Psychological Effects of a Self-Sufficiency Model

Paper:

Psychological Effects of a Self-Sufficiency ModelBased on Urge System

Teruaki Ando and Masayoshi KanohSchool of Information Science and Technology, Chukyo University

101 Tokodachi, Kaizu-cho, Toyota 470-0393, JapanE-mail: mkanoh@sist.chukyo-u.ac.jp

[Received April 17, 2010; accepted July 8, 2010]

In recent years, robots to coexist with humans havebeen developed. Their ability to communicate is indis-pensable for their coexistence with humans, so stud-ies on the interaction between humans and robots areimportant. This paper proposes a model of the self-sufficiency system of a robot, in which we apply theurge system to the autonomous system of emotion. Inthis model, a robot expresses its changing psycholog-ical and physiological conditions (physiological loadcondition) and conveys them sensitively to the user.This is expected to result in a mental interaction ef-fect between the user and the agent. We carry outsimulation experiments on this model and verify thepsychological interaction between the software robot(agent) and the user. As a result of these experiments,it is recognized that the agents with the ability to prop-erly express physiological load among those with thismodel implemented have a tendency to receive higherevaluations from their users.

Keywords: urge system, self-sufficiency, human robotinteraction, human symbiosis systems, Ifbot

1. Introduction

In recent years, studies have been done on the interac-tion between humans and robots or software agents thathave artificial emotion implemented. Shibata et al. [1, 2]have developed a pet robot that acts in such a way thatit appears to have the autonomy or emotions to interactphysiologically with humans. They have shown that thepet robot may have the spiritual effects of giving peo-ple pleasure or peace of mind through this interaction.Takeuchi et al. [3] have proposed an emotion genera-tion model based on the likability rating of dialogists in arobot. This model leads to the implementation of a robotthat changes its behavior depending on the reactions of thedialogist. Most of these studies focus mainly on entertain-ment, or on producing feelings of pleasure, peace of mind,or interest in human subjects. In almost all cases, there-fore, the system in which emotion is implemented dealswith how to express or represent it. However, if the pur-pose of adding emotion artificially to agents is their co-

existence with humans and their ability to communicatewith them, studies on systems that autonomously activatethe emotion function in an adaptive way to environmentscan be considered important.

Toda [4, 5] considers that emotion is an inherently mo-tivational program in which appropriate motives functionin emotional situations, and Toda proposed the urge sys-tem based on that assumption. This study also pays atten-tion to autonomous systems possessed of emotion, and itaims at the development of an autonomous activity sys-tem for an agent, a system based on artificial emotion. Itfocuses specifically on the self-sufficiency function of theautonomous activity system, which supplies its own en-ergy. This paper verifies what psychological effects workon humans in their interaction with an agent that “satisfiesself-sufficiency by others.”

Self-sufficiency is the ability of an agent to maintain it-self for a long period of time, and it is one of five charac-teristic concepts (situatedness, autonomy, self-sufficiency,embodiment, and adaptivity) relative to complete au-tonomous systems [6, 7]. For a robot, for example, fuelis supplied to maintain a battery level. Self-maintenanceis often thought to be done intuitively in this self man-ner, but there are times when this is done “in terms ofother persons” in the real world. One of these cases isthe self-sufficiency of a human baby, which is absolutelydependent on its mother and satisfies its self-sufficiencythrough its mother. In other words, a baby expresses theinstability of its psychological or physiological conditionor the dissatisfaction of its physical condition with its fa-cial expressions or physical motions. This results in let-ting its mother know what conditions need improvement.This paper is based on this concept and proposes a self-sufficiency model to which an urge system is applied. Inexperiments, we build up a limited environment in whichthe urge system specific to an agent works in virtual space(Fig. 1). We do this to carry out simulation experimentson this model, and we verify the effects of the psycholog-ical interaction between the agent and the user.

2. Urge System

Urge theory is an emotion theory that extends con-ventional emotional concepts. This theory assumes that

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Ando, T. and Kanoh, M.

Fig. 1. Experimental environment overview.

emotion has an advanced wilderness rationality and is anenvironmentally adaptive selection system (mental soft-ware) that is limited by the basic framework geneticallygiven. This mental software controls the mental andphysical abilities, such as the physiological activation oflearning, cognition, memory, consciousness, and physicalfunctions, along with the purpose unique to the activatedemotion. An emotion started with a “purpose” in mind iscalled an “urge,” that with no purpose in mind is called a“mood-state,”1 and the mental software is called the “urgesystem.”

