Psychoactive drugs plant and poisonous plant R.R Tshikororo Department of Botany and plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa Email address: [email protected]Student no: 201048036 Abstract This report will be discussing psychoactive drug and poisonous plants. Psychoactive drugs are substances that are used by living organisms which have impact in thinking, moods and behaviour. Poisonous plants are plants that can be used for protection against predator or hunting. Some of these plants are used for medical purposes such as Atropa belladonna which can control inflammation and pain and also used as antinodes against mushroom poisoning. These plants are important for economic use. The psychoactive drug plants can be classified into three grouping stimulants, hallucinogens and depressants. Poisonous plant can be
Transcript
Psychoactive drugs plant and poisonous plant
R.R Tshikororo
Department of Botany and plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg
This report will be discussing psychoactive drug and poisonous plants. Psychoactive drugs are substances that are used by living organisms
which have impact in thinking, moods and behaviour. Poisonous plants are plants that can be used for protection against predator or hunting.
Some of these plants are used for medical purposes such as Atropa belladonna which can control inflammation and pain and also used as
antinodes against mushroom poisoning. These plants are important for economic use. The psychoactive drug plants can be classified into three
grouping stimulants, hallucinogens and depressants. Poisonous plant can be grouped under protection/hunting and insecticides/pesticides. The
finding shows that these plants can be for economic use especially in medicine.
Keywords: Psychoactive drug plants; poisonous plants; hallucinogens; stimulants; medicinal plants
1. Introduction
Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances from plant which can be used to alter or modify the emotional, intellectual or behavioural function
of organisms (Hindmarch, 2004). The psychoactive drug functions when absorbed into the bloodstream and affect neurotransmitters in human
body. The substance influences the release of neurotransmitters (chemical messengers within the nervous system, such as dopamine), which
can mimic action or inhibit action (Hindmarch, 2004). Most chemicals that contain psychoactive properties have nitrogen and are classified
under one of alkaloids classes. The angiosperm families are widely known for their characteristics of having psychoactive properties (Seymour,
& Smith, 2011). The psychoactive drug can be classified as follows: stimulants, hallucinogens and depressants. This grouped is classified
based on the effect on the living organisms such as hallucinogens marijuana (Cannabis sativa), stimulants an example of plants is
Erythroxylum coca, and depressant example of plant is Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum).The psychoactive drug can be used in medicine for
Anaesthetic pain management and psychiatric medication (Hindmarch, 2004).
Plant defend themselves by producing chemical substance to prevent being browsed by predators. Compound like tannins act like defence
mechanisms in plants. This plant are classified as poisonous plant because different toxins such as alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides,
coumarins, terpenoids, saponins, heart gylcosides, lectins, oxalates and miscellaneous compounds (Van Wyk et al., 2005). Animals can
accidentally swallow the poisons plant when grazing which can cause fatal disease and result in heavy stock losses (Botha & Penrith,
2008).Some poisonous plant can be accidentally swallowed as plant food such as wild tobacco (Nicotiana gluaca) and purging nut (Jatropha
curcas) seed ( Van Wyk B.E. & Gericke, N. 2000). Furthermore, when accidentally swallowed by humans, it can result into symptoms like
nausea, vomiting, delirium or hallucinations, loss of consciousness and difficulty in breathing (Van Wyk et al., 2005). Some plants are used for
medical purposes such as Atropa belladonna which can control inflammation and pain and also used as antinode against mushroom poisoning
(Singh, 2006). The people of Caribs of the Caribbean has used poisons made from the latex to kill their wild beast and even hurt other animals
from (Hippomane mancinella) Manchineel tree (Mayor, 2009).
2. Results and discussion
2.1 Psychoactive drug plants
Psychoactive drug plants have been used by humankind for a variety of reasons. Some plants are used for religious and spiritual reasons such as marijuana (Cannabis sativa).The effect differ on living organism depending on the psychoactive drug plant properties. The psychoactive drug plants have been grouped according to their effects such as hallucinogens, stimulants and depressants.
