Nowshehra).

Concluding the staff members’ views about the project cycle that the NRSP have

implemented, it appears that the process of initiating any project was either carried out by

the members of the community or the initiative was taken by NRSP mainly through

influential person/traditional leader. Similarly, WCOs were formed by the women of the

community with the consent of their male head of the house and, in some areas, the

WCOs were more active than MCOs. It was mainly because of the social mobilization by

NRSP in the target area and the conducive cultural conditions.

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In needs assessment, NRSP staff members assessed the needs of the community

employing Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

techniques. In this process, the needs were identified and prioritized in consultation with

the CO members accordingly. If community needs were not included in the NRSP

package, concerned organization was asked to assist in prioritizing the community needs.

Regarding needs assessment in WCOs, members of the MCO helped them in this

process.

The MCO carried out planning for schemes and by mutual consensus, the location for the

schemes was decided. After the selection of the area/location, the engineers visited the

site and checked its technical and financial feasibility. The COs formed various

committees for the operation and maintenance of the work. NRSP planned all its

activities, based on information collected through conducting situational analysis. Based

on this information, location for the scheme was selected. COs also planned activities

using participatory methods by involving all the members in the planning process.

As far as the WCOs are concerned, women members were not involved in the planning

process because of the cultural restrictions, and they planned their activities in

consultation with members of MCO.

The members of the MCO implemented the scheme themselves. As per ToP, the

community contributed 20 percent of the total cost, while the rest of the 80 percent was

provided by NRSP as per agreement with the CO. Different committees like works

committee, audit committee, and supervisory committees were formed for in time

completion of the scheme. WCOs were not involved in the implementation of the

schemes due to cultural restrictions on their open movement, however, they were part of

the committees formed for the implementation of the schemes.

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Monitoring was carried out by the CO members, as well as, the NRSP staff to

ensurequality, quantity and completion in time. The officials from the NRSP Head

Office, besides the donors like PPAF and other agencies carried out evaluation after

every three months.

6.5Staff Members’Views about Community Empowerment and Sustainability

The previous section provided a detailed description on the views of staff members, that

how the project cycle was carried out practically. This section offers views of staff

members regarding community empowerment and projects’ sustainability. Sustainability

here refers to the maintenance of the completed schemes and the efforts taken by the

organizations in finding solution to their own problems. The staff members held that the

members of the CO as well as the people of the community in general took care of the

completed schemes because they have contributed in cash or in kind to it. Mostly, the

schemes which were maintained included physical infrastructure schemes like street

pavements and drains for sewerage, as well as irrigation. The reasons according to the

staff members were its utilization by the people of the community. Particularly, in

District Sawabi the CO, namely ‘Shield’ members constructed a small bridge on the link

road to village Bakhshali. The total cost according to the Communication and Works

Department was 3,60,000 PKR, however, the CO completed the said schemes only in

Rs.2,50,000. The culvert was constructed according to the design and specifications, and

the material used was of such a high standard that even loaded trucks can cross it easily.

The CO members imposed a fee of Rs.200 on each loaded truck to pass over the bridge,

which was deposited in the CO account as saving. One of the reasons for the

sustainability was that this scheme was provided on need-based assessment and the

members took interest in the maintenance of the scheme even after its completion.

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As already mentioned in the first part of this chapter, NRSP has developed a follow-up

mechanism to check the aftercare service and viability of developmental programs. That

mechanism, according to a staff member, was maintained through follow-up visits by the

Planning Monitoring Evaluation and Research (PMER) Section of the NRSP. In addition,

the internal audit section of NRSP visited the PIs from time to time to monitor the

ongoing schemes. Furthermore, the donors also visited the COs and the sites of PIs for

physical verification of the schemes. In addition to the above mentioned mechanism,

NRSP has formed a network of COs at the union council level called Local Support

Organization (LSO). As per its composition, every president of the CO was member of

the LSO. A staff member highlighted that:

We have tied these COs and their members at two levels: one at the village level and another at the union council level. In case the NRSP withdraws her support from the CO, the LSO will still be there at the Union council level for any activity related to development in the union council (District Program ManagerCharsada).

The staff members were enquired about the sustainability of the developmental schemes

completed with the financial and technical assistance of NRSP. They stated that the

question of project sustainability varies from area to area. A staff member mentioned

that:

So far, no such scheme has been reported that has sustainability issue. You know that we ask for twenty percent contribution from CO in order to create a sense of ownership among the community members. In addition, we also keep three percent of the estimated cost on safe side for the maintenance of schemes as and when required (Senior Social Organizer Mardan).

While another staff member mentioned that in some areas socio-cultural factors were

responsible for the lack of project sustainability. He expressed that:

Interference from the local political leaders, affiliation of CO members with different political parties, faction and feuds, and other cultural factors like Tarburwali were the major reasons for the lack of sustainability in developmental interventions (Senior Social Organizer Sawabi).

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Due to above-mentioned factors, the schemes were either poorly planned, executed and

could not complete in the stipulated time. This resulted in the wastage of time and

resources.

Regarding the empowerment and sustainability, a staff member argued that NRSP, over

the years, has built the capacity of CO members to the extent that they can search donors

for their projects themselves. A staff member in this respect expressed that:

We have linked these COs to other organization, so that they can initiate and manage projects on their own. Besides NRSP, these COs/WCOs are working with other donors and government departments like Benazir Income Support Program, Social Welfare Department at the district level for the welfare of the poor and needy people (Senior Social Organizer Charsada).

Thus, it is safe to argue that due to the NRSP’s social mobilization and capacity building

programs, most organizations have attained institutional maturity to the extent that they

can take initiative for their own welfare.

After completing the projects, internal meeting in COs among themselves and with the

NRSP were held every month. A staff member reported that:

The COs usually organize meeting once a month to discuss issues related to the development of the local people. While meeting between NRSP and COs were more frequent when NRSP projects were underway in the area (Senior Social Organizer Sawabi)

Another staff member held that:

We regularly organized meetings with WCOs, but in case we were not able to attend due to any unavoidable reason, we ask the manager to organize such meeting as per revised schedule (Female Social Organizer Sawabi).

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Another staff member held quite contrary views and mentioned that:

Those COs take interest and keep regular contact among themselves and also, with NRSP staff, whose members were financially sound. Those having weak financial background hardly kept contact after the interventions were completed (Monitoring and Evaluation officer Nowshehra).

As far as women organizations are concerned, sustainability of projects varied from

district to district keeping in view the interest of the concerned CO. The people of

District Sawabi and Nowshehra were more open and accommodative to women

organizations as compared to District Mardan and Charsada. In District Sawabi, a few

women organizations were very active in savings and maintenance of schemes after its

completion.

According to a staff member:

An old woman has started a small shop/ business in her house with the help of a small loan granted by NRSP. She also established an embroidery centre in her house to train the women of the village in sewing and knitting. Her organization has also developed linkages with social welfare department for technical assistance (Social Organizer Sawabi).

In addition, these WCOs organized meetings among themselves, as well as with the

NRSP staff. The staff members visited these WCOs whenever they were on visit to the

nearby villages just to check whether these WCOs were functional or not. Similarly, the

WCOs were reported to be more efficient in saving and arranging regular meetings. They

also disbursed loans to the poor women from the saving of WCO. It was found that

WCOs could not operate and maintain the schemes themselves, therefore, two members

from the MCOs helped the WCOs in purchasing the material and supervising the

schemes.

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As far as the sustainability of schemes was concerned, these were sustainable because

these were need-based and cost effective. In some cases, the members supervised the

schemes themselves. A staff member mentioned that:

Whenever we visit the WCO for our routine meetings, we, along with other members of WCO, visit the ongoing scheme to check the quality and quantity of the material (Female Social Organizer Sawabi).

In district Mardan and Charsada, women organizations were formed by the NRSP. They

also got necessary trainings like Community Management Skill Training (CMST).

However, most organizations kept their activities limited due to the threat of Taliban and

other cultural barriers likePurdah.Due to the threat from extremist elements and cultural

restrictions, women could not go outside the house for the operation and maintenance of

schemes. However, there were few organizations, who in spite of these hurdles initiated,

executed and maintained schemes in an effective way.

6.6 Summary

To sum up the above discussion, it is important to mention that the resources of the local

people are mobilized in the project cycle, aimed at the development of local community.

Throughout this process, the people formed their organization, exercised their right, and

decided developmental projects on their own. The schemes were prioritized and decided

after consultation with the executive and general body of the concerned COs. Women

organizations were formed on their request and members of the MCO or their male head

of the house was responsible for the operation and maintenance of the schemes. While in

some areas, WCO members also took the initiative of scheme initiation and

implementation. The role of NRSP in the whole process was to guide and provide

technical assistance to the CO members. Organization members organized meetings on

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regular basis, even after the completion of the project to maintain the project properly.

Members of the organization and NRSP staff took interest and kept contact with the COs

even after the completion of the scheme. The staff members held that community

participation is pertinent to create a sense of ownership, and also, for sustainability of

developmental programs.

After presenting the views of staff members on how project cycle was materialized, the

next chapter illustrates the views of men and women who were the members of

community organization concerning the project cycle.

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Chapter SevenData Presentation: Views of Organizations’ Members

7.1 Introduction

The previous chapter described the views of the staff members about the theory and

practice of project cycle implemented in the field. This chapter is about the views of

community organization members (both men and women organizations) about the need

and importance of community participation in the sustainability of developmental

programs; the various socio-political hurdles in the way of community participation;the

project cycle being implemented in practice and their perception about community

empowerment and sustainability. This chapter is based on the data collected from the

president or general secretary (manager) of the community organizations, because they

were involved in the whole process of project cycle.

7.2 Need and Importance of Community Participation

Community participation, as described in Chapter Two, refers to the involvement of

community in identification, planning, implementation and monitoring of the physical

infrastructure schemes such as street pavements, construction of drains, water supply,

installation of hand pumps, watercourses for irrigation, farm to market roads etc. For the

provision of PIs, community or MCO contributed twenty percent in cash or in kind, of

the total cost, while the rest of the eighty percent was paid by NRSP in three installments.

For ensuring contribution of CO and creation of a sense of ownership, the CO spend the

twenty percent of the share first,and then the NRSP releases the first installment of its

own share in the project. After the work done against the first installment, the NRSP then

releases the second installment and then the last installment after the completion of the

scheme. The termsand conditionswere mentioned and agreed upon in the ToP signed

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between NRSP and MCO before project. However, it was also observed and noted in the

interviews that those beneficiaries who could not afford to pay the twenty

percent,contributed in kind, in the form of providing labor or services. Regarding the

need and importance of community participation, a president of the MCO explained:

We have participated in developmental intervention both in cash and in kind, because for the first time, we were involved in the identification and implementation of developmental schemes. Due to our participation, the developmental schemes were cost effective and more viable as compared to government schemes (President MCO Sawabi).

Regarding participation in developmental interventions, a member held

that:

The developmental projects executed by government were not sustainablebecause of defective planning and lack of community involvement. While on the other hand, the projects initiated and implemented through community participationproduced more sustainable results (Member General Body MCO Mardan).

Another office bearer stated that:

Participation has created sense of ownership among the community. In addition, the CO members are willing to participate according to their capacity in any developmental activity as and when required (President MCO Nowshehra).

The members of the COs stated that before the NRSP interventions in their area, the

officers of the government departments at the district or provincial level planned the

developmental interventions on bureaucratic lines without any consultation with the

target community. Therefore, the people were less bothered about it and

consequently,those schemes failed to yield the desired results. Besides developmental

activities, the COs also made compulsory savings on fortnightly basis. A member of the

general body held in this regard:

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We organized meetings on fortnightly basis in which the members collected money for saving which has reached to one million. We have also provided loans to the members and other needy people for initiating small business, establishing cottage industries like poultry farming and establishing nurseries for income generation(Member MCO Mardan).

In respect to the sustainability of developmental activities and their contribution in the

development of the community through self-help initiative, a president stated that:

We have also purchased land for graveyard on self-help basis,as the available land was not sufficient for catering to the needs of the village. There was no contribution from the political leaders such as MNA, MPA or any other government department (President MCO Mardan).

During the period of fieldwork of this study, NRSP launched health and hygiene project

in District Mardan. As part of this project, thehouseholds were required to construct

latrine in the houses where needed. The total cost of latrine construction was to be

afforded by the household themselves. There was no contribution from NRSP in terms of

money;they just mobilized the community and trained the relevant staff like mason and

labour for construction of latrines. It was observed that NRSP mobilized and organized

the community to such an extent that the community members constructed latrines on

self-help basis in theirhouses.Regarding the need and importance of community

participation, an office bearer of MCO highlighted that:

We participate for the welfare of the community; if we are united, we can do everything for our community. The PI schemes conceived and implemented by the government were considered as Sarkari, while these initiatives were owned by the community itself (President MCO Charsada).

In District Mardan, it was observed thatthe NRSP mobilized the community to such an

extent that they were willing to participate in cash and in kind for any intervention aimed

at the development of their community. Besides infrastructure development, the CO

served as platform for conflict resolution in the area as well.

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A member of the general body while sharing his views said that:

Participation leads to unity.If there is any disagreement in the initiation or implementation of the scheme, the people resolve it collectively using the informal means for conflict resolution, i.e.,Jirga. Thus, the CO members resolved many issues, whichwere raised during the execution of the schemes. People are willing to participate because they have observed the benefits of the scheme(Member MCO Mardan).

About the importance of participation, a general secretary explained in Pashto that ‘Yaw

kashessa she hum na de ... aw yawazekashes hum na she kawale’(a person alone can do

nothing, but if we are united we can bring positive changes in the society).

