GCSE Psychology

Revision BookletThere is specification information from the exam board at the beginning of each section

Name: ______________________________

PLANNING RESEARCH

HYPOTHESES

Candidates should be able to: frame a null hypothesis; frame an alternate (research) hypothesis; distinguish between null hypotheses and alternate hypotheses

Before doing their research, most psychologists make predictions about what they believe will happen. These predictions are known as hypotheses.

Hypothesis = A statement predicting the outcome of research

There are two main types of hypothesis:

Alternate Hypothesis (H1)=

Null Hypothesis (H0) =

Psychologists start a piece of research with both a null and its alternate hypothesis, because one of them has to be right. They therefore aim to find out which one is right. They then reject the one which is not supported by the research.

Examples

Task: Give two examples of an alternate hypothesis and their corresponding null hypotheses. Check with the person next to you, to see whether they think they are correct.

Hints: A null hypothesis could start – There is no difference/relationship* between...An alternate hypothesis could start – There is a difference/relationship* between...

*Relationship is used if the study is a correlation looking for a relationship between variables and not a difference between groups. VARIABLES

Candidates should be able to: distinguish between independent and dependent variables;

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outline what is meant by an extraneous variable explain how extraneous variables can be controlled, including standardisation.

Variable = anything that can be measured and can change

Independent Variable (IV) =

Dependent Variable (DV) =

N.B. The dependent variable depends on the independent variable, which is where it gets its name

Examples

Task: identify the IV and DV for the following studies...

There will be a difference in the hyperactivity levels of people who eat sweets and people who eat vegetables.

IV =

DV =

There is a difference between how participants who listen to music rate their mood and how participants who sit in silence rate their mood.

IV =

DV =

There is a difference in how many words are recalled if they are presented visually or acoustically.

IV =

DV =

Extraneous Variable = extra variables that might affect the results if not controlled, and could give a false set of data

There are two types of extraneous variable:

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Participant Variables = differences between participants in the two groups

Task: Give examples...

Situational Variables = aspects of the environment that might affect the results

Task: Give examples...

Standardisation = a way of controlling extraneous variables by keeping the extra variables the same in different conditions.

There are two types of standardisation

Standardised procedure = each participant is treated in exactly the same way e.g. same tasks, same order, same say, same timings etc.

Standardised instructions = every participant must be given exactly the same instructions, ideally by the same person and in the same way.

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EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Candidates should be able to: distinguish between repeated measures and independent groups designs; describe the strengths and weaknesses of a repeated measures design; describe the strengths and weaknesses of an independent groups design.

Experimental Design =

Task: Complete the following table

Type = __________________________ Type = __________________________

Definition

Advantages

Disadvantages

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

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Candidates should be able to: distinguish between a target population and a sample; distinguish between random sampling and opportunity sampling; describe the relative strengths and weaknesses of random and opportunity

sampling with reference to representative samples and biased samples.

Sample =

Target Population =

Ideally a sample should be representative of the target population. This means that people in the sample should be an accurate reflection of the population, representing a range of characteristics, such as age, personality and intelligence.

Task: Complete the table, making sure you know which sample is more REPRESENTATIVE, and which is more BIASED

Random Sampling Opportunity Sampling

Definition

Strengths

Weaknesses

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Candidates should be able to: discuss the issues of informed consent and right to withdraw; discuss the issues of confidentiality;

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discuss the issues of protection of participants, including deception, health and well-being.

Ethical Consideration = issues of research that take into account the welfare of participants

Task: Complete the table, explaining what each ethical consideration is and how it can be dealt with.

Ethical Consideratio

nWhat does it mean? How is it dealt with?

Informed Consent

Right to Withdraw

Confidentiality

Deception

Protection of

Participants

Debriefing

DOING RESEARCH

EXPERIMENTS

Candidates should be able to:

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describe the use of laboratory experiments; describe the use of field experiments; describe the strengths and weaknesses of laboratory and field experiments.

Experiment = a method by which the researcher controls variables and measures their effect

They are used widely in psychology and have the following features in common:

The researcher manipulates an independent variable The researcher measures a dependent variable The researcher attempts to control all other extraneous variables that may

affect the outcome of the experiment. They establish cause and effect.

This is because by manipulating the independent variable and controlling all other variables researchers know whether it has an effect on the dependent variable.

Type of Experiment

Strengths Weaknesses

Laboratory Experiment

Definition:An

experiment carried out in a controlled environment

Higher control of extraneous variables because...

The findings might lack ecological validity because...

Tends to be more ethical because...

There is more chance of demand characteristics affecting the findings because...

