8/7/2019 Pshycologybehavironotes

1/10

MOTIVATION

Investment Model:our commitment depends on what we have invested

Description

Our commitment to a relationship depends on how satisfied we are about:

Rewards and costs and what we see as a fair balance.

A comparison with potential alternative relationships

How much we have already invested in the relationship.

Investments can be financial (like a house), temporal (such as time spend together) or

emotional (such as in the welfare of the children). Investments can thus has a sunk cost

effect, where a person stays in a relationship simply because they have already investedsignificantly in it.

Research

Rusbult tracked relationships of college students. Their satisfaction and investment were

key predictors staying in the relationship, with availability of alternatives as a trigger for

getting out.

Example

Cults often have a sequence of 'inner circles', each of which requires increasinginvestment. To get through these doors cult members have to donate their worldly wealth,

go through bizarre rituals, learn lengthy texts, and so on.

So what?

Using it

To keep a person in a relationship, get them to invest heavily in it.

Defending

If you are unhappy with a relationship, remember that the past is past. Look to the future

and what you can get there rather than what you have spent and can never retrieve. Allyou have is the rest of your life

http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/investment_model.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/investment_model.htm

8/7/2019 Pshycologybehavironotes

2/10

Intimate Relationships and Commitment

Social psychologists are interested in determining which factors help partners stay

committed to one another. Intimate relationships progress when two people cometogether and are fully committed to making their relationship work (Sprecher, 1998).

Commitment is defined as and individuals intent to maintain the relationship and toremain psychologically attached to it (Rusbult, 1980). The individual wants to sustain a

relationship with their partner over time. Rusbults Investment Model of Commitmentidentifies determinants in relationship commitment. This model consists of t

processes that are positively associated with commitment, satisfaction level, quality of

alternatives, and investment size.

Satisfaction level refers to positive versus negative affect experienced in a relationship

(Rusbult, Martz, Agnew, 1998). A person whose needs are met by his or her partner will

enjoy a higher level of satisfaction. Quality of alternatives is defined as the attractiveness

of the best obtainable alternative to a relationship (Rusbult et .al, 1988). For example if

someone's need for intimacy could be met elsewhere, their quality of alternatives wouldbe high. Investment size is the amount and significance of the resources that are attached

to a relationship, and if the relationship were to end the resources would decline in value(Rusbult et. al, 1988). Resources of investment can be family such as mutual friends and

time or shared material possessions such as a house and cars. Rusbult also found two

variables which were linked to commitment. The first variable is equity, the ability to befair. Equity in a relationship is highly important because inequity, or being unfair, causes

distress. Rusbults proposition suggests a partner in a inequitable relationship would be

less committed to the relationship and want to omit the distress, ending the relationship.

The second variable is social support such as family and friends. This variable is external.If family and friends commend the relationship it produces a positive influence causing

the couple to stay together longer.

Rusbults Investment Model of Commitment is supported by Rusbults empiricalresearch. Three studies utilizing various methods calculated the consistency and strength

of the Investment Model Scale. The studies administered scales to a sample of individuals

who were involved in ongoing romantic relationships utilizing items that have been

exploited in previous research on the investment model. In the first study she managedscale items to a sample of individuals who were involved in ongoing roma

relationships, utilizing items that have been exploited in previous research on the

Investment Model (Rusbult et. al, 1988). The second study was modified based on theresults of the first, (Rusbult et. al, 1988). The third study Rusbult made alterations to the

previous ones and followed up with a telephone interview. The scale is intended tomeasure commitment level, satisfaction level, quality of alternatives, and investment size.The Model of Investment Scale revealed good consistency to measure each process,

satisfaction level, quality of alternatives, and investment model.

Rusbult also conducted another study to support her findings of determinants for

relationship commitment using the Investment Model. Her research complies with herprediction. According to the investment model, satisfaction with a relationship should be

8/7/2019 Pshycologybehavironotes

3/10

greater to the extent that a relationship provides high rewards and low costs, whereas

commitment increases not only due to greater relationship satisfaction but also to

increases in the investment of resources in relationships and declines in the quality ifavailable alternative partners(Rusbult, 1980). Satisfaction and quality of alternatives

drive the commitment in a relationship with high rewards and low costs. Susan Sprecher

also conducted a study which supports Rusbult's findings. Sprecher (1988) found all ofthe predicting variables except investments were related to relationship commitment.