Like District Mardan, NRSP launched health and hygiene project in District Sawabi in

which the households were asked to construct latrines in those houses where these were

not available. NRSP provided skilled labor while the household paid the cost of material

and other related expenses. A president of the CO said that:

We have constructed latrines in the houses on self-help basis and there was no contribution from the NRSP nor from any other donor organization. As compared to relevant government department, we have completed PIs that were cost effective and sustainable (President MCO Sawabi).

Most office bearers held that the community organizations initiated and completed those

needed projects/schemes for the community that could not be initiated by the members of

national assembly (MNA) and provincial assembly (MPA). A general secretary of the

MCO held that:

MPAs and MNAs have completed infrastructure development schemes like street pavements, water supply schemes and watercourses but we were not asked at the time of planning, nor implementation and monitoring. Therefore, we do not bother about its maintenance. While in NRSP’s PI schemes, we were involved right from its planning till the monitoring. We also contributed twenty percent of the total cost and monitored the scheme on regular basis (Manager MCO Nowshehra).

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The CO members expressed that the funds of MNA and MPA were utilized onschemes,

which were not need-based and were spent on their sweet will for achievingsome

political objectives rather than the development of the target community. While in

NRSP’s PI schemes, we were involved in the whole process, therefore all the PIs were

viable.

Like men organizations, women organizations also contributed in PIs in cash and in kind.

The mode, level and type of participation varied from district to district due to the

prevalent cultural conditions. As already mentioned, in District Sawabi and Nowshehra,

NRSP mobilized the community to such an extent that despite cultural restrictions,

people formed WCOsand helped them in the implementation of PIschemes. In District

Mardan and Charsada, the participation of women in project implementation and

monitoring was limited due to cultural restrictions, as well as, the eminent threat of

extremist elements like Taliban in the area. According to WCO members, the women

organizations could plan their schemes but due to cultural conditions like Purdah, they

could not personally implement or supervise it.

The members of WCO participated in a number of projects/schemes. For example,

apresident of WCO mentioned that:

We were facing problem of safe drinking water in the area. The women had to fetch the water from far-flung areas. Keeping this dire needin view, the WCO initiated a hand pump scheme for which twenty percent was contributed by WCO, while eighty percent was paid by NRSP (President WCO Nowshehra).

It is important to mention that the above-mentioned scheme was initiated by WCO, while

the members of MCO helped them in the execution and supervision of the scheme.

Regarding the importance of community participation and self-help initiative, the

president of WCO held that:

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We have established embroidery centre from a small loan provided by NRSP. The women from the poor families are trained in embroidery/stitching and knitting skills. I also started my business/cloth shop inside my house, which is a source of income for my family. Besides NRSP, I am also getting technical assistance from Social Welfare Department at the District level (President WCO Sawabi).

Among other schemes/projects, the WCOs have initiated and implemented PI schemes

like drains for the disposal of sewage and street pavement. The WCO members were

found to be committed and resilient towards participation in the identification, planning

and implementation of developmental activities aimed at the welfare of their

communities.

As has been explained in the previous chapter thatwomen were unable to physically

supervise and maintain the schemes,they took the initiative for launching PI schemes. In

addition,the WCOs were more efficient in saving and disbursing small loans or internal

lendingto the needy members (see Chapter 6 for further details).

To conclude, it was observed that women organizations in all four districts participated in

all interventions. However, cultural taboos restricted their mobility and made them

dependent upon members of male community organizations for the execution of certain

project activities.Despite these limitations, some members of the WCOs managedto

purchase material for their schemes, brought quotations from the market, and kept and

maintainedrecord of their WCO. The members of WCO stated that NRSP had trained

them for establishing cottage industries, provided them with training – Community

Management Skill Training (CMST). They argued that NRSP had been successful in

mobilising women of the area to participate in the development of their area.

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7.3 Socio-Political Hurdles (Local Power Structure) Hindering Community Participation

NRSP has launched its development interventions in four Districts of Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa, i.e.,Sawabi, Mardan, Nowshehra and Charsada. Predominantly, the people

inhabiting these areas were rural in nature having traditional social structure. Majority of

the people were directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture sector. The traditional

leaders like Khans, Malaks andreligious leaders like Imam of a Mosque have astrong say

in nearly all affairs of the community. The views of the Khans or Malakswere valued and

respected due to their socio-economic statusand being owners of vast land in the village.

The Khan usually represents his village in official meetings at Tehsiland district offices

and his views aregiven worth as well. In addition, the members of National and

Provincial Assemblies, Senators, Ex-Nazim/ Naib-Nazim of Zilla and Tehsil Councils,

Ex members of Union Council (both men and women) wereinfluential person and most

decisions regarding the development of the area were taken after due consultation with

these local leaders.

In NRSP project, the social organizers were able to contact the community through

influential person like Khan and Pesh Imam of the mosque. In District Sawabi and

Nowshehra, it was observedand reported by the members of COs that in most casesthe

Imam of the mosque was office bearer who tookactive part in the developmental

activities. In addition, the Imam of the mosque was a source of motivation for the

members of the community to participate. While in other two Districts –Mardan and

Charsada – there were mix responses from the members of the CO regarding the

influence of religious leader.Concerning the role of religious leader or Imam of a

mosque, an office bearer of CO mentioned that:

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‘Mullah’ was at the top of those who created hurdles in the way of public participation in developmental activities in the area. They also publicized negative propaganda against the interventions of NRSP, which negatively affected the activities in the area (President MCO, Mardan).

Regarding the role of political leaders in creating hurdles in the way of people’s

participation in developmental interventions, an officer bearer expressed that:

The local political leaders created so many problems in the planning and implementation of developmental activities. False propagandas against the CO members as well as NRSP resulted in delay inproject implementation. The main reason was political affiliation with opposite parties (General Secretary, MCO).

Another office bearer of a CO expressed similar views and stated that:

The political leaders did not want others to launch any developmental activity in their area. They wanted to lead the developmental interventions with their name only. In addition, local political leaders opposed all those activities launched by their political opponents (Member MCO, Mardan).

The office bearers of MCOs mentioned that the religious leaders were no hurdles when

taken into confidence. Rather,the major hurdles were created by the local political leaders

who considered these MCOs as threat to their political hegemony. Contrary to the above

statements, some of the office bearers shared positive views about the role of political

and religious leaders. An office bearer held that:

The religious leaders as well as Khan of the village cooperated with us in all the activities (Member General BodyMCO, Mardan).

About the role of CO in resolving the problems created by traditional leaders, an office

bearer pointed out that:

As this (CO) is our own Olasi Jirga (Village Jirga), no problem has been created so far, neither by any Mullah nor by political leader. If there is any such problem, we solve it by mutual consultation or use the influence of Jirga (Manager MCO, Mardan).

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In the light of the statements mentioned above, it can be argued that the local leaders –

traditional, religious or political – were instrumental in accelerating or restricting the

participation of people by molding public opinion in favor of or against NRSP

interventions. Thus, it is important to take local leadership into confidence before

launching any developmental interventions to avoid hurdles and encourage public

participation.

As has already been mentioned, people’s participation,especially of women in

developmental activities was subject to the socio-cultural conditions of the target

community. In this context, opposition from the local religious leaders was the main

hurdle restricting the participation of women in developmental activities. A member of

WCO stated that:

The Pesh Imam of our mosque declared women participation in developmental activities as HARAM (President WCO Sawabi).

Due to the fear of reprisal, women were reluctant to actively participate in the

developmental activities. It is important to mention that the opposition to women

participation did not come from the religious leaders only, the local political leaders were

equally responsible for lack of women’ participation in developmental intervention. In

this context, a manager of WCO expressed that:

The political leaders were against the participation of women in developmental activities because they could not afford parallel organization as it could undermine their political hold in the area. Even the ex-lady counsellor was also against women participation in developmentalintervention (Manager WCO Nowshehra).

To sum up, the traditional leaders were creating hurdles in the way of public participation

because they wanted all the developmental schemes to be designed, implemented and

monitored according to their desires. They were interested to use these COs for their

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political purposes or otherwise discourage the ordinary people both men and women of

the target area to participate. For this purpose, they spread negative propagandas against

NRSP as well. Political affiliation was also one of the major factors constraining public

participation in NRSP PI schemes. Usually, members of the COs belonging to different

political parties were not willingto sit together for planning and implementation of

developmental activities which resulted in lack of participation. Although there were

educated and active women members in the society, but due to cultural conditions like

Purdah,they could not go outside the house to participate in in kind.Therefore, it is safe to

argue that the traditional leaders (both religious and political) were the main hurdles in

public participation and empowerment.

7.4 Views of Community Organization Members on Project CycleStages

While the previous section described the views of CO members regarding the need and

importance of community participation in the sustainability of developmental activities,

this section describes the views of the CO members regarding the project cycle in

practice.


Formation of CO varied from area to area and was linked to the nature of the project. In

case of NRSP initiative for the first time, the intervention was made through some

influential people like Nazim of union council or Khan of the village, or religious leader

(Mullah) etc.

A CO member communicatedin this regard:

We gathered in a Hujra where the staff of NRSP introduced their organization, its aims, objectives and future interventions. They asked us to form MCOs and WCOs for future interventions. The people formed MCOs and selected their president and managers (President MCO Charsada).

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People formed community organizations when they saw the benefits or activities of CO

in the nearby villages. A manager of CO mentioned that:

We (the people of the village) decided to form our CO when we came to know that NRSP has completed water supply and street pavement schemes in the nearby village. We contacted the concerned social organizer.He visited our village to organize meeting with people, and a representative CO was formed (Manager MCO Sawabi).

An office bearer of MCO expressed similar views by stating that:

We were familiar with NRSP, as it already worked in this area in 1991. When we came to know that NRSP was launching its projects in 2005,we asked them to form or reactivate the exiting COs and WCOs so that we could also participate in the development of our community (Member MCO, Sawabi).

It was observed that the initiative for the formation of MCO was first taken by

NRSP.However, after launching some physical infrastructure schemes in the area, the

initiative then came from MCO members from nearby villages. The MCOs were mostly

representatives of all sectionsor sub sections of society and those members were elected

or selected as president and manager who were educated –whowere able to read, write

and keep record of the organization updated.

The process of formation of women community organizations started soon after the

formation of men community organizations. As already discussed in the previous section,

the members of the community organizations mentioned that in the first meeting with the

community, the male social organizers informed the members of MCOs about the

formation of WCOs as well. The male members then informed other people of the

muhallah as well as the women in their houses.As discussed earlier, the initiative to form

WCO some-timescame from the community when the women of one village or

muhallahsaw the benefits to form their own organization. Consequently, thesewomen

requested the NRSP officials to form WCO in their village too. In some cases, it was the

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NRSP staff initiative to form WCO in the village. In both cases, the female social

organizer and community resource persons (CRPs) visited the concerned village or

muhallahand formed the WCO at the village level.

In this respect, the president WCO Sawabi stated that:

The staff of NRSP came to our Hujra for meeting with the people of the village and the female social organizer along with CRPs came to my house. As the people of the muhallah were already informed, the women gathered at our house where the Female Social Organizer informed them about the aims and objectives of NRSP. She also talked about the importance of women’s participation in the developmental activities. She stressed upon the need and importance of forming women community organizations. As a result, the WCO was formed and the president and manager was selected/elected (President WCO Sawabi).

It was also stated by members of WCOs and MCOs, that as per the rules/regulations and

agreement between the NRSP and WCO/MCO members, a wife or mother, sister of

MCO cannot become the president/manager or office bearer in WCO. A member of

WCO stated that:

The WCO is representative of the women of the muhallah and proper representation has been given to all the sub-sections of the village irrespective of family background, class and creed (Member WCO Nowshehra).

Generally speaking, the formation and operation of WCO required close cooperation of

members of the MCO in activities such as male permission to attend meetings,

correspondence with the NRSP, visiting banks for cash deposit or withdrawal, purchase

of project items etc. However, in some cases, women were performing the activities of

WCO without seeking help from the MCO members.A member of WCO explained that:

We asked the CRPs and FSO of NRSP for the formation of WCO which was formed without any help from the members of MCO. We opened joint account and after consultation with all the members, passed a resolution for street pavement scheme because it was the dire need of the community (Member WCO Sawabi).

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The mentioned woman was very active and she started a small shop in her house where

the women of the village could easily shop. She was an elderly woman and was not

observing Purdah. Therefore, she managed to supervise the operation and maintenance of

developmental activities herself. In the past, she was elected as women councillor in local

bodies’ election. She also participated in various trainings organized by NRSP as well as

by other organizations.

Similarly, another WCO was formed by the women of the village without seeking help

from MCO and they initiated, implemented and monitored a hand pump scheme for their

locality.An office bearer held in this regard:

The women of the village had to fetch drinking water from far-flung areas. When we came to know about the water supply scheme launched by WCO in the nearby village, we also asked the CRSPs and FSO for the formationWCO. After completing the whole process,we organized a meeting of our WCO and passed a resolution for the provision of hand pump. The resolution was submitted to NRSP and after itsapproval;the WCO contributed twenty percent while the remaining eighty percent was provided by NRSP.Thus, a hand pump was installed near the household, which was sufficient for fulfilling water needs of the people. The scheme was initiated and completed without any help from the members of MCO (President WCO Nowshehra).