2.1.1 Hallucinogens
A variety of plants may contain chemical species of hallucinogens. This word comes from Greek word meaning” to wander in mind or attention”. Plants that contains hallucinogenic properties have been used in religious ceremonies, entertainment and also for healing eg jimsonweed, psilocybin mushrooms, and cannabis (Mehling & Triggle , 2003). The counterculture movements used hallucinogens as Lysergic acid diethylamide for Spiritual ceremonies. When this psychoactive drug is taken by human it can reduce fatigue, suppress hunger and alter vision.
Fig 1: Jimson weed as an example of Hallucinogens (www.carrborocitizen.com)
Table 1: Hallucinogens sub-class of plants indigenous and exotic to South Africa
Category of use
Species Commercial name
Family Region of origin
Main use/main effect
Google hits on (08/08/13 )
Indigenous species
Hallucinogens
Boophone disticha
(L.f.) Herb
Umdlandlovu (Zulu)
Amaryllidaceace Africa For hunting 15,400
Boscia albitrunca
(Burch.) Gilg & Gilg-Ben.
Muvhombwe venda Sherperd’stree
Capparaceae South Africa Medicinal use 10,400
Chamaecrista mimosoides
(L.) Greene
Bonisele(zulu-“seeing”)
Convolvulaceae tropics of Asia and Africa and S Africa
Medicinal use 8,490
Crabbea hirsuta Harv
(Carl Linnaeus)
letsoejane/mereko (Sotho)
Acanthaceae Africa 1,420
Ipomoea oblongata
(E.Mey. ex Choisy)
Ubhoqo Convolvulaceae southern Africa
Turbinaspecies are culturally important New World hallucinogens
81,100
Brachylaena discolour
(de Candolle, Augustin Pyramus)
Coast silver oak Asteraceae southern Africa
Traditional medicina use and oranametal
31,400
Sceletium tortuosum (L.) Bron,Nicholas Edward
Channa Mesembryanthemaceae
South Africa Smoked with Cannibas
130,000
Category of use
Species Commercial name
Family Region of origin
Main use/main effect
Google hits on (08/08/13)
Exotic species
Hallucinogens
Lophophora williamsii
( Salm-Dyck ) J.M.Coult.
Peyote Cactaceae Northern America
Breast pain and rheumatism
6,080,000
Cannabis sativa
L.var.Indica(Lam)WEhmer
Marijuana Cannabaceae Central Asia Nonmedical drug used for smoking
1, 440 000 000
Brunfelsia grandiflora
(D.Don)
royal purple brunfelsia
Solanaceae South America
Traditional medicine to treat fever, rheumatism, syphilis.
59,200
Ipomoea tricolor
Cav
Morning glory
Convolvulaceae New world tropics
Pharmaceutical compounds
207,000
Atropa belladonna
(Carl Linnaeus)
Belladonna Solanaceae Europe Pharmaceutical anticholinergics
452,000
Rivea corymbosa
(L. ) Hallier f.
Ololiuqui Convolvulaceae Mexico ornamental plant
47,900
Mandragora officinarum
(Carl Linnaeus)
Mandrake Solanaceae Europe 103,000
2.1.2. Stimulants
Psychoactive drug plants have been primarily used in treating attention-deficit /hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy in which person fall into a deep sleep (Solanton et al., 2001). Humans have used some of these plants for consumption as well as for ornamental purposes, for example Catha edulis (khat) (Simpson and Ogorzaly, 2001). The stimulants are also helpful in medicine Ephreda sinica for example, can be used to treat patients with cancer.
(de Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet)
Cocaine Erythroxylaceae western South America
used anthetheic 121,000
Ilex guayusa
(Loesener, Ludwig Eduard Theodor)
Guayusa Aquifoliaceae Ecuadorian Amazion Cultivation and use as a beverage
24,100
Ephedra sinica
(Stapf in Farw.)
ma huang Ephredraceae Chinese Treatment of cancer 165,000
Catha edulis( (Vahl ) Forssk. ex Endl.)
Khat Celastraceae Africa and the Arabian Peninsula
Used as coffee 179,000
2.1.3 Depressants
Depressant drugs are drugs that are taken to calm nerves and relax muscles (www.linkingcare.org) .It work in normal function of nervous system which can slow it.