The consistency of these studies were examined on both martial relationships and gay

and lesbian relationships (Rusbult et. al, 1988). Rusbults second study and Sprecher's

study both support Rusbults Investment Model of commitment. Commitment has threeprocesses of dependence-satisfaction level, quality of alternatives, and investment size.

The items all had high correlations with commitment level, but satisfaction level and

quality of alternatives are positively associated with commitment level, were investmentsize is negatively associated. Rusbutl's Investment Model will produce further research to

understanding the process in ongoing intimate relationships.

8/7/2019 Pshycologybehavironotes

4/10

8/7/2019 Pshycologybehavironotes

5/10

8/7/2019 Pshycologybehavironotes

6/10

8/7/2019 Pshycologybehavironotes

7/10

Control theory (sociology)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation,search

Control Theory Diagram[1]

Control Theory in sociology can either be classified as centralized ordecentralized orneither. Decentralized control is consideredmarket control. Centralized control is

considered bureaucraticcontrol. Some types of control such asclan control are

considered to be a mixture of both decentralized and centralized control.

Decentralized control or market control is typically maintained through factors such as

price, competition, ormarket share. Centralized control such as bureaucratic control is

typically maintained through administrativeorhierarchicaltechniques such as creating

standards or policies. An example of mixed control is clan control whicharacteristics of both centralized and decentralized control. Mixed control or clan

control is typically maintained by keeping a set ofvaluesand beliefs or norms and

traditions.

Control Theory, as developed by Walter Reckless in 1973, states that behavior is caused

not by outside stimuli, but by what a person wants most at any given time. According to

the control theory, weak containing social systems result in deviant behavior. Deviant

behavior occurs when external controls on behavior are weak. According to controltheory; people act rationally, but if someone was given the chance to act deviant they

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory_(sociology)#mw-head%23mw-headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory_(sociology)#mw-head%23mw-headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory_(sociology)#p-search%23p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory_(sociology)#cite_note-0%23cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centralizedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decentralizedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureaucratichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureaucratichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pricehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_sharehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_sharehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Walter_Reckless&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devianthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Control_Strategy.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Control_Strategy.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory_(sociology)#mw-head%23mw-headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory_(sociology)#p-search%23p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory_(sociology)#cite_note-0%23cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centralizedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decentralizedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureaucratichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pricehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_sharehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Walter_Reckless&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deviant

8/7/2019 Pshycologybehavironotes

8/10

would. So, basically, if you have strong social bonds to positive influences, deviant

behavior is less likely than someone who has no family orfriends.

Control theory stresses how weak bonds between the individuals and society free peopleto deviate or go against the norms, or the people who have weak ties would engage in

crimes so they could benefit, or gain something that is to their own interest. This is wherestrong bonds make deviance more costly. Deviant acts appear attractive to individuals but

social bonds stop most people from committing the acts. Deviance is a result fromextensive exposure to certain social situations where individuals develop behaviors that

attract them to avoid conformingto social norms. Social bonds are used in control theory

to help individuals from going after these attractive deviations.

According toTravis Hirschi, humans are selfish beings, we all make decisions based onwhich choice will give us the greatest benefit to our needs or wants. A good example of

control theory would be that people go to work. Most people do not want to go to work,

but they do, because they get paid, to obtain food, water, shelter, and clothing. The

people that do not have a job or income will commit deviant acts in order to get what theyneed to survive.

Hirschi (1969) identifies four elements of social bonds[2], which consist of:

1. Attachments- which are ties to other people. How much the person cares aboutothers and how others view them based on the things they do. Having close

attachments with individuals and society stop someone from deviating because

they care about what others would think of them, they value their relationship and

don't want to risk losing it.2. Commitment- what we have spent most of our lives building up, which gives us

satisfaction, we expect a certain reward from it. Investments work to keep peoplefrom deviating because the more investments one has the less likely they will bedeviant. Individuals don't want to risk losing what they have spent time building,

while someone with little investments will see that they have nothing to lose so

the act is more appealing.3. Involvements- developing activities that demand time and energy. The more a

person spends on activities that conform the norms of society, the less time the

individual will have to do deviant acts. Deviance occurs when an individual is notinvolved in activities and has too much time on their hands; this causes the acts to

be more attractive and likely to take place.