The women members were very enthusiastic to participate in other developmental

activities as well, but their participation was dependent on the willingness of the male

members of the family as well as the overall socio-cultural conditions. As was observed

in District Mardan, the women were able to participate in all those activities which were

inside the wall of the house like establishing and running of embroidery centres, cottage

industries like poultry farming, making of handicrafts etc. However, to participate in

activities such asattending training outside the house or village, the permission of male

member was must.In addition, the growing wave of extremism and terrorist activities was

also contributing factor in limiting the participationof women outside the house.

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7.4.2 Needs Identification

The members of Male Community Organization (MCO) stated that they identified

developmental schemes through mutual consultation. For this purpose, the staff members

of NRSP visited the village and asked the community people to identify their needs.

Community needs were identified and prioritized after a detailed consultative process.

After that, a developmental scheme was selected for implementation. A president of

MCO expressed that:

For needs identification and prioritization, we organized a meeting of MCO. All the members expressed their views and listed five needs, which were water supply, drainage, street pavement, irrigation channel and farm to market road. The NRSP staff asked community people to prioritize the needs and selectone, which was the need of the majority and could benefit majority as well. Consequently, they selected water supply as their immediate need. The NRSP staff agreed as it was available in their package and budget (Manager MCO Sawabi).

Similarly, another member of MCO expressed his views and said that:

In a fortnightly meeting, all the members of the MCO including president and manager gathered in a Hujra for discussing the issues faced by the residents of the muhallah. All the members agreed that in the first place,proper drainage system should be constructed for disposal of sewage, which was creatingproblems for the pedestrians in rainy season.A resolution was passed by two thirdmajority, which was submitted to NRSP field office. The members also agreed to collect CO twenty percent share in advance to deposit it in the bank account of MCO (Member MCO, Charsada).

It was also observed and stated by a staff member that sometimes the MCOs identified

and selected those schemes, whichwere not covered in the NRSP package due to their

budgetary constraints or due to some other administrative hurdles. An office bearer of

MCO told in this regard:

We requested NRSP staff to establish a Maktab School, as there was no government primary school in our village. However, they did not acknowledge our proposal as it was not covered in their mandate. They offered the community members to help liaison with other government or non-government organizationfor the establishment of school (Manager MCO Nowshehra).

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When the CO members identified those schemes that were available in the package, then

the staff members did not intervene and agreed to the one, which was selected by them.

The MCO members also mentioned that sometimes the NRSP staff visited the

community with a pre-planned project like health and hygiene. As part of this project, the

COs were asked to identify those houses where latrines were notavailable. In such a case

as there was no option for prioritization, only the household in need was to be identified

by the MCO.

During the fieldwork of this research,it was observed that the elite class or self interest

groups did not monopolize the MCOs/WCOs or imposed their decisions. People from all

segments of society were given representation in MCOswho participated activelyin

community needs identification. The president and manager involved members of

executive bodyand the members in all the decisions, which helped in encouraging the

participation of the people.

Participation of women in need assessment varied from district to district. As already

stated, the social environment for women participation was conducive in three districts

while in District Mardan women participation was limited due to the reasons already

mentioned. However, there was one WCO that was quite active and the members

participated in needs identification. The manager of WCO mentioned that:

We have adopted democratic process for the identification of needs and usually consent of seventy five percent of the present members is sought for the decision on the scheme. In WCO meeting, a few members mentioned the shortage of drinking water in the village. Consequently, the WCO recommended the scheme through a resolution of majority of members. As a result, NRSP provided a hand pump scheme, which was initiated and implemented by WCO itself and contributed twenty percent share as well (Manager WCO Mardan).

Similar views were expressed by a WCO member and reported that:

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For needs assessment we organized meeting in themanager’s house. The members discussed all the issues and, after consensus,link road was selectedas the most needed scheme. The proposed scheme was also communicated to the members of MCO as it was to be implemented through them, and also, to avoid duplication in the identification of schemes. The resolution was then handed over to the FSO for further processing (Member WCO Charsada).

Concerning needs identification, an office bearer mentioned that:

On mutual consensus, majority of our members agreed to establish an embroidery centre so that the women could learn embroidery skills. The same idea was forwarded to the NRSP office in the form of resolution. As a result, the centre was established in the house of an already trained woman where the local women were imparted the skills of sewing and knitting(Member WCO Nowshehra).

It is worth mentioning here that the members of WCO involved all the members in the

identification of the needs of community. Furthermore, they also involved the members

of MCO to avoid duplication in the identification of the schemes. Secondly, the women

members could not visit the NRSP office for fulfilling formalities; therefore, they

discussed their proposed schemes with them as well.

7.4.3 Planning

As mentioned above, MCO members themselves carried out identification of

schemes.Similarly, the members located the place for the scheme as well.A member of

MCO mentioned that:

Our CO members submitted a resolution for pavement of a street in our muhallah. For this purpose, the engineering staff along with social organizer visited the proposed site for street pavement. They surveyed the location and took length, width and breadth as well. They also met the people of the area and talked to them about the proposed scheme (Member MCO Mardan).

Regarding changes or modification in theschemes, a manager of CO stated that:

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No changes have been made in any scheme so far, as utmost care was taken at the time of identification of a scheme. However, minor changes are usually made on spot in consultation with the engineering staff whenever required. (Manager MCO Charsada)

It was reported by the CO members and the staff members of the NRSP that in case of

any major change i.e., change in the location or site of the scheme, it requires formal

approval from the regional and head office through a resolution from the CO members.

An office bearer of MCO held that:

We initiated a street pavement scheme in our muhallah, but after the completion of fifty percent of the scheme, the members of MCO realized that shifting of sewer line from the village was more important as it was creating health related problems for the residents of the village. Therefore, shifting of scheme/changes in the type of scheme were reported to NRSP officein the form of resolution and, after approval, sewerage line was shifted from the vicinity, while the remaining scheme of street pavement was completed later on (President MCO Sawabi).

The MCO members themselves selected the type and location of scheme, while the staff

of NRSP carried out feasibility process. An office bearer explained that:

The engineers and social organization staff visited the location for assessing the technical, social and financial feasibility of the scheme. If found feasible, the engineers then prepared the estimate and design of the scheme(Member MCO, Nowshehra).

As part of the planning process, the social feasibility was carried out in the presence of

the MCO members so that disagreements, conflicts and issues, if any, could be resolved

on the spot; while the engineers and management, according to their own procedures,

carried out the technical and financial feasibility.

According to MCO members, after the preparation of final plan they were asked to

complete the scheme in the stipulated time according to the specifications and design

provided by the field engineers. In the whole process of planning, the president, manager

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and member of the general body participated with the staff members. A member of MCO

mentioned that:

All the members of MCO participated in the identification andin selection of location for the scheme (Member MCO, Sawabi).

Women were not able to participate in planning scheme due to cultural compulsions.

Mostly the male members of MCO, on their behalf, located the place for the scheme after

consultation with the members of WCO. A manager of WCO mentioned that:

Wehave formed a committee in which one member was taken from the MCO who was responsible for all those activities that could not be performed by members of WCO due to multiple reasons.The male member of MCO also assisted the engineers in locating the place for hand pump scheme (Member WCO Nowshehra).

However, there was one WCO, the president of which personally helped the engineers in

selecting the location for the scheme. The president said that:

I assisted the engineers and the social organizers in selecting the location for watercourses scheme. (President WCO, Sawabi)

Regarding modifications in the scheme, a manager of WCO held that:

No changes took place in any scheme implemented so far,because all the members of WCO identified the scheme after due consultation. However, WCO members and field engineers did minor changes as per the requirement(Manager WCO, Mardan).

It was observed that during the planning process especially in the selection of location,

the female social organizers also assisted the engineers and worked as communication

channel between the engineers and WCO members.

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7.4.4 Implementation

Organization members implemented the schemes themselves within the stipulated time

and as per the requirements of the plan and design. As per the Terms of Partnership

(TOP), signed between the NRSP and MCO, the later contributed in cash or in kind in the

form of labour. As per requirement of NRSP, the MCO also formed different committees

as explained in the previous section, for the operation and maintenance. For instance,

purchase committee was formed for purchasing material, supervision committee for

supervising and monitoring for the on-going schemes on regular basis while audit

committee was formed for ensuring transparency in purchasing material and equipment if

any. According to the MCO members, the staff of NRSP also visited the on-going

schemes to check whether the work on the scheme was going on in accordance with the

plan and design or not. According to a manager of MCO:

The engineering staff inspected our on-going schemes on daily basis and advised the MCO members about the use of standard material (Manager MCO Mardan).

Participation in cash depended on the economic condition of the target community as CO.

If the people could not afford or were not willing to contribute in cash, then they

contributed in the form of providing free labour. However, in most of the cases, labourers

werehired for carrying out the scheme. The residents of the muhallah where the scheme

was executed also provided food to the labourers but that was not counted as cash

contribution.

Regarding supervision of on-going and completed schemes, the president of

MCO commented that:

As this scheme was designed for the development of our own community, we supervised it on regular basis while NRSP staff also visited the schemes on regular basis for ensuring quality, quantity and sustainability (President MCO Sawabi).

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Regarding modifications in the on-going schemes, a member of the MCO stated that:

The members of the CO wanted to change the site of watercourse; for this purpose,majority (seventy-five percent of the members) submitted and passed a resolution to the NRSP office. Upon approval from the NRSP office, the site for the scheme was changed (Member MCO Sawabi).

As reported by the CO members, similar procedure was adopted by other COs as well for

major modifications in the layout of scheme.

Women did not participate in the implementation because of the prevalent cultural

constraints. They nominated one or two males either from their family or from members

of MCO for assistance in project implementation on their behalf. These men were

responsible for purchasing material from the market as well as supervising schemes,

hiring of skilled and unskilled labor and any other activity as and when required. A

member of WCO stated that:

At the time of implementation, we signed ToP with NRSP in which the responsibilities of CO as well as NRSP wereclearly mentioned. As per this agreement, CO contributed twenty percent in cash or in kind while the rest of the eighty percent was to be paid by NRSP (President WCO,Nowshehra).

Another office bearer expressed similar views and explained that:

The WCO implemented the scheme through male members of the MCO; while for operation and maintenance, various committees were formed to assist the staff in implementation and monitoring of the on-going schemes (Member, WCO Mardan).

However, there was one president of WCO, which participated in the implementation of

the scheme herself. She mentioned that:

I implemented two schemes on my own. I purchased material, implemented and supervised the water supply and watercourses schemes in the village. However, the male members also assisted me in the purchase of material (Manager WCO Sawabi).

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7.4.5 Evaluation

MCO and the NRSP staff, on regular basis, carried out monitoring of the schemes. They

regularly monitored the schemes to ensure timely completion of the schemes as per the

specifications and design. They also contacted the concerned staff member, in case of any

technical or social problem, during the implementation of the scheme. As already

mentioned, monitoring committee was responsible for regularly overseeing the progress

of the scheme. In case of their un-availability, two other members from the CO were

asked to keep check on the quality and quantity of the material used. A manger said that:

Two members of MCO (monitoring committee) used to monitor the schemes and if there was any problem in the work, they informed staff members of NRSP for interference and technical guidance (Manager MCO Sawabi).

As far as evaluation is concerned, staff members of monitoring, evaluation and research

(MER) section of NRSP regional office as well as head office carried it out. MCO

members mentioned that after the completion of the work, officers from donor

organizations also inspected the schemes from time to time. As evaluation is a technical

subject, MCO was not involved in it. While the members from donor organizations

visited the schemes as well and got information from them regarding the sustainability of

schemes.

Women members were not involved in monitoring of the schemes as two male members

of MCO performed this task nominated for the said purpose. These men performed all the

tasks starting from the purchase of material until the supervision and monitoring of the

schemes. Women members held in this regard:

As we could not monitor the on-going schemes ourselves, we nominated two male members of MCO for overlooking the overall progress of the scheme (WCO Nowshehra).

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However,one WCO president monitored the scheme herself as she participated in all

other activities too. She stated that:

I personally monitored the on-going schemes (watercourses and water supply scheme) and informed the staff members about the progress as well as any issue during the execution of the scheme (President WCO Sawabi).

Organization members monitored the scheme on regular basis, but the staff member of

MER of NRSP as well as the donors of the project exclusively performed the evaluation.

For creation of sense of ownership and ensuring sustainability, NRSP also held three

percent of the CO share as maintenance cost and released if maintenance did not occur.

To conclude, organization members mentioned that people formed organization when

NRSP staff asked them to do so, or when the people observed the benefits of MCO

formation in the nearby areas. The activists or social workers formed these organizations

for organizing people on one platform – development of local community. The MCO was

representative of the village/muhallah as village people from different segments of

society were given equal representation irrespective of their class,creed and political

affiliation.For the formation of organizations, the influential persons like religious

leaders/Imam of mosque, Khan or Malak of the village, Nazim or councillor were taken

into confidence. The women of the locality formed women organizations themselves, but

due to cultural restrictions, they were unable to carry out activities outside their houses.

Therefore, the members of male organizations were responsible for the operation and

maintenance of their schemes. However, there was one woman organization whose

president performed all the activities herself. She also started a small shop in her house

where women of the village could easily shop.Furthermore, she was also running an

embroidery centre where the women of the village learnt embroidery skills.

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In need assessment, the male organizations identified their community needs and after

prioritization, they selected the one that was direly needed by the community. The

women organization followed the same procedure and selected one need by majority of

the members.

After needs assessment, the CO members selected location for the scheme like water

supply, street pavement, drainage etc., whilethe concerned engineering staff carried out

cost estimation and design. The COs were not involved in cost estimation as it was

carried out by the technical staff hence no need of people participation was required. As

far as women organizations were concerned, they participated in need assessment, but not

in cost estimation and designinglike their men counterparts.

