PSYC 1000Lecture 64

• Peacemaking: How to change antagonisms associated with prejudice.– Cooperation

• Contact between groups can help, but certain requirements: noncompetitive, equal status, …

• Superordinate Goals: Shared goals that override differences and require cooperation. Reduced conflict induced between two groups of boys (Sherif)

• Common Group Identity model (Dovidio & Gaertner, 1999): integrated seating, shared name, …

• Inter-racial Cooperative Learning in Classroom: Jigsaw exercises

Social Relations• Factors that Influence

Attraction/Attractiveness– Proximity

• Tend to like those who live near us, sit by us, live on same floor of residence, …

– Perhaps related to Familiarity• Mere exposure effect: Repeated exposure

to novel stimuli increases liking of them• Prefer mirror image of our own face• Prefer faces with parts of our own

morphed into them• Prefer babies who resemble us.

– Evolutionary mechanism

Attraction– Physical Attractiveness

• Randomly paired university students (men and women) more likely to like partner who is physically attractive

• Halo Effect: attractive perceived as healthier, happier, more successful, …

• More likely to make good impression in job interview and enjoy occupational success

• Portrayed in media as morally superior• Actually unrelated to self-esteem and

happiness, perhaps because most of us see ourselves as not unattractive

• Importance of “looks” to people: plastic surgery, self-reports

• Conceptions of attractiveness vary by culture• But also some universals

– Youthfulness associated with health and fertility– Features not unusually large or small– Averaged faces more attractive, perhaps due to

symmetry, smooth skin, …

Attraction – Similarity• Proximity brings us together,

and Attractiveness provides good first impression

• Friends and couples more likely to share common attitudes, beliefs, interests

• More similar people are more their liking endures (left)

– Reward Theory• Can explain preceding

observations• Also that Reciprocity matters;

that is, we like people who like us

Attraction• Romantic Love: various kinds/components

– Passionate Love• Often in initial stages of a romantic relationship• Aroused state of intense positive absorption• Physical Arousal plus Cognitive Appraisal

– Companionate Love• Deep affectionate attachment• Gratifying and Enduring Relationships involve …

– Equity: Receive from relationship in proportion to what you give

– Intimacy: role of Self-Disclosure; that is, revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

• Involves less intensity but greater intimacy• Natural progression in many relationships• Linked to greater satisfaction

Lasting Relationships

•What factors are related to long-term loving relationships?

–Others being included in our sense of self–Interdependence theory

Aggression

– Most destructive aspect of social relations

– Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy

• National differences in acts of aggression– Murder more likely in USA than many other

Western countries (e.g., Canada, Australia, Britain)

• How to explain and control aggression– Biological and Psychological Factors

• Biology of Aggression– Freud’s idea of “death instinct”– Genetic influences

• Twin concordance in such traits as “having violent temper”

– Neural Influences• Stimulation of amygdala produces aggression• Stimulation of other brain regions can inhibit aggression• 15 death-row inmates all had severe head injury• Diminished activity in frontal lobes• Neutralizing GABA can produce aggression in mice

– Biochemical influences• Testosterone: natural levels, surgical or chemical

castration, injection in female rats or hyenas, …• Alcohol results in disinhibition of aggression

• Psychology of Aggression– Aversive events:

• Frustration-Aggression Principle: Blocking attempts to achieve goal creates anger, which can generate aggression

• Association with temperature

– Learning to Express and Inhibit Aggression• Reinforcement

– Successful intimidation of other children– Parents giving in to temper tantrums

• Observational learning– Observe adult and child models– Parents using punishment with children

Aggression• Uncomfortably hot weather and aggression

– Learning (cont’d)• Culture

– Crime rates higher in countries with greater gap between rich and poor

• Minimal Father Care– 70% juvenile inmates grew up without two

parents

• Parent training programs– Use of positive parenting practices

• Aggression Replacement Program– Control anger, more thoughtful Moral

Reasoning

– Sexual Aggression and Media• Role of media and pornography

– Rapists often accept “rape myth”– Sex offenders report high levels of use of pornography– Question of causality

• Experimental studies of exposure– Viewing sexually explicit films over 6 weeks resulted in

shorter recommended prison sentences for man convicted of rape

• Depiction of sexual violence and aggression may be critical factor

• Surveys suggest high levels of sexual coercion– 1/5 women report man forced them to do something

sexually– 1/2 report unwanted sexual coercion– Most report verbal sexual harassment

• Characteristics of sexually coercive men

– TV Violence, Pornography, and Society• Provide aggressive, domineering Social Scripts (roles)

that people may use in real life• Close-Up: Parallels between Smoking and Media

Violence effects– Not everyone affected– Only one of multiple causes, although important one– Initial upset that diminishes with repetition– Single use / exposure has short-term effects– Long-term, cumulative effects more severe– Corporate interests deny causal connection

• Questions about causation, although reduced by experimental studies

• Correlation between variables A and B can be explained three ways

–A causes changes in B–B causes changes in A–3rd variable C causes both A and B

• Correlation between how much TV children watch and Aggression could be explained in following ways

–TV watching causes aggression–Aggressive children like to watch TV–Children with family troubles, such as parents who are not involved, tend to watch TV and be aggressive

• Video Games and Violence– Do games Teach or Release

violence?– Feelings of hostility and arousal

increase as college men played Mortal Kombat

– Video games can prime aggressive thoughts and increase aggression

• University men who spend most time playing violent video games tend to be most physically aggressive

• People randomly assigned to violent (vs. nonviolent) game become more hostile and more punitive on subsequent task

– Little evidence for catharsis hypothesis