4. Beliefs- how a person should act. The norms the person views as what should

happen or what seems right. Beliefs come from how the world works and how itshould work. We develop beliefs as a guide for norms on how people should act,

including ourselves. Beliefs are conformed by our relationships with others

because they expect us to do certain things which stops deviation.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travis_Hirschihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travis_Hirschihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory_(sociology)#cite_note-1%23cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commitmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beliefshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beliefshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friendhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conformhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travis_Hirschihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_theory_(sociology)#cite_note-1%23cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commitmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beliefs

8/7/2019 Pshycologybehavironotes

9/10

Control Theory

Control Theory is the theory of motivation proposed by William Glasser and it contends

that behavior is never caused by a response to an outside stimulus. Instead, the controltheory states that behavior is inspired by what a person wants most at any given time:

survival, love, power, freedom, or any other basic human need.

Discussion

Responding to complaints that todays students are unmotivated, Glasser attests that all

living creatures control their behavior to maximize their need satisfaction. According toGlasser, if students are not motivated to do their schoolwork, its because they view

schoolwork as irrelevant to their basic human needs.

Boss teachers use rewards and punishment to coerce students to comply with rules andcomplete required assignments. Glasser calls this leaning on your shovel work. He

shows how high percentages of students recognize that the work they doeven when theirteachers praise themis such low-level work.

Lead teachers, on the other hand, avoid coercion completely. Instead, they make theintrinsic rewards of doing the work clear to their students, correlating any proposed

assignments to the students basic needs. Plus, they only use grades as temporary

indicators of what has and hasnt been learned, rather than a reward. Lead teachers will

fight to protect highly engaged, deeply motivated students who are doing quality workfrom having to fulfill meaningless requirements.

How Control Theory Impacts Learning

CurriculumTeachers must negotiate both content and method with students. Students

basic needs literally help shape how and what they are taught.

InstructionTeachers rely on cooperative, active learning techniques that enhance the

power of the learners. Lead teachers make sure that all assignments meet some degree of

their students need satisfaction. This secures student loyalty, which carries the class

through whatever relatively meaningless tasks might be necessary to satisfy officialrequirements.

AssessmentInstructors only give good gradesthose that certify quality workto

satisfy students need for power. Courses for which a student doesnt earn a good gradeare not recorded on that students transcript. Teachers grade students using an absolute

standard, rather than a relative curve.

8/7/2019 Pshycologybehavironotes

10/10

Control Theory

Explanations > Theories> Control Theory

Description | Research | Example |So what? | See also | References

Description

We have a deep need for control that itself, paradoxically, controls much of our lives. The

endless effort to control can lead us to be miserable as we fail in this impossible task oftrying to control everything and everyone around us.

The alternative is to see the world as a series of choices, which is why Glasser later

renamed Control Theory as Choice Theory. Control theory was also taken up by Wiener

in his study of cybernetics and other behaviorists.

A principle of direct control theory is that of negative feedback, where outcomes arecompared with intent (or 'goals') and consequently used to moderate actions until intent is

optimally achieved. (The 'negative' in the feedback is the difference between the intent

and the outcome).

An important consequent aspect of control theory is self-regulation. People are seen as

intelligent, goal-driven individuals who control their activities in order to achieve theirobjectives, goals and needs.

So what?

Using it

Give people things to control, help them control the things in their path, or threaten theirsense of control.

Defending

Do not try to control everything -- instead see the world as a series of choices

http://changingminds.org/explanations/explanations.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/theories.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/theories.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/control.htm#Description%23Descriptionhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/control.htm#Research%23Researchhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/control.htm#Example%23Examplehttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/control.htm#So%23Sohttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/control.htm#So%23Sohttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/control.htm#See%23Seehttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/control.htm#References%23Referenceshttp://changingminds.org/explanations/explanations.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/theories.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/control.htm#Description%23Descriptionhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/control.htm#Research%23Researchhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/control.htm#Example%23Examplehttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/control.htm#So%23Sohttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/control.htm#See%23Seehttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/control.htm#References%23References