After planning, various committees were formed for the implementation of schemes.

These committees arranged men (labor) and material for the implementation of the

scheme in the allocated budget. While in women organizations, two male members from

MCO were nominated by WCO for the implementation of the schemes as the womenfolk

had their own limitations. Only one women organization implemented the scheme itself.

The MCO members (monitoring committee) monitored the schemes and if there was any

problem in the implementation, they contacted the concerned staff of NRSP for guidance

and interference whilethe men monitored WCO schemesdue to the reasons mentioned

earlier. After the completion of the schemes, the role of community organization stopped

while the NRSP as well as donors carried out evaluation.

7.5 Community Empowerment and Project Sustainability

The previous section describedthe views of organization members about the practical

implementation of project cycle, while the following section focuses on their views

regarding community empowerment and project sustainability. Empowerment as

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explained inChapter Two refers to the enabling of marginalized, vulnerable and deprived

sections of the society for the utilization of their own resources;and sustainability refers

to the maintenance of schemes after its completion and the interest of members in

initiating such developmental interventions on their own. It was observed that in CO

formation, community people from all groups/sections were given equal representation

irrespective of their class, creedand financial position. Furthermore, through participation

the people were able to decide schemes on their own. Hence, there was no chance of

monopolization by the elite or self interest groups.A member of general body expressed

in this regard:

In the past, we were neither asked about our developmental needs nor given a chance to participate. Influential persons decided for all the people and the poor were excluded from all the decisions. While in NRSP projects, we were given a chance to decide on our own and participate in developmental interventions(Members MCO Mardan).

It was observed and discussed in the previous chapter that the CO members maintained

schemes after their completion. As the COs were involved in the identification, planning

and implementation of the schemes,these were need based and owned by the community.

The schemes included water supply, drainage, street pavement, watercourses, farm to

market roads and irrigation channels etc. A president conveyed in this regard:

People maintained physical infrastructure schemes because they were involved in the identification, planning and implementation. While they did not care for those schemes, in which they were notconsultedin planning,implementation and monitoring (President MCO, Sawabi).

The members of MCO mentioned that the completed schemes were cost effective and

sustainable because they put their share and supervised the schemes too. In addition,

there was no commission or profit, therefore, they completed the scheme in an efficient

and effective way and the results were sustainable. Regarding the sustainability, a

member of MCO stated that:

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We initiated a link road in the village. The estimated cost according to government sources was three Lac and forty thousand Pakistani rupees. The same scheme was completed by our CO in two Lac rupees, saving the money, labour and time. The scheme was of much better quality as compared to that of the government ones.The CO members also levied a small tax on each heavy vehicle using the road, which was spent on its maintenance. In addition, the CO members also maintained the scheme in a proper way(Member MCO Sawabi).

NRSP staff also developed a mechanism for follow-up and sustainability. They

retainedthree percent from the total cost of schemefor its maintenance. In case of any

maintenance work,it was brought forward to NRSP through a resolution and after its

approval; the CO was allowed to perform the maintenance work.Besides CO, Village

Organization (VO) and local support organization (LSO) also took care of the

developmental schemes after its completion.A manager of MCO communicated that:

The CO members took care of the developmental schemes even after its completion because the CO organized at least two meetings per month. In the meetings,the members shared their views about the condition of developmental schemes completed so far,anddiscussed other issues related to the development of muhallah and village. In addition, the monitoring committee of CO as well as VO and LSO also checked the completed schemes (Manager MCO,Nowshehra).

There were also some socio-cultural and political factors that affected the sustainability

of developmental programs. A member of the organization stated that:

There are many reasons for lack of sustainability. These are affiliation of people with different political parties, influence of traditional leaders, interference from the local political leaders at the time of planning and implementation,Tarburwali, attitude of religious leaders, self interest groups and lack ofparticipation on the part women due to cultural barriers (Member MCO, Charsadda).

Due to these reasons, the CO faced problemseither at the time of planning or

implementation, or, in some cases in both. In addition, due to Tarburwalithe people of the

same family or cast did not agree to sit together and plan or initiate developmental

schemes.Similarly, affiliation with different political parties was another contributing

factor, as the CO members as well as the community members were affiliated to some

political party. They wanted that the credit should not go to the rival parties. Therefore,

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they created problems, which ultimately led to the failure of the schemes. In addition,

some CO members were also working against the principle of community participation

and monopolized the COs for their personal interests. A member of MCO held that:

Some of the CO presidents and managers hijacked the schemes and they initiated, planned and executed it on their own for personal benefits. Consequently, they used sub-standard material and the CO members were not involved in the monitoring as well as follow-up of the schemes, which resulted in the wastage of resources of NRSP and CO (Member, MCO Mardan).

Concerning the meetings of CO members among themselves and with the NRSP, it was

observed that in district Charsada most projects were completed while in the rest of the

three districts some projects were completed while some were on going. A president

expressed his views and said that:

We organize the CO meetings on regular basis even after the completion of the project. Besides NRSP schemes, we also discuss other issues related to the welfare of the community. Sometimes the social organiser or the community resource persons also attend the meeting (President MCO, Charsada).

Similar views were expressed by a CO member and said that the community resource

person attended the meetings of the CO after the completion of the project. While a staff

member mentioned that after the project completion, the CO organize their meetings but

we seldom attend it, because we have already created awareness among the members and

now it is their responsibility to organize meetings without the presence of NRSP staff.

Regarding the interest of the MCO members and NRSP staff after the completion of the

project, a manager replied that:

The MCO members take interest after the completion of the project because they regularly participate in the developmental activities on self-help basis and they consider it as their own. In addition, the NRSP has built the capacity of the CO members and they are aware of the importance of participation (Manager MCO Nowshehra).

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The members of the MCO stated that people have realized the importance of community

participation and are willing to contribute in cash and in kind in any project/scheme

aimed at community development. Alongside NRSP projects, they also launch projects

for their own welfare and raise funds (Chanda) from the local people. A president of the

MCO held that:

The CO members take interest because through these initiatives, we have solved all those problems of the people, which the members of provincial and national assembly could not (President MCO Mardan).

The MCO members also mentioned that they have constructed latrines without any

financial contribution from NRSP.

As far as women empowerment and sustainability is concerned, participation of women

in maintaining the schemes largely depended on the socio-cultural conditions of the target

community. Due to cultural conditions, women were not able to participate in the

maintenance of the schemes;hence, the men members of community organizations looked

after the schemes on their behalf. A president of WCO held that:

We have completed watercourses scheme in our village, but our men did not allow us to go outside our homes for its maintenance. The male members of MCO helped us in the maintenance of schemes(President WCO Charsada).

However, the community people were aware and sensitized to the extent that there was

one Local Support Organization (LSO) where the men members elected a woman as their

chairperson and she actively participated in all the activities along with men.

The organization members also stated that the women members took interest even after

the completion of the project. Awoman member stated that:

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The active members took interest even after the completion of the project. They planned activities for the overall development of the community in general and for women in particular (Member WCO Sawabi).

It was also observed that after the completion of schemes, the women members organized

regular meetings in the house of the president or manager. In those fortnightly meetings,

members of WCO also collected money for saving. The women members were reported

to be more efficient in saving as compared to the men organizations. A member stated

that:

We organize meetings even after the winding up of a PI schemebecause WCO organizes other activities too on regular basis; like running of training centre for women, organizing training sessions for WCO members and planning for the future events (Member WCO Nowshehra).

The WCO members also reported that the community resource persons from the NRSP

also attended the said meeting to know about the issues confronted by them.

The WCOs also launched independent projects/schemes and launched interventions

related to women empowerment. The member of WCO and MCO reported that:

Our organization initiated projects for the empowerment of local women which included starting a small shop to dye clothes, setting up of training institute for imparting training to the local women in art of knitting and sewing. In addition to these, they also granted small loans to the needy members at the time of need (Member WCO Sawabi).

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7.6 Summary

The data presented in this chapter is based on the views of community organization

members, both men and women. Community organizations were set up with the aim to

improve the socio-economic conditions of the target community. The initiative to form a

community organization sometimes came from the village activists/social workers or it

was pre-requisite for the NRSP funded infrastructure development project/scheme. In

most cases, members of the community organizations prioritized their needs and

submitted a project proposal to the NRSP for financial and technical assistance. However,

NRSP initiated projects in those areas from where the community initiative was not

forthcoming.

Women organizations were also established to improve the living standards of the

womenfolk in the community. Although different socio-cultural factors restricted the

participation of women in the developmental interventions, yet a number of projects were

successfully completed in the target communities with the help of active involvement of

women through the platform of Women Community Organization duly supported by the

NRSP.

The projects initiated and implemented with the support of NRSP were sustainable

because these projects were initiated by the community people with their active

participation in all stages of project cycle. The members of community organization

continued to support the projects and kept liaison with NRSP to ensure the sustainability

of the completed projects.

Opposition to the projects/schemes came from different people; especially from the local

political leadership. Affiliation of community people tovarious political parties and

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interference from the local political leadership hindered the sustainability of

developmental interventions. In addition, the role played by the religious leaders was also

not conducive to encourage participation of community people in the developmental

projects, especially women.

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Chapter EightBridging the Gapbetween Theory and Practice in National Rural

Support Programme (NRSP)

8.1 Introduction

The previous chapters offered anelaborate discussion about NRSP interventions. Chapter

Four described historical background of NGOs in Pakistan, and its dependence on foreign

and local donor agencies. It also highlighted the causes of mushroom growth of NGOs

and the policy changes made by the government of Pakistan to accommodate them as per

the demand of the donors. Chapter Five provided a detailed account of the establishment

of NRSP, it vision, mission, objectives and projects. The previous two chapters, i.e.,

Chapter Six and Seven presented views of the staff members and members of the

community organizations (both men and women) regarding the needs and importance of

community participation and the projects cycle.

In this chapter, the views of the respondents aboutthe establishment of NRSP are

analysed. Moreover, NSRP’sbasic philosophy and the way participatory development

was employed in its interventions is also studied.For clarity and understanding, the

chapter has been properly organized. It starts with a critical discussion on the reasons for

the establishment of NRSP. It highlights significant changes made by the government for

creating supportive environment for the establishment of NGOs. It also discusses the

nature of relationship between NRSP with donors and its overall impact on participatory

development theory. The chapter furtheranalyses NRSP’s community participation

strategy and the role of traditional leaders (local power structure) in influencing

participatory development feasibility.NRSP’s gender mainstreaming policy and its rolein

implementing GAD theory in its developmental interventions are also discussed in this

chapter.

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8.2 The Establishment of NRSP

The NRSP was established by the government of Pakistan in 1991 to supplement the

governmental efforts in the field of rural development, poverty reduction and organizing

communities for self-help initiatives. Its basic philosophy was to involve the local people

in planning; decision making, implementation and monitoring of developmental projects

(see Chapter Four for further details). As already discussed in Chapter Four, 1980’s saw a

mushroom growth of NGOs owing to multiple factors including democratic culture,

supportive environment, and the inefficiency of the government in service delivery to the

people (Lewis 2010, Salamon, 1994, Robinson 1993). On the other hand, the non-profit

or NGO sector was known for its cost effectiveness, efficiency (Howell and Pearce,

2001), flexibility, innovativeness, dedication to empowering the weaker sections of

society(Katz, 1999).In addition, pressure from the donor agencies to provide conducive

environment for the growth of NGOs was also contributing factor in the establishment of

participatory development NGOs like NRSP (Pasha, Jamal and Iqbal, 2002). The reasons

for involving NGOs were to make the government accountable to the people, so that all

those policies which affect their lives can be made in accordance with their culture, needs

and requirements (Petras and Veltmeyer 2001), however, the data collected in this study

found that the desire of making the government accountable to the people is still not

materialized.

The basic philosophy behind the establishment of NRSP by the then government was to

fulfil the condition of the donors, but the government also wanted to establish such NGOs

which could be run according to the will of the government and could also be used for

fulfilling their political objectives. As is evident, the Chief Executive of NRSP is not only

appointed/deputed by the government to look after the affairs of the NRSP; but also, the

board of directors’ membersinclude the nominees of the government.In addition, the

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government arrangesdevelopmental funds from the international funding agencies to

support the activities of the NRSP (Bennett, 1998).Thus, it can be said that NRSP seems

to be Government Organized NGO (GONGO) (see Chapter Two for more details on

GONGO). The data collected in this study also confirm that the activities of NRSP were

controlled by the government directly and indirectly. Therefore, its claim of reaching the

impoverished people and empowering them to decide on their own at all the stages of PI

schemes remains a distant dream which is not fully materialized.

Although the government, from time to time, provided a supportive environment to

NGOs for assisting the government in service delivery, sometimes, the government has

curtailed its independence by imposing laws as well. In this connection, as discussed in

Chapter 6, the government introduced a number of laws,first in 1994-95 and then in

March 1996 to keep strict check on NGOs andtheir activities (Mufti, 2000). Under the

proposed bill of 1996, the NGOs were required to re-register with the governmental

authorities within a specified time period to avoid duplication with already registered

organizations and making the registration compulsory (Hasan and Sabir 2011). The main

reasons of imposing such laws were to bring these NGOs and their sources of funding

and activities under government control. The proposed legislation also aimed at making

the government more authoritative to veto any provision of the constitution of the

organization and to control its activities. Such endeavours were considered as controlling

NGOs potential to influence local and national level policy. Here, question ariseswhether

government has worked for ensuring participatory development, and what role has the

government played in providing a friendly environment to NGOs to flourish? The

answers to these questions will be found in the following section.