Field Experiment

Definition:An

experiment carried out in

a natural environment

The findings have higher ecological validity because...

Lower control of extraneous variables because...

There is less chance of demand characteristics affecting findings because...

Tends to be less ethical because...

QUESTIONNAIRES

Candidates should be able to: describe the use of questionnaires as a method of self report; distinguish between open and closed questions;

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describe the strengths and weaknesses of questionnaires.

Questionnaire = a set of pre-determined questions which are the same for all respondents.

Questionnaires are a type of self report method, as participants report on their own experiences.

Questionnaires can use open or closed questions.

Closed Questions = Questions with a set number of responses, often given in the form of multiple-choice answers.

Give examples...

Open Questions = Questions with no fixed answers, allowing the respondent to go into more depth

Give examples...

Task: Colour code which evaluation points are strengths and which are weaknesses

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Used to access people’s thoughts and feelings.

All respondents are asked the same questions, making it

possible to compare answers and look for patterns or trends

People may lie or exaggerate.

Respondents may misunderstand questions and

therefore not give reliable answers.

By asking everybody the same questions, researchers

cannot explore individual responses.

Easy and quick to administer to a large sample

INTERVIEWS

Candidates should be able to: describe the use of interviews as a method of self report; distinguish between structured and unstructured interviews; describe the strengths and weaknesses of interviews.

Interviews = face to face questioning. Questions are usually open rather than closed, allowing for in-depth answers.

Interviews are another type of self report method, as participants report on their own experiences.

There are two types of interview:

Structured Interview =

Give a strength and weakness of this type of interview:

Unstructured Interview =

Give a strength and weakness of this type of interview:

Task: Complete the following evaluation points

One of the strengths of interviews is that they are used to access...

Another strength is that because the interviewer is present...

However, because the interviewer is present, this also means that people may...

Another weakness is that they rely on people being able to explain their thoughts and feelings...

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OBSERVATIONS

Candidates should be able to: describe the use of observations; identify the differences between covert and overt observations and between

participant and non-participant observations; describe the strengths and weaknesses of the different types of observations.

Observations = watching participants’ reactions, responses and behaviours and recording what is observed.

Task: Define each dimension and evaluate each

Observations can be...

Overt or Covert

Participant or Non-Participant

This gives 4 possible types of observation. What are they?

1. 3.

2. 4.

A general problem with observations is observer bias. What does this mean?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________TYPES OF STUDY

Candidates should be able to:10

OvertDefinition

Problems

CovertDefinition

Problems

ParticipantDefinition

Problems

Non-ParticipantDefinition

Problems

describe the use of case studies; describe the use of correlation studies; compare the use of longitudinal studies and cross-sectional studies.

Experiments, questionnaires, interviews and observations make up the main methods used in psychological research. However, these methods can be used in different ways, giving more specific types of studies.

Case Study =

It tends to use methods such as....

________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Quite often the group being studied is unusual in some way (e.g. A Boy Names Brenda)

Correlation Study =

It tends to use methods such as....

________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

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Longitudinal

Definition

Problems

Cross-Sectional

Definition

Problems

positive negative none

ANALYSING RESEARCH

Once data has been collected, psychologists need to analyse it. This is to identify patterns and trends. From this, they are able to draw conclusions about their research. They also need to be aware of any flaws in their research and how this will affect their findings.

TYPES OF DATA

Candidates should be able to: explain what is meant by quantitative data; explain what is meant by qualitative data; describe data collected from investigations.

Quantitative Data =

Give a strength and weakness of this type of data:

Qualitative Data =

Give a strength and weakness of this type of data:

DESCRIPTIVE DATA

Candidates should be able to: use and interpret modes; use and interpret medians; use and interpret means.

Task: define each type of average and explain how you would calculate it.

Mode =

Median =

Mean =

TABLES, CHARTS AND GRAPHS

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Candidates should be able to: use and interpret tables of data; use and interpret bar charts; use and interpret line graphs.

Quantitative data can be represented more visually using techniques such as tables, charts and graphs.

Tables =

Draw an example...

Bar Chart =

Draw an example...

Line Graph =

Draw an example...

EVALUATING FINDINGS

Candidates should be able to: explain the concept of validity, including ecological validity; explain the concept of reliability, including inter-rater reliability;

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outline the problems of demand characteristics, observer effects and social desirability.

Validity = reflecting the truth

Ecological validity =

Reliability = the consistency of the findings and whether the findings replicate

Inter-rater reliability =

Demand characteristics = cues in the experiment which give away the aim and may cause participants to behave differently.

Observer effect =

Social desirability = responses that participants give when they say what they believe the researcher wants to hear or what they think they should say because it is socially acceptable.