Plants like kava, opium, tobacco and false horseweed have depressants occurring naturally.
Table 3: Depressants sub-category of indigenous and exotic species to South Africa
Category of use
Species Commercial name
Family Region of origin
Main use/main effect
Google hits on (8/8/13)
Indigenous species
Depressants Indigofera
flavicans
(Baker)
naiego(San) Fabaceae Some part of Africa
facilitate the induction of trance states
3,350
Hippobromus
pauciflorus
((L.f.) Radlk.)
False horsewood
Sapindaceae South africa
Roots used as love charms
1,890
Category of use
Species Commercial name
Family Region of origin
Main use/main effect
Google hits on (8/813)
Exotic species
Depressants Piper methysticum
(G.Forst.)
Kava Piperaceae Western pacific
Used as beverage
266,000
Nicotiana Tobacco Solanaceae Tropical Americas
smoking 111,000
rustica
(Linné, Carl von)
Papaver
somniferum
(Linné, Carl von)
Opium poppy
Papaveraceae
Asia Converted to heroin
42,800,000
Nicotiana tabacum
(Linné, Carl von)
Tobacco Solanaceae tropical and subtropical America
Commercial
use
1,580,000
Corydalis ambigua
(Cham. & Schltdl.)
Corydalis Rhizome
Papaveraceae
China Help with pain
54,800
2.2 Poisonous plants
Poisonous plant has mechanisms to produce toxins in their roots, leaves or berries which are harmful to living organisms as defence mechanisms (Gould, 2012). People have used them for hunting purpose like hunter gatherers and Amazonian people to poison their arrows. Ptaeroxylon obliquum has been traditionally used for ritual purposes and also used as insecticides (Signh, 2006).
Table 5: Protection/hunting sub-category of use for species indigenous and exotic to South Africa
Category of use
Species Commercial name
Family Region of origin
Main use/main effect
Google hits on (08/8/13)
Indigenous speciesProtection/ hunting Acokanthera
oppositifolia(Lam.) Codd
Bushman’s poison bush
Apocynaceae Africa Arrow poison 68,100
Adenium Multiflorum
(Klotzsch)
Impala lilly Apocynaceae Extreme Eastern parts of SA
Fish and Arrow poison
27,000
Cissampelos capensis
(Thunb)
Dawidjies Menispermaceae
Western parts of SA & northern Namibia
Arrow poison 13,300
Strophanthus speciosus((Ward & Harv.) Reber)
Poison rope Apocynaceae Zimbabwe, South Africa and Swaziland.
Arrow poison 9,220
Exotic speciesProtection/ hunting
Chondrodendron tomentosum(Ruiz & Pavon)
Curare Menispermaceae South America Arrow poison 357,000
Strychnos nux-vomica(Carl Linnaeus)
Poison nut Loganiaceae Southeast Asia Fish poison 141,000
Derris elliptica(Lour)
Poison vine, tuba
Fabaceae Southeast Asia Fish poison 45,900
Lonchocarpus urucu(Killip & A.C.Smith)
Barbasco Fabaceae Peru Poison for fishing 7,490
Nerium oleander Oleander Apocynaceae South Asia Toxicity ingested 599,000
3. Conclusion
Over 80 percentage of human population around the globe relies on medicinal plants for their daily fight for better health. In Africa, access to modern medical treatment is very limited mostly due to lack of facilities or when hospital do exist and their service are unaffordable for majority. As a results psychoactive drugs are used to meet people’s needs for their health care. These plants has special meaning to many people in terms of custom, livelihood and financial income.
Furthermore, psychoactive drugs and poisonous plants are used mostly for medicinal purposes. Different cultures and customs have their own unique plant species which they can use for medicinal purpose, spiritual rituals and for protection.
Some people misuse the use of psychoactive drug for pleasure which results in hallucination and brain damage. The knowledge about this plants can be used to educate the society and the awareness of their effect in term of being poisonous as well as conserving the plants.
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Mayor, A (2009). Greek Fire, Poison Arrows and Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World (Revised ed.). The Overlook Press. ISBN 978-1-59020-177-0
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