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8.3 Changes in Government Policy and NRSP

As mentioned above, NRSP served as an agent between the government and the people,

and the decisions of the government had direct and indirect impact on the decisions of

NRSP. As a result of policy changes, PPAF was established for sponsoring those NGOs,

as discussed in Chapter Four, which were working as per the directives of the

government. Even the policy changes made by the government for establishing fund

(PPAF) for supporting the SRSP through it, as discussed in Chapter Four proved to be

means of controlling NRSP decisions to adopt government plans, and also, to comply

with the demands of the donors. The establishment of PPAF was undoubtedly a positive

step for sustaining NGOs, however, it was found in this study that the government, by

sponsoring these NGOs, made them accountable to themselves (government) instead of

people. PPAF also made NRSP accountable in terms of showing quantitative progress to

both the government and the donoragencies. .

During the 1980s and 1990s, as mentioned in Chapter Two, increase in Official

Development Assistance (ODA) channelled through NGOs was one of the significant

factors in nourishing the NGO sector (Agg, 2006). As far as funding to NGOs and their

accountability is concerned, affiliation with Western NGOs provided local NGOs an

opportunity to get huge funds, but at the cost of their independence and their conditions

to plan and execute those projects which were not according to the needs of community

(Petras and Veltmeyer, 2001). Furthermore, these NGOs are blamed for being controlled

by the foreign donor agencies. According to Baccaro (2001), these NGOs became

“Trojan horses” for a new form of imperialism rather than agent of self-empowerment

and grassroots development. While a research study of Bebbington (1997), revealed that

the establishment of such funds looked like a new method of states to control NGOs and

utilize NGOs in accordance with their own aspirations. He called these NGOs as ‘sub

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contractors’ obeying the state commands. Similarly, NRSP can also be termed as

‘contractor’ which worked for providing the same services to the people through foreign

aid/funding. Community organization members also held that NRSP seldom stressed on

involving the poor people in decision making, planning and implementation of the

projects. Rather it works like a government department for the provision for social

services on its own terms and conditions. Likewise,Haque (2004) and Najam (2000)

stated that the procedure adopted by the state to control NGOs was the setting up of ‘fund

pool’ in country like Bangladesh where funds could be deposited and then released to the

favourite NGOs. In this way the government has tried to monitor the funds coming to

NGOs and making them accountable as well. The above discussion reveals that in such

situations, the NRSP may not be able to achieve the goal of participatory development

(Kaldor, 2003). It rather acts on the directives of the government and for the achievement

of donors (World Bank& PPAF) targets by implementing participatory development

approach, as highlighted by staff members of NRSP. As discussed before, PPAF was

initiated and used by the government to exert influence over NGOs such as NRSP and its

interventions.Thenext section deals with how PPAF channelized World Bank and other

International donors’ funds to NRSP. Therefore,the following discussion analyzes how

donors affect the NRSP’s participatory development model.

8.4 NRSP and Donor Agencies

As discussed before, NRSP was established by the government over the successful model

of AKRSP to imitate and implement its participatory development strategy. The main

reason of its establishment was the donor’s pressure to involve NGOs if they are in need

of funds for their developmental projects. The reports and other documents of NRSP also

validate as was discussed in Chapter Four.

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Edwards and Hulme (1995) have also highlighted that since the end of Cold War in 1989,

international donor organizations have followed a “New Policy Agenda” which

recognizes the role and importance of NGOs in socio-economic development of the

society. Under this agenda the state/governments were required to involve NGOs in

developmental interventions if they were in need of any funds.

Another reason behind the phenomenal increase of NGOs during 1980s-1990s was the

disappointment of the donors with the performance of the government/states in the

provision of service delivery as well as lack of accountability to the community(Barr,

Fafchamps, Owens,2005; Gill, 1997). In addition, increase in Official Development

Assistance to NGOs in the same period,which was channeled through NGOs, was also

one of the major factors in increasing the number of NGOs. During this period

international donors not only increased their funding to the developed states but the

developing countries as well, making them accountable to the donors instead of the

community (Agg 2006;Bebbigton 1997).

Similarly, NRSP like other NGOs, was sponsored by International donors like World

Bank, Asian Development Bank, UNICEF etc. through PPAF (see Chapter Four for more

details). According to the NRSP staff members, they (staff members) work for attainting

set targets like formation of specific number of MCOs and WCOs in a specific time,

launching and completing specific number of PI schemes and the disbursing of credit

among the organization members in a definite time period, as described in Chapter

Four.Consequently, those targets were achieved without properly involving the target

community, or at the cost of participatory development theory.

As NRSP was totally dependent on foreign donors, therefore, it had to working

accordance with their plans and agenda. The staff members mentioned that at times, for

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achieving the already set targets, they had to adopt target oriented approach instead of

following the process of organization building;otherwise, in case of failure to attain the

set targets, the donors would have to stop funding to the NRPS.The same has also been

recognized byAndrews (2014) that the donors abuse their powers of punishment or

stopping the funds to NGOs by imposing conditionality in case they do not achieve the

desired targets.

In this way, the real problems could not properly be identified, causing problems both for

the NGO staff and the target community. The staff members also formed men and

women organizations as per the donors’ targets without following the process for the

formation of community organizations as already mentioned in Chapter Six and Seven.

Hence, they do not always follow the process of the project cycle and only concentrateon

target achievement instead of building organization. The MCO members also confirmed

that sometimes the NRSP staff members ask us to carry out an intervention in a specific

time like the WASH project which was underway during the field work of this research

study in three districts of the target areas. Under this project, the MCOs were required to

construct specific number of latrines in a specified time in those households where they

were not available. In addition, the cost of the schemes was to be afforded by the

households themselves. Such restrictions were hurdles in the way of materializing the

NRSP’s participatory development theory.The above discussion makes it clear that

donors’ constraint and conditionality hindered the participatory development theory.

Moreover, the staff members and the organization members also held that developmental

projects were not sustainable as these were imposed by the donors and were not need

based.Similarly,Elbers and Arts, (2011)and Epstein and Gang (2006) arguethat contrary

to establishednotion, NGOs face significant problems in tailoring programs to local

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needs. A competitive funding environment means that their plan must be according to the

donor priorities and interests.

Confirming the negative relations between donors restrictions and community

participation, Banks, Hulmeand Edwards (2014) argued that tensions between different

priorities of donors and the Zapatista movement in Mexico illustrate how donor

requirements prevented NGOs from prioritizing the grassroots needs. Likewise,

AbouAssi (2013) investigated how environmental NGOs in Lebanon changed their

programmatic focus to adjust to changing donor priorities.

8.5Accountability Problems in NRSP

The large-scale decrease in public spending, as elaborated in Chapter Two, and

dissatisfaction with the services provided by the state and the failure of ‘top-down’

development opened new avenues for the growth of NGOs during 1980s and 1990s.

NGOs were considered as more efficient in reaching the beneficiaries at the grassroots

level and became the new “Sweethearts” of development (Kamat, 2004). In addition,

NGOs were preferred because of their apparent advantages as grassroots-oriented

‘democratizers’ of development (Bebbington, 2005), downward accountability, cost

effectiveness (Dicklitch and Lwanga 2003) and the ability to increase community

participation in the developmental efforts.

As far as NRSP is concerned, such assertion found to be baseless in the light of the staff

members’ understanding because the donors endangered its downward accountability to

the community people. The NRSP staff members, as elaborated in the previous chapter,

acknowledged that they were responsible to the donors for the completion of the target,

not to the community. The same views were expressed by the organization members and

held that the staff members asked us to complete those schemes which have been planned

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by donors and the organization members were not allowed to make any change in the

plan. In addition, the needs of the community were also not considered while planning

those schemes. This shows the NRSP’s upward accountability was also evident from the

efforts to complete the schemes in stipulated time period and at the cost of community

involvement just to please the donors and ensure timely release of funds to NRSP. The

staff members were also observed to be just working for the attainment of targets and

were not concerned about the process for organization building and

sustainability.Similarly,Jalali (2013)and(Lang, 2013) conclude that NGOs faced major

challenges to handle the pressures they faced to be accountable “upward” to donors rather

than “downward” to beneficiaries, and their focus on short-term projects rather than long-

term structural change.

The organization members also stated that the staff members seldom visited the schemes

after their completion. The same was confirmed by the staff members as they mentioned

that a social organizer has to deal with more than two hundred organizations, therefore, it

becomes difficult for him/her to visit MCO/WCO time and again.Upward accountability

is quite opposite to the spirit of participatory development, and in order to ensure

downward accountability, the NGOs should not be bound for attaining specific targets in

a specified time, otherwise it would be just like the old “Top-down approach” instead of

bottom up for empowering the marginalized sections of the society.

In case of NRSP, the data validate that it was totally dependent on international and

national donors funding and hence it was accountable to them as well because donors’

disappointment can deprive them of the source which ultimately lead them to stop its

operations.

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8.6Innovativeness and Flexibility of NRSP

Besides other characteristics, as discussed above, innovativeness and flexibility are pre-

requisites for the effectiveness of NGOs and to enable them to address the problems of

marginalized people (Kamstra, Knippenberg, Schulpen, 2013). However, as far as NRSP

was concerned, there was no space for innovation in its interventions due to its target

oriented approach. The COs were not allowed to carry out any such activity that would

take more time and additional resources. Theoretically speaking, the NRSP documents

and reports (NRSP 2012, 13) have clearly mentioned that it believes in mobilization of

people until they get mature. But practically, NRSP staff pursued a target specific

approach for the formation of men as well as women organizations in a specified time.

For example, the staff members were supposed to involve all the members including the

general body in decision making process, but they did not. The main reason, as described

above, was that the staff members rushed through the project cycle for the attainment of

specific targets set by the donors, and in case of failure, they could lose the donor’s

funding. Furthermore, NRSP was not allowed to change or modify the plan given by the

donors. Hence, according to the staff members, NRSP worked merely as contractor or

agent of donors for executing the already planned schemes, and was not independent in

taking its own initiatives, or to modify the schemes according to the needs and aspirations

of the community. With regard to flexibility and innovativeness, Banks, Hulme and

Edward, 2014) conclude that the failure of NGOs to carry out the perceived advantages in

terms of innovation, grassroots orientation, and accountability, weaken their legitimacy

as ‘development alternatives’.

The above assertion confirm that increased reliance on patron and their demand for quick

and efficient solution to the complex problem was the main constraint in the way of

innovation and flexibility (Bebbington, Hickey andMitlin, 2008).They had no concern for

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the viability of the respective community organizations. It clearly shows their lack of

interest in developing a participatory based development which reflects the needs of the

target community. The collected data, in relation to NRSP, disclosed that there was no

chance of changing the pre-planned activity or innovating or showing any flexibility for

ensuring sustainability to the physical infrastructure schemes. They used the donor’s

funds on their terms and condition and worked as merely implementing agency or

contractor. Conforming this view, Shivji(2007) emphasized that the scope of innovation

is largely limited as the NGOs often conform, rather than challenge these practices.

It can be concluded from the above discussion that the government established NRSP in

response to donors’ conditions and for channelizing their development funds. In addition,

the government also established PPAF for getting the funds and then provided these

funds to their preferred NGOs like NRSP. As a result, the NRSP was made accountable

to the international donors like World Bank and National donors like PPAF instead of the

community. In other words, NRSP served as a contractor or agent of the government

through PPAF and International donors/World Bank for carrying out interventions in the

areas identified by them (donors). As far as innovation and flexibility in interventions

was concerned, the staff members held that they have to work according to the plans set

by the donors, and there is no chance for making innovations. Hence the community

organizations and staff members were not allowed for makinginnovations in the

formation of COs/WCOs and in the initiations and completion of PI schemes according

to their needs.Thus, it can be said that NRSP’s interventions were donors driven rather

than community driven.

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8.7 The Role of Tradition Leaders in Influencing Community Participation (Local Power Structure)

This section examines the role of traditional leaders in influencing participatory

development.As mentioned before, the international donors like World Bank and

National donors like PPAF greatly influenced the NRSPs strategy of community

participation by asking them to carry out interventions in specific time and in the already

identified areas. Simultaneously, the traditional and religious leaders like Pesh Imam of

Mosque, and Khan or Malak of the village, political leaders like Ministers/ MPA/MNA,

Ex Nazim/Naib Nazim and counsellors (both men and women) were hurdles in the way

to materialize participatory approach of NRSP. Therefore, the role of traditional leaders

in influencing participatory development is analyzed in this section.

Community development, based on participation of beneficiaries, as discussed in Chapter

Two, should reflect the needs of the community,ensure empowerment of the community

by imparting necessary skills and encourage the people to take full control of their

developmental programs (Fallavier, 2007;Komalawati 2008).To make sure that the

voices of the weaker sections of the society are heard in those decisions which affect

them, participatory development changes the established power structure and provides

them equal opportunities of development (Potter et al, 2004; Masterson and Owen, 2006).

In order to achieve this goal, NGOs are considered as the best means for their ability to

connect with the beneficiaries from the grassroots level, changing the power relations

(Hearn 2007; Allard and Martinez 2008), and to involve them in the identification,

planning, implementation and monitoring of developmental programs (Shah

andBaporikar,2012).