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SOURCES OF BIAS

Candidates should be able to: explain the concept of gender bias; explain the concept of culture bias; explain the concept of experimenter bias.

Bias = Only viewing things from a certain perspective

Ideally data presented should be free of bias Data should be objective (free from opinions, feelings, beliefs etc) However, although psychologists try hard to be objective, the following biases

may creep in...

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Gender Bias=

Culture Bias=

Experimenter Bias=

Gender Bias=

Gender Bias=

How does it occur... How does it occur...How does it occur...

PLANNING AN INVESTIGATION

INVESTIGATION SKILLS

Candidates should be able to: carry out an experiment; carry out a questionnaire; carry out an interview; carry out an observation.

DESIGN SKILLS

Candidates should be able to: state the hypothesis for an investigation; describe and justify the sample used in an investigation; describe ethical issues involved in an investigation; describe and justify how the variables are measured in an investigation; describe and justify the control of extraneous variables in an investigation; describe the procedure used in an investigation; explain the strengths of the method used in an investigation; explain the weaknesses of the method used in an investigation; describe how data is analysed in an investigation.

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TEST YOURSELF

PLANNING RESEARCH

1. What is the definition of a hypothesis?

2. What is the definition of an alternate hypothesis and what is it abbreviated to?

3. What is the definition of a null hypothesis and what is it abbreviated to?

4. What is a variable?

5. What is an independent variable?

6. What is a dependent variable?

7. What is an extraneous variable?

8. What are the two types of extraneous variables? Give examples

9. Extraneous variables are controlled through standardisation. What is

standardisation?

10.What are the two types of standardisation? What do they mean?

11.What is the definition of experimental design?

12.What is a repeated measures design?

13.What are the strengths of a repeated measures design?

14.What are the weaknesses of a repeated measures design?

15.What is an independent groups design?

16.What are the strengths of an independent groups design?

17.What are the weaknesses of an independent groups design?

18.Define sample

19.Define target population

20.How would a psychologist conduct a random sample?

21.What are the strengths of a random sample?

22.What are the weaknesses of a random sample?

23.How would a psychologist conduct an opportunity sample?

24.What are the strengths of an opportunity sample?

25.What are the weaknesses of an opportunity sample?

26.Define ethical consideration

27.What is meant by informed consent and how is it achieved?

28.What is meant by right to withdraw and how is it achieved?

29.What is meant by confidentiality and how is it achieved?

30.What is meant by deception and how is it avoided?

31.What is meant by protection of participants and how is achieved?

32.What is meant by debriefing and how is it achieved?

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DOING RESEARCH

1. What are some of the key features of an experiment?

2. What is a laboratory experiment?

3. What is a field experiment?

4. Which type of experiment has higher ecological validity? Why?

5. Which type of experiment tends to be more ethical? Why?

6. Which type of experiment has better control over extraneous variables? Why?

7. Which type of experiment tends to have more demand characteristics? Why?

8. What is a self-report method?

9. Define questionnaire

10.What is a closed question? Give an example

11.What is an open question? Give an example

12.Give three strengths of a questionnaire

13.Give three weaknesses of a questionnaire

14.Define interview

15.What is the difference between a structured and unstructured interview?

16.Give two strengths of an interview

17.Give two weaknesses of an interview

18.What is an overt observation? What are the problems with this type of observation?

19.What is a covert observation? What are the problems with this type of observation?

20.What is a participant observation? What are the problems with this type of

observation?

21.What is a non-participant observation? What are the problems with this type of

observation?

22.What are the four possible types of observation?

23.What is observer bias?

24.What is an observer effect?

25.What is a case study?

26.What is a correlation study?

27.Define positive correlation

28.Define negative correlation

29.Define no correlation

30.What is a longitudinal study?

31.What are the problems with a longitudinal study?

32.What is a cross sectional study?

33.What is the main problem with a cross-sectional study?

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ANALYSING RESEARCH

1. Define qualitative data. Give an example

2. Define quantitative data. Give an example

3. What is a mode? How is it calculated?

4. What is a median? How is it calculated?

5. What is a mean? How is it calculated?

6. How is a table used to represent data in psychological research?

7. How is a bar chart used to represent data in psychological research?

8. How is a line graph used to represent data in psychological research?

9. Define validity

10.Define ecological validity

11.Define reliability

12.Define inter-rater reliability

13.Define demand characteristics

14.Define observer effect

15.Define social desirability

16.Define bias

17.What is gender bias? How might it occur?

18.What is culture bias? How might it occur?

19.What is experimenter bias? How might it occur?

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