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As far as the role of traditional leaders in influencing NRSP’s participatory development

strategy was concerned, the data/information collected and explained in Chapter Six and

Seven reveal that the political leaders, i.e., Ministers, MNAs, MPAs, Ex Nazim/Naib

Nazim, Counsellor, Khan/Malak and religious leaders were the main obstructers in the

way of community participation in developmental activities. All the decisions pertaining

to the schemes were taken by the presidents and managers and the ordinary members

were ignored in the overall process. Furthermore, the staff members of NRSP were least

concerned about the involvement of ordinary members and deprived them of taking part

in those decisions which affected them. The community people were neither involved in

identification nor in implementation nor monitoring of the schemes. The president and

managers decided all the matters on behalf of ordinary members and did not give them a

chance to participate. Thus, the question is, why traditional leaders hindered NRSP to

involve them in the overall project cycle, is discussed below.

8.7.1 Community Elites and the Local Power Structure

As mentioned above, many of the advocates of participatory development considered

NGOs asan effective way of involving the common masses in decisions which affect

them directly and indirectly. They also held that there is relationship between

participation, empowerment (Fraser and Lepofsky 2004, Oakley, 1991b) and

sustainability (See Chapter Two for more details). Similarly, the NRSP’s community

participation strategy aims to empower the impoverished masses by involving them in the

decision making process. However, the data collected does not support the above claims

of NRSP in empowering the powerless as they were not involved in those decisions

which affected them. In addition, all the decisions were made by the local influential

people. Influential people refer to those people who have a say in all the affairs of the

community on the basis of their socio-economic condition and political power. These

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include, as mentioned above, the traditional leaders, as well as, local political leaders in

the community. As was observed, the MCOs were mostly formed by the local influential

people for getting schemes from NRSP so that they can further strengthen their position

or hold in the community. The presidents and managers in most of the organizations were

the local elites, or Ex Nazims or family members of the elites. Consequently, most of the

decisions were made by the president and manager and the ordinary members were

ignored. In light of these reasons, the claim of NRSP in reaching the poor people or

involving them in the decisions remains immaterial or illusive. Similarly,Bardhan and

Mookherjee (2000, 2005) showed reservations and stated that such initiatives may be

vulnerable to capture by local elites.

The community, according to Mohyuddin, Chaudhry andAmbreen (2012)and Malik

(1996) is stratified into superior and inferior positions on the basis of caste, class, access

to resources, power and ownership of landed property as defined by the society. The most

important element in any system of stratification is inequality in access to resources.

Likewise, the target area where this research was carried out was rural and majorityof the

people were poor – associated with agriculture profession. They weremostly tenants and

cultivated the lands of the landowner class (Khan/Malak) on tenancy of share-crop basis.

The landlord, on the basis of his landholding, was a key figure in the area and all the

decisions pertaining to the village development were taken by him or by the community

with his consent. Mostly, the organizations were formed after his informal approval as he

could create problems in the planning and implementation of the schemes. The ordinary

members names were put in the list only for fulfilling the formality of MCO/WCO

formation and were not consulted in any decision of organization. The local elites formed

these organizations for carrying out personal schemes not always for communal interest.

A president of MCO who was the ex Nazim of his union council, held in this regard:

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Community participation is also important but, documentation for donors is more important. I have formed three COs in three different union councils and I also got PI schemes from NRSP as well as from other donors (President MCO Sawabi).

The above statement of CO President illustrates that he formed three different

organizations only for getting schemes, while the staff members did not intervene

because of his influence in the area and the fear of loss of an active focal person in the

target area.

It was observed during the field work of this study that the ordinary members were not

encouraged to take part atany stage of the project cycle starting from the identification till

the monitoring of developmental schemes.The main reason was that the elites did not

want to share their power with the powerless; hence they resisted all those efforts which

they considered as threat to their hegemony in the local area.

The above discussion, as well as, the views of the staff members as elaborated in Chapter

Six and Seven, revealthat decisions were made by the presidents and managers without

the consultation of other members because they were prominent in the area on the basis

of either their status or their political standing. In addition, Ahmed and Talib(2011)and

Morgan (1993) also held that developmental projects executed by the government are

aimed at serving the political leaders and the ruling elite to further strengthen their hold

by utilizing public money.

The staff members were of the opinion that they could not ignore the elites as they could

create problems in carrying out interventions in particular areas. Similarly,Mathur (1995)

and Freire (1970)argue that those who enjoypower oppose change.

It is evident from the above discussion that the claim of NRSP regarding the involvement

of marginalized people in the decisions making process – to empower them which will

ultimately lead them to sustainability – could not be materialized in the true sense. In this

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context, a question arises as to what were the reasons that restricted NRSP to reorganize

the power structure and provide opportunity to the comparatively poor.

8.7.2Prejudiced Interventional Strategy of NRSP

As already discussed in Chapter Six and Seven, NRSP staff entered the community

through influential or elite people. In other words they used the influence of the elite for

making entry in to the community. This is totally contradictory to the assertion of NRSP

regarding the involvement and empowerment of the weaker sections of the society, as

these elites were the main barriers in the way of empowering the local people. The data

collected illustrate that these elites used NRSP schemes for their personal benefits and

did not allow the poor people to take part in the decision making process. It was also

noted that these elites either formed MCOs/WCOs in their name or in the name of their

family members to get benefit from NRSP. Moreover, the staff members of NRSP also

appreciated them to form as many MCOs as they desired. As mentioned in the previous

section, one ex nazim formed three MCOs in the nearby villages and he stressed merely

on the preparation of document for onwards submission to the donors instead of real

participation. In this regard, it is safe to conclude that NRSP’s involvement of local

influential or elites in the interventions further helped them in strengthening their

positions. This claim was also supported by a staff member who held that:

We entered into the community through a local influential; otherwise he would create problems in the implementation of the scheme. So before launching the project, we took him on-board (Senior Social Organizer Sawabi).

Similar views were expressed by the MCO members and stated thatthe staff members

kept regular contacts with the president and manager while the ordinary members were

not consulted at any stage. Resultantly, the president and manager dominated all the

decisions and were able to use the PIs for their personal interests instead of the

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community’s. However, the staff members maintained that they could not reach all (poor)

because they have to achieve their targets in a specific time at par with the directives of

the donors. Therefore, the support of local elites was necessary for their in-time target

accomplishment in terms of MCO/WCO formation, schemes initiation and completion, as

well as, loan disbursement to the MCO/WCO members. In addition, the staff members

authorized the president and manager of the CO to the extent that they could maintain

record of the organization, recommend names for credit disbursement, and could also

keep regular contact with NRSP staff. In this way, the local elites controlled all the

matters of MCO/WCO and used it for their personal interest instead for the community’s.

In addition, the role of NRSP staff members was also a contributing factor in

strengthening the local power structure. Besides this, other factors which created hurdles

in the way of NRSP in reorganizing the power structure was the poor community

organizing which is discussed below.

8.7.3 Weak Community Organizing

This section examines how the poor community/social organization restricted the poor

people from participating in the developmental activities which affected their lives. As

discussed above, participatory development aims to enhance the capacity of the

impoverished people which will ultimately empower them to initiate developmental

schemes on self-help basis (UNEP, 2002). To achieve, the goal of empowerment as

elaborated in Chapter Two, people are organized into organizations to help people

mobilize their resources to launch such projects which develop their socio-economic

conditions on sustained basis (Japan International Cooperation Agency, 2000). Thus,

NGOs working for the up-lift of weaker sections of society organise the neglected people

to enable them to make best use of their resources and to ensure sustained development

(Sinclair, Zak 2003).

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As mentioned in Chapter Two, NRSP organized people into organizations so that they

can manage and make the best use of their resources for the development of their local

communities. The data collected in this study depict rather a gloomy picture of NRSP’s

social organization strategy. Staff members of NRSP,as discussed in the previous section,

made entry into the community through the influential people for the formation of

organizations. In this way the staff members managed to achieve their target of CO/

WCO formation in a minimum time. The vested interest groups formed COs/WCOs for

their personal interests and put the names of either their family members or relatives or

their political supporters, whatever more suited to them. As a result, some professional

contractors also got the schemes by following the procedure and completing the

documentation process. All decisions were taken by the local elites/president and

manager without involving the ordinary members and mostly did not represent the wishes

of poor people. Ultimately, this affected the sustainability of organization and after the

completion of the schemes the members did not arrange follow-up meetings and the

CO/WCO did not continue; with the exception of few who remained active in the hope of

getting schemes in future. This further lead to consolidating the position of elites,

presidents and manager, thereby making the philosophy of participatory

developmentunfeasible. The main reason for the lack of representative and

viableorganizations, according to the staff members, was the shortage of time for

organization building to involve all the segments of the community in the whole process.

A staff member held in this regard:

Formation and organization building required enough time, but due to the pressure of donors regarding the formation of definite number of organizations in limited time, we could not concentrate on formation of representative organizations to ensure the representation of views of all the segments of society (Social Organizer, MCO Mardan).

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The above discussion clarifies that enough time was not givento the capacity building

andget the organizations maturebecause of the donors’ pressure for the attainment of the

targets, while the elites further strengthened their positions in the society.

To summarize, the above discussion demonstrates that the influential or the elites were

the main hurdles in the way of community involvement in the decision making process in

the overall project cycle. The influential people (Khan, Malak and political leaders) and

the president and managers of the organizations restricted the involvement of people in

general and the members of the general body in particular in the decision making process.

They also restricted NRSP officials from reaching the poor and used their interventions

for their personal interest rather than communal. The NRSP’s intervention, instead of

empowering the marginalized, further helped the traditional leaders, i.e., the elites in

strengthening their hold in the community. The influence of the elites did not allow

NRSP to work in accordance with its social mobilization strategy to materialize its

participatory development ideals of empowering the marginalized and weaker sections of

society. The main reason for this situation was the hurry on the part of staff members to

rush through the project cycle and achieve the donors’ targets in the allotted time.

8.8 Gender and Development Policy of NRSP

Participation of women, as discussed in Chapter Two, in the development process is of

utmost importance without which the vision of balanced development cannot be

materialized. In Pakistan, especially in rural areas, the women cannot participate in the

developmental activities due to cultural constraints likePurdah, religiousoutlookand male

dominated society (Maria 2001; Malik 2007). Participatory development believes in the

empowerment of marginalized sections of society irrespective of their bio-physical being.

It also stresses on the provision of equal opportunities to both men and women, to involve

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them in all those decisions which affect them (Thomas, 2013). For this purpose NGOs are

considered as an effective way for reaching the oppressed (both men and women equally)

and to bring them into the mainstream of community development. In order to achieve

this goal, NGOs implemented GAD theory to bring the deprived women at par with men

in the society and to achieve equity based development(Monsen 2010; Baden and

Reeves, 2000) (see Chapter Two for more details). As far as NRSP is concerned, it

adopted the ‘Gender Mainstreaming Policy’ in 2004 for implementation in all the regions

and projects. The main objective of this policy was to incorporate gender equality

concern at all levels of policy making i.e. planning, execution and monitoring of

developmental activities at the grassroots level (NRSP Institute of Rural Management

2010; NRSP 2010). But the empirical data reveal that there was no impact of NRSP

interventions on the status of women in the target area. In addition, there was no change

in the attitude of men towards women as they were not allowed to take part in any

activity outside the walls of their house. It was revealed that the men carried out all the

activities on behalf of the women starting from the WCO formation till the monitoring of

the schemes (see Chapter Six and Seven for details). The women organizations were

mostly formed by the presidents/managers of the male community organizations and also

selected/elected their family women as presidents or managers. The names of the

members of WCO were included in the committees of male community organization just

to fulfil the formality. Similarly, the committees of male community organizations were

made up of men only and no woman was given representation. Moreover, there was no

chance of organizing joint meeting of MCO and WCO due the reasons mentioned above.

Hence, the assertion of NRSPfor the provision of equal opportunities to women alongside

men and implementing GAD theory remained barely a theory and there were no signs of

its practical implementation in the NRSP interventions. This has also been validated by a

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number of case studies of participatory development projects that GAD approach

remained limited to a theory only (Ali, 2005, Mayoux 1995). Therefore,it can be

concluded that NRSP adopted the GAD approach and involved women in the

developmental projects only to fulfil the donor’s condition of involving 40 percent of

women in developmental interventions.

The following section analyzesthe factors responsible for the failure of NRSP in

involving women in the development activities and do away with gender inequality from

the local social structure.

8.8.1 Patriarchal Setup

As discussed earlier, NGOs strive for the up-lift of weaker sections (women) of society

employing participatory development strategy. However, the claim of NRSP regarding

changing the prevalent power structure to make it favourable for the empowerment of

both women and men remainsfalsely in the face of rigid cultural values, male dominancy

and patriarchal social structure. According to Maria (2001), prospects for women

development are scarce due to the strict customs and tradition especially in rural areas of

Pakistan.Likewise, patriarchal social setup and the dominant role of men in the decisions

making process are also contributing factors in the disempowerment of women in the

society (Noreen and Khalid 2012). In such a situation, the male will never encourage any

effort which can undermine their hold on women (Noreen and Khalid 2012). The same

condition of male dominancy was observed in the target area of NRSP where the women

were not able to make independent decisions on their own. As already discussed in

Chapter Seven,women organizations were formed usually by the president or manager of

the MCO. They put the names of women of their family or from the nearby area. Most

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members of WCO remained passive and were not involved in decisions pertaining to the

development of the locality. A member of MCO organization mentioned that:

The women members of WCO cannot participate in developmental activities because their men did not allow them to do so. The women members could attend the meetings themselves, while all other activities outside household were performed by their male members of their family or through members of MCO whoever was nominated for the said task (Member general body MCO Charsada).

The women members participated in all those activities which were inside the household,

while for the rest of the activities, they were dependent on men of their family or MCO

members. Mostly, the presidents and managers of MCO formed these WCOs for getting

additional schemes and other benefits like microcredit or for completing the left over

schemes. A member of WCO also mentioned that:

The members of MCO asked us to recommend the street pavement schemes to NRSP as NRSP did not approve the mentioned schemes to MCO. In addition, we also completed a left over drainage scheme as per the desire of MCO. All the activities starting from identification to monitoring were carried out by members of MCO and our male of members of the household (Member WCO,Nowshehra).

Similar views regarding the male dominancy were expressed by manager of MCO in

another target area of NRSP. It has also been confirmed by participatory development

project in South Africa where women were believedto be in a "cultural straight jacket". A

Malawian official stated bluntly:

"Our custom is that women should be subordinate to men. This is how it always has been and it won't change easily. We have always been amale dominated society. Men were hunters, but made most of theimportant decisions. Then they became migrant workers and broughthome money. Ask any woman about decisions. They will talk but in theend they will say: you must ask the man. So this is a cultural thing. Inthis country men are always above women. The women who arestruggling to get on top of men are fighting against their ownconsciousness. They know and are brought up to know that men are above them (Afshar 1991:1).

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The above case study supports the empirical data collected in the target area, that due to

male dominant culture, the women could not take part in the planning, decision making,

implementation, and monitoring of the developmental programs. Even those desirous

could also did not dare to do so.

However, there were two exceptional cases in the target areas of NRSP where the women

participated in the developmental activities. The first one was a president of WCO

who,along with all WCO members, performed all the activities themselves, starting from

the very first step of formation of WCO till the monitoring of the schemes. Moreover, she

went further bysetting up a small business in her house from the small loan granted by

NRSP. The second case is also exemplary because in spite of strict cultural conditions

where the members of Local Support Organization3 (LSO) elected a woman as their

president. The main reason behind such initiatives was thatthe president of WCO was the

ex-counsellor (female) and she participated in the local bodies’ election with the

permission of their family members. She was aged and was not observing Purdah in the

strict sense. While in the second case, although she was elected as LSO president, but she

only attended the meetings and trainings of the organizations, but did not participate in

the planning and execution of developmental activities.

8.8.2 Male Centered interventional strategy of NRSP

As highlighted above, on the one hand the women were not able to participate in the

developmental activities due to the prevalent socio-cultural norms; on the other hand the

NRSP’s approach of implementing the schemes through men further deteriorated the

position of women. The NRSP, as highlighted in Chapter Five, believed in the

empowerment of both men and women, while practically NRSP’s efforts were not

3The Community Organizations join together at Village level into Village Organizations (VOs) and VOs join together at Union Council levels as Local Support Organizations(LSOs)

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directed to provide equal opportunities to both men and women. Rather, NRSP showed

quite a biased attitude from the very first stage when it entered the community using the

influence of influential persons or local elite for the formation of MCOs and WCOs. In

this way the women were totally ignored and only the men of the locality were consulted

even for the formation of WCOs. Thus, it can be said that NRSP not only failed to

address the gender issues, but also strengthened the women disadvantageous position.

In addition, the staff members also left no stone unturned in encouraging the men

organizations to form WCOs for getting additional schemes or other benefits. They did

not strive to involve women at all stages of project cycle, starting from identification of

their needs till the monitoring of the schemes. Staff member held that they did not

concentrate on the gender balanced development due to the donors’ pressure for attaining

targets in the specified time. In such a situation, when NRSP worked for achieving the

quantitative targets toplease the donors at the cost of participatory development

principles, it seems to be serving merely as ‘sub-contractor’working for the achievement

of donors’ set targets.

8.9 Summary

The chapter explains, with regards to the views of both the staff members and the

researcher that NRSP worked in accordance with instructions of foreign donors and the

government merely for obtaining the quantitative targets set by them. The donors

controlled position has adverse impacts on the NRSP’s community participation strategy.

Furthermore, the NRSP could not succeed in changing the local power structure which

was the main hurdle in the way of materializing participatory development theory. The

NRSP’s developmental intervention further consolidated the position of the local elite

when NRSP used them as focal persons for reaching the people of the community. In

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addition, NRSP staff also empowered the president and manager of the organization to

the extent that they decided on all the matters relating the planning, implementation and

monitoring of the schemes without involving the ordinary members of the MCO/ WCO.

For attaining the donors’ targets,it could not concentrate on the social mobilization

process to get the organizations mature and make them sustainable. It also failed to

execute gender and development (GAD) theory which it had included as essential part of

its participatory development strategy. Although NRSP claimed to provide opportunities

to the people of the target area irrespective of their bio-physical being, but the empirical

study found that instead of empowering the marginalized women, it further strengthened

the established male dominant culture. Moreover, it encouraged men to perform those

activities which the women were supposed to perform. The WCOs worked either through

their male members of the family or they nominated members of MCO to perform the

activities on their behalf. Women participated only in those activities which were inside

the wall of their household. To conclude, it is safe to argue that NRSP did not manage to

implement the participatory development theory in its true sense, mainly because of

donors’ restrictions and government’s pressure. Also, NRSP interventions supported the

prevalent power structure and strengthened gender disparity.

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Chapter NineConclusions, Suggestions/Recommendations

9.1 Summary of the Findings

This study aimed to know the role and importance of community participation in the

sustainability of developmental programs. The study also focused to identify whether

NRSP has involved the target population (both men and women) in the overall project

cycles, and to what extent the traditional leaders were influencing community

participation for the sustainability of developmental programs in the target areas. As far

as the target area was concerned, the concept of participation existed and was practiced in

their daily life by the people since long. Traditionally, the people participated with their

neighbours and relatives in agriculture related activities (cropping and thrashing), what is

locally known as ‘Ashar’(Any activity which is performed by the people of a muhallah or

village collectively to save time, money and labor). Due to its benefits, the people were

still willing and enthusiastic to participate in the activities which were related to the

overall development of the area. Likewise, NRSP believed in the participation of

beneficiaries irrespective of sex, race, cast class, and also involved those in all stages of

project cycle (see Chapter Five and Six for further details). In addition, it considered

community participation as a pre-requisite for empowerment, creating sense of ownership

and to make the developmental interventions cost effective, efficient and sustainable

(NRSP, 2012, 14). But practically, the data collected revealed that although the

community was involved in all stages of the project cycle, however, the participation was

not meaningful and it failed to empower the local people, and the community

organizations did not maintain the schemes after its completion or when the project was

winded-up. Summarizing, the research endeavour found that NRSP’s staff failed to

involve the marginalized sections of the target community in the project cycle, and as a

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result, the developmental interventions lacked sustainability. Besides lack of meaningful

participation in the developmental programs, there were also some other factors which

constrained NRSP from materializing the participatory development theory. These are

discussed in the following section.

9.2 Macro and Micro Level Forces Hampering Participatory Development’s Feasibility

The structural factors hampered participatory development both at the macro level as well

as micro level. At the macro level, the international donor organizations, while at the

micro level, the local power structure or the traditional leaders constrained the feasibility

of participatory development strategy. As per the guidelines of international donors to

attain the objectives in a specific time frame, NRSP adopted a target oriented approach

instead of following the process of project cycle for launching interventions in the new

areas (Shivji, 2007). As a result, NRSP staff rushed through the project cycle and the

capacity of the community organizations (both men and women) could not be built in a

proper way, which resulted in weak and immature community organizations (see Chapter

Two for more details).

According to the staff members, the donors’ concern was only the attainment of

quantitative targets and the government was also satisfied as NRSP could carry out

interventions in those areas where the government was unable to deliver itself. Therefore,

the government compelled NRSP to extend its projects to those areas where the

government was unable to launch interventions due to lack of resources. Similarly, the

local elites also exploited the opportunities in the shape of NRSP to fulfil their vested

interest and to maintain its hold in the area.

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Secondly, there were some factors which had adverse effects on the implementation of

GAD. Theoretically speaking, NRSP believed in the involvement of men and women

equally in the decision making, planning, execution and overlooking of the

developmental activities as described in Chapter Two;practically, however, women of the

target areas could not participate equally with men because of two reasons. The main

reason for the failure was that the macro level forces used NRSP to attain their targets in

the allotted time. As a result, NRSP instead of mobilizing the community for women

participation, concentrated only on the formation of maximum women organization for

the attainment of the donors’ targets. In addition, the dominatedpatriarchal culture did not

allow women to take part in developmental activities. Simultaneously, the local power

structure not only created hurdles in the way of women participation, but also

monopolized each and every thing and used the women organizations for carrying out

schemes for their self-interest.

Thirdly, progress was measured and evaluated in terms of quantification rather than

impact assessment. It was observed as well as mentioned by the staff members that for

evaluation, the donors and the government only looked into the target achievement

instead of checking the overall impact on the issues like empowerment, sustainability, and

gender equalities. They evaluated the progress of NRSP in terms of achieving the

quantified targets and considered it as procedure for ensuring the timely release of fund

from the donors. For pleasing the donors, it had to work in accordance to the instructions

and work plans of donors to achieve the targets without considering the capacity building

needs of the community organizations. The adoption of target based approach made

NRSP accountable only to the donors, not to the community. To summarize, it can be

argued that the macro and micro level forces were the main hurdles in the way of

community participation at each stage of the project cycle. In addition, it also made the

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implementation of GAD theory impractical and also, further strengthened the existing

inequalities in the target area.

9.3 Donors, the State, the Local Power Structure and the Co-option of Participatory Development

The donors and the state, that are, macro level forces;besides the local elites, i.e., micro

level forces were responsible for strengthening the existing power structure. The former

provided conducive environment to the latter for increasing and maintaining their hold in

the local areas. The macro level forces, as expressed by the staff members, were least

interested in changing the local power structure and favoured them to attain their desired

targets. As discussed in the previous chapter, NRSP from the very first step till the last

stage, sought the help of local elite and used the influence of MNAs, MPAs, Nazims and

NaibNazims for the in-time achievement of their targets (See Chapter Six and Seven for

more details). Likewise, NRSP staff also kept close contact with the Khan or Malak and

religious leader or Pesh Imam of mosque of the village and took them into confidence for

their targets achievement, as well as, for avoiding future problems in the implementation

of the schemes. The support of the local power structure was also needed to introduce

interventions in the nearby areas. The main reason for extending support and help to them

in maintaining their hold in the areas was their target accomplishment and accountability

to the donors. In the same way, the local power structure also helped the macro level

powers by extending help in the realization of their pre-conceived targets.

The strengthening of macro and micro level forces was the main hurdle in the way of

realizing participatory development agenda. Such reinforcement originated from the co-

option of participatory development NGO in the form of NRSP for the realization of their

inherent objectives. Donors co-opted NRSP under the neo-liberal agenda and required it

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to work in accordance with the plan only for the attainment of their desired targets, and in

the pursuit of such attainment, NRSP also lost its independence. Similar to this, the

state/government co-opted NRSP and maintained control over its activities in the shape of

provision of funds and to make her accountable to state machinery. The state co-option of

NRSP made it merely a ‘sub-contractor’ and implemented projects in the government

identified and favoured areas. The study findings also validate the criticism in academic

literature on participatory development explained in Chapter Two, which claims that the

donor co-opted NGOs and termed it as a form of new-colonialism. State co-option of

NGOs also aimed at ensuring the flow of funds from the international donors and its

utilization on government preferred projects. Similarly, the local power structure also co-

opted NRSP for their personal interest instead of communal interest.

This co-option of NRSP by the international, national donors as well as the local power

structure made it merely as sub-contractor which used participatory development theory

just as ‘fashion’ instead of changing the power structure and ensuring sustainability (see

Chapter Two for more details). Hence, community participation, empowerment and

sustainability remained a ‘Utopia’.

9.3.1Participatory Development and the Transformation of Traditional Leadership

Participatory development theory, as discussed in Chapter Two, seeks to empower the

marginalized and weaker sections of society. However, this theory has some inherent

flaws due to which it could not be materialized in the true sense. It aims to involve all the

stakeholders in the decision making process to empower them irrespective of their class,

caste and sex.It is not supposed to take into account the traditional leaders or the local

power structure which can hinder the process of any intervention which undermines their

hold in the area. Likewise, the cultural values are also dear to the people of community

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which should not be shaken by the external elements like donors and NGOs. The

empirical data also reveals that the local leaders or influential people controlled

everything and used their influence merely for their personal interest and for gaining

benefits from NRSP and other similar organizations. In addition, their position, as already

discussed, was further strengthened by the macro-level forces.

9.3.2Community Participation and the Role of NGOs

Participatory development NGOs are said to be cost effective, efficient, can work

independently and serve as means to reach the poor and marginalized sections of society.

However, the data collected makes it clear that NGOs are not independent, rather they are

dependent on foreign as well as national donors, i.e., the state or government for fulfilling

their financial needs. This dependency on national and international donors deprives them

of distinguishing characteristics such as independence, accountability, flexibility and

efficiency. In such situation, NGOs are unable to work according to the essence of

communal participation to achieve the goal of sustainable development.

9.3.3 Political Interference

The target area was highly politicized in terms of affiliation with different political

parties. The members of MCOs belonged to different political parties/groups and were

divided on various issues in the community. Moreover, the interference of MNAs, MPAs,

and Ex.Nazims/Naib Nazism also created problems in the identification and

implementation of developmental activities. These political leaders formed their own

MCOs/WCOs for getting schemes which resulted in increasing the numbers of

MCOs/WCOs and also lead to duplication of schemes. They also approached the NRSP

staff and the MCOs for the selection of schemes as well as changing the site of the

schemes. Consequently, it was impossible for the staff of NRSP to carry out social

220

mobilization process as per the essence of community participation and sustainable

development.

9.4 Gaps between Theory and Practice in Project Cycle Implementation

Participatory development, as already discussed before,emerged as a result of the failure

of earlier development theories. The main emphasis of this theory is the meaningful

participation of the people (both men and women)of the target community in

identification, planning, implementation and execution of developmental activities at the

grassroots level (Shah, Baporikar 2012). Furthermore, participatory development theory

reveals that people who are the primary stakeholders and beneficiaries should be involved

in all the stages of developmental activities which will lead them to self-reliance and

sustained development (FAO, 1990).

The theory underline that many developmental organizations and government

departments have involved people in some aspects of planning, executions, monitoring

and evaluation of developmental interventions because of the fact that sustained

development cannot be realized without active participation of the target community in

the project cycle which includes Identification, Preparation, Appraisal, Implementation

and Evaluation (Shah, Baporikar, 2012).

Similarly, the notion of participatory development was also appreciated by the

developmental experts and practitioners for resolving some of the theoretical issues

concerning earlier development theories. However, this research endeavor concludes that

there is gap between the theory and practice in the implementation of projects cycle. The

main reason for this gap is the macro and micro level forces and the failure on the part of

participatory development to address these issues. Most importantly, the idea of project

cycle was introduced by the foreign donors and was not indigenous in nature, or

221

according to the needs and culture of the area. Therefore, people of the target areas did

not own it, as the needs, recourses and social structure varied from area to area and from

culture to culture.

The idea of project cycle may be useful for some cultures especially from where it

originated, but it may not be useful for other cultures and societies like ours. Hence, it can

be concluded that the idea of project cycle was donor imposed and the people followed it

unknowingly without having any idea about its advantages and disadvantages.

Therefore, as far as the future hope of participatory development is concerned, the current

study highlights that in the presence of these macro and micro level forces, the chances of

genuine implementation are dismal in Pakistan, and in other such countries, if the

situation remains the same. Undoubtedly, participatory development does not seem to

address the complex issues relating to donors’ pressure on participatory development

NGOs like NRSP to achieve the desired objectives in specific time and within allocated

resources.

Thus, is can be concluded that despite the fact that participation is indigenous in nature,

this concept has been misused by the International and National NGOs for the attainment

of their inherent agendas. As a result, instead of empowering the weaker sections of

society, it has further strengthened the traditional leaders. NRSP is also a participatory

development NGO and is working for the attainment of predetermined targets using the

approach of community participation. It has also launched various interventions for the

uplift of community, but has failed to achieve the target of sustainable development due

its target based approach.

222

9.5 Suggestions/Recommendations

9.5.1 Macro and Micro-level Structure and the Co-option of Participatory Development

Sustainability in development projects can only be ensured when participatory

development NGOs like NRSP adopt a process based/oriented approach instead of target-

oriented/ project-based approach. In this way, dependency on local power structure will

be decreased and the NRSP will be able to empower the communities, and also ensure

sustainability of developmental programs.

9.5.2 Transformation of Traditional Leadership and Involvement of Ordinary People in Project Cycle

At the micro level, the ordinary people should be given equal representation and they

should be involved at all the stages of the project cycle. For this purpose, NRSP should

adopt an effective mobilization strategy and the people should be mobilized in a proper

way so that all the segments of the community may participate in all the decisions without

developing a sense of deprivation.

9.5.3 Community Participation and the Role of NGOs

The experts in the field of participatory development should devise proper strategy for

NGOs in relation to donors and states to find out an effective model to solve these

problems. Community participation model cannot yield the desired results until and

unless a process based approach is adopted. The COs/WCOs should be given enough time

to get mature; otherwise they will not be able to deliver over sustainable basis. For this

purpose, effective mobilization is essential from the very first day of any project or

activity.

223

9.5.4 Gaps between the Theory and Practice in Project Cycle Implementation

Gaps between the theory and practice should be removed and the ideals of participatory

development should be achieved. For this aim, dependency on foreign donors should be

decreased gradually and indigenous sources of funding should be identified for

sustainable source of funds flow without jeopardising the independence of the NRSP. For

this purpose NRSP should be given free hand to search donors for its projects and operate

the projects on terms and conditions which should not undermine its independence and

sustainability. In addition, reliance on government sources should also be decreased for

future sustainability.

9.5.5 Implementation of GAD Theory

Implementation of GAD theory needs concerted efforts on the part of NRSP as well as

community organization members. To achieve it, gender sensitization sessions and

awareness programs should be introduced to make them aware about women issues. For

this purpose the role of religious leaders as well as elites is of utmost importance and they

can mobilize the men and women for taking part in the developmental activities.

Exposure to successful projects is also essential for motivating both women and men for

initiating similar projects at the community.

9.5.6 Decreasing Political Interference

The social mobilization staff of NRSP should avoid any affiliation and interaction with

activist of political parties as it may arise confrontation from the opposing political

groups or parties. This may result in the wastage of time and resources, as well as, affect

the intervention of NRSP. For this purpose, active activists of the locality, irrespective of

their political affiliation, should be identified who should work for the development of

community. In addition, those influential, presidents and managers should be discouraged

224

who are forming MCOs/ WCOs in different areas/union councils merely for getting

schemes for their personal benefit. This is possible only through effective social

mobilization process by the social organizers of NRSP. In addition the staff of NRSP

should give enough time to the COs for getting mature so that active members can be

identified who should work for the development of their locality

225

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Annexure I:

Table 1: Progress Report as of March, 2014Cumulative Punjab Sindh KP Baluchistan AJK

Community

Organizations

(COs) Formed

162,242 118,379 19,004 9,988 5,065 9,806

Men 75,338 54,952 9,223 5,453 1,951 3,759

Women 75,257 57,599 7,268 3,595 2,669 4,126

Mixed 10,175 5,293 2,513 3 445 1,921

Water Users’

Associations

1,472 535 - 937 - -

CO Membership 2,479,135 1,719,245 307,454 170,010 100,079 182,347

Men 1,147,633 739,301 165,025 114,648 42,012 86,647

Women 1,331,502 1,331,502 979,944 55,362 58,067 95,700

CO Savings (Rs.) 1,431,708,345 1,244,492,234 115,954,208 20,535,773 14,140,846 36,585,284

Men 1,187,630,193 1,071,582,515 82,416,565 13,340,872 7,070,462 13,219,780

Women 244,078,152 172,909,719 33,537,644 7,194,901 7,070,385 23,365,505

No. of LSOs 545 18 18 42 55 112

No. of VOs 4,621 2,622 384 191 382 1,042

As CIF for

Credit (Rs.)

145,460,000 45,460,000 14,300,000 41,200,000 26,500,000 18,000,000

Active Portfolio

(Rs.)

112,116,000 64,057,000 9,280,000 20,571,000 10,469,000 7,739,000

Active Loans 13,494 6,825 1,974 2,526 1,349 820

Men 5,041 2,788 987 406 588 272

Women 8,453 4,037 987 2,120 761 548

Amount

Disbursement

(Rs.)

285,431,000 145,990,000 21,050,000 46,180,000 42,290,000 29,921,000

Men 101,061,000 36,810,000 - 38,130,000 4,200,000 21,921,000

Women 184,370,000 109,180,000 21,050,000 8,050,000 38,090,000 8,000,000

No. of Loans 22,765 12,905 2,133 4,321 2,030 1,376

No. of Loan

(Men)

8,516 3,337 - 3,414 499 1,266

279

No. of Loan

(Women)

14,249 9,568 2,133 907 1,531 110

Credit Disbursed

(Rs.)

80,370,495,912 70,020,595,777 5,573,617,873 2,706,982,777 125,794,100 1,943,505,385

Disbursed to Men 45,161,134,202 39,498,262,886 1,953,172,604 2,282,030,827 81,664,300 1,346,003,585

Disbursed to

Women

35,209,361,710 30,522,332,891 3,620,445,269 424,951,950 44,129,800 597,501,800

No. of Loans 4,859,405 4,167,782 366,394 193,914 9,035 122,280

Loans to Men 2,605,160 2,216,179 136,407 161,814 5,799 84,961

Loans to Women 2,254,245 1,951,603 229,987 32,100 3,236 37,319

Portfolio 7,002,205,962 6,125,061,981 571,569,984 - - 305,573,997

Active Loans 473,974 411,750 37,746 - - 24,478

Men 109,573 85,249 7,790 - - 16,534

Women 364,401 326,501 29,956 - - 7,944

Micro Insurance

(No. of

Insurance Cases)

2,838,946 2,422,843 183,072 130,899 4,437 97,695

Premium

Collected (Rs.)

340,534,765 291,034,235 20,672,750 16,702,260 805,210 11,320,310

Community

Members

Trained

2,435,065 1,547,890 341,702 125,439 216,790 203,244

Men 1,114,142 689,449 158,700 67,119 80,421 118,453

Women 1,320,923 858,441 183,002 58,320 136,369 84,791

Staff Members

Trained

55,078 39,256 6,561 4,004 1,373 3,884

Men 36,408 24,157 4,651 3,582 1,028 2,990

Women 18,670 15,099 1,910 422 345 894

Physical

Infrastructure

Schemes

Completed*

28,581 8,126 4,122 579 948 1,041

Households

Benefited

1,207,373 520,923 232,293 102,814 65,278 57,276

Total Cost (Rs.) 6,517,564,069 3,272,380,243 1,720,919,257 429,967,302 209,595,571 337,824,107

Community

Schools

Established

545 282 82 - 117 64

Current No. of 263 137 10 - 67 49

280

Active Schools

Students Enrolled 20,389 12,618 1,027 - 3,109 3,635

Boys 10,537 6,295 686 - 1,699 1,857

Girls 9,852 6,323 341 - 1,410 1,778

Adult Literacy

Movement

(No. of Groups)

1,107 475 60 430 142 -

No. of Graduates

-

25,382 10,930 1,318 10,571 2,563 -

Men 2,494 1,430 507 202 355 -

Women 22,888 9,500 811 10,369 2,208 -

* Provincial Breakdown for PITD Schemes is only available for direct Input schemes; while cumulative figure included all CPIs of Linkages & Credit.

281

Annexure -III

INTERVIEW GUIDESection I- Background Information

1. Name of respondent ____________________________

2. Age___________________________________________

3. Level of education________________________________

4. Marital status____________________________________

Questions specific for community organizations (Male & Female)

5. Name of the community organization____________________________________

6. Occupation_______________________________________________________

7. Total income (of CO member) from all sources ___________________________

8. Position in the organization____________________________________________

9. Duration of the formation of community organization_______________________

10. Total number of members in the organization_____________________________

11. Do you have any idea about participation in the developmental projects in your

community ______________________________

12. Have you ever participated in any developmental activity/project?_____________

13. What was the mode of your participation? In cash or in kind or both?__________

14. Whether or not public participation is appropriate in planning, implementation and

monitoring of developmental projects?___________________________________

15. Is the community organization committed to participate in planning,

implementation, monitoring and evaluation of developmental projects?_________

267

16. To what extent the traditional leaders (religious leaders, Khans, Malik, and other

well off people) create hurdles in the way of public participation in developmental

projects?__________________________________________________________

17. Please describe the nature of problems created by the traditional leaders

____________

18. Why community participation in essential in the identification, planning,

implementation, monitoring and supervision of developmental projects?

__________________________

Questions specific for NRSP’s Staff members

19. Position in NRSP___________________________________________________

20. Duration of employment______________________________________________

21. Duty station/area the job is performed at_________________________________

22. Description of job___________________________________________________

Section II-

Formation of community organizations

23. How community organization is formed?_________________________________

24. Who takes initiative in this regard?_____________________________________

25. How women organizations are formed?___________________________

Need assessment

26. How the need assessment for developmental intervention is carried out?________

27. Who identifies the needs/projects for the community in need?________________

28. What is the position of women members in need assessment_________________

268

Planning process

29. What is the procedure for area selection?_________________________________

30. Who are involved in the identification and selection of developmental projects?

__________________________________________________________________

31. What is the role of the staff members in the identification and selection of area for

the projects? _______________________________________________________

32. Who decides the type of project?_______________________________________

33. Are the organization’s members allowed to change or modify their projects if

they deem it necessary? ______________________________________________

34. What is the role of women during planning process?________________________

Implementation process

35. How the developmental projects are implemented?_________________________

36. How and who supervise these interventions?______________________________

37. What role the staff members perform at this stage of the intervention?__________

38. Can the organization members make changes/modification in the on-going

projects, if they deem it necessary?_____________________________________

39. What role the women organizations play at this stage of the Scheme?__________

Evaluation process

40. What is the mechanism in place for the monitoring of developmental projects?

_______

41. Why the developmental projects are monitored? And what measures are adopted

by the monitoring organizations?_______________________________________

269

42. What is the positive and negative impacts of monitoring in the on-going

developmental activities?_____________________________________________

43. How and who evaluate the completed projects?____________________________

44. How and why they are evaluated?______________________________________

45. What role women perform during monitoring and evaluation of the developmental

Scheme?_________________________________________________________

Community empowerment and sustainability

46. What arrangements have been made by NRSP at the organizational level for the

follow-up and sustainability of the completed projects?______________________

47. Do the members of the organizations take interest in maintaining the

developmental projects?______________________________________________

48. If developmental projects are not sustainable, what are the reasons for that? Please

explain.___________________________________________________________

49. Do the members of the community organizations hold meetings among

themselves and with the staff of NRSP after completing the projects?

__________________________________________________________

50. Do the members of the community organizations and NRSP staff takes interest

after the completion of the projects?_____________________________________

51. General views of the respondent(s) about participation, sustainability and

developmental programs in the target area.________________________________

270

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