2.1. UrgesThe urge system divides conventional concepts of emo-

tion into urges and mood-states. An urge is an “angryurge” generated when “your possessions are intentionallydestroyed by another person.” In addition to such an urgebased on a general emotional concept, an internal signalurge, such as “hunger,” is understood as one caused by theindividual function of the mind and a “physiological urge”assumed to be generated. The urge system is largely char-acterized by dealing with the physiological functions thatcannot generally be considered as emotional functions inthis way.

2.2. Mood-StatesA mood-state is a function of the mind that doesn’t

have the purpose of its own activity, in contrast to an urge,which is a function of emotion or the heart with its ownunique purpose. For example, the function of “joy” or“sadness” becomes a mood-state. An action plan, such asthe “punishment action plan for assaulters,” is always gen-erated in an angry urge, but such an action plan does notexist in joy or sadness. In other words, the joy or sadnessurge does not exist, and it is due to the “demonstrationurge.” On the other hand, a mood-state has an importantrole and causes a specific urge to be easy or difficult toactivate. That is, it acts to encourage the activation or in-activation of the start of an urge.

1. In this paper, we do not consider emotional attitude, which is the thirdclass of emotional concepts after urges and mood-states.

Urges

Post-mortemphase

Decision-making phase

Action-controlphase

Physiological Anger Surprise DemonstrationFear

desirable

User

Increasing joy

Increasing sadness

Choosing action plan

Yes

No

Helping (doing something)

Activation phase Situation cognition

Facial expressions

BehaviorVocalizing

Fig. 2. Overview of proposed model.

2.3. Four Phases of Urge ActivitiesThe urge system has four phases; activation phase,

decision-making phase, action-control phase, and post-mortem phase. All urges function in these phases and areprocessed in a step-by-step manner. The following is a de-scription of the processing in each phase. The activationphase is in charge of the situation cognition process. Thedecision-making phase is in charge of determining actionplans generated by urge activation. The action-controlphase is in charge of the starting and ending of the imple-mentation of a determined action plan. The post-mortemphase is in charge of the starting of urges to execute re-consideration or learning. In this paper, we model thesefour phases of urge activities and implement them in thecomputer agent.

3. Self-Sufficiency Model Based onUrge System

Subsection 3.1 gives an overview of the proposedmodel and Subsection 3.2 describes the specific imple-mentation content.

3.1. OverviewThe proposed model is overviewed in Fig. 2. This

model was based on four phases of the urge function tobuild up a series of flow for sequential processing on astep-by-step basis. It recognizes information from an en-vironment (situation cognition), activates an urge in re-sponse to a situation, and then selects an action plan thatcan be taken based on the urge activated in the decision-making phase for a specific action (facial expression,etc.). The activity of this action-control phase causes thepsychological condition of an agent to be represented,which makes it possible for the user to observe a changein the agent. This allows the user to dynamically approachthe agent. An approach from the user is capable of chang-ing the situation cognition of the agent and is used tomodel the post-mortem phase. Specifically, if a change

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Psychological Effects of a Self-Sufficiency Model

induced by the user approach is desirable for the agent,the joy mood-state is increased, and, if not, the sadnessmood-state is increased. Through the flow outlined above,it is expected that the agent can achieve self-sufficiency ina manner dependent upon another person (user).

3.2. Implementation of Urge SystemIt is first necessary to determine the situation cognition

to start various urges for the agent.

3.2.1. Situation CognitionThis model divides the input system of the agent into

the internal and external cognition systems. The internalsystem is considered to consist of two parameters: one isits own physiological load p(t) at time t and the other thefavorability rating f (t) for a certain target of attention.2The values of these parameters are accumulated throughthe following equations.

P(t) = αpP(t −1)+ p(t), . . . . . . . (1)F (t) = α f F (t −1)+ f (t), . . . . . . . (2)

where αp and α f are decay parameters, and 0 < αp,α f < 1. Note that the physiological load types exist forthe number of internal signals. For example, consid-ering a robot agent, a physiology urge can be consid-ered that is activated when the CPU temperature risesor when the amount of energy remaining in a batterydrops. Thus, it is necessary to prepare p(t) and P(t)for the relevant physiological load. That is, the physiol-ogy load parameter becomes the vector information, suchas p(t) = (p1(t), p2(t)...), P(t) = (P1(t),P2(t)...). (Thesuffix is an identifier of the physiology load.)

Variable o(t) was given by the following equation thatdetermined whether or not the user existed as the externalinput system.

o(t) ={

1 (User exists)0 (User does not exist). . . . . (3)

Processing of the activation phase is determined in ac-cordance with the situation cognition as described above.

3.2.2. Activation PhaseAttention is paid to the emotions of a human baby as

an urge needed for self-sufficiency. The emotions of thehuman baby are developed and specialized from content-ment, interest, and distress at the time of birth to joy,surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, and fear (these nineemotions are called the “primary emotions”) [8]. As inIzard [9], this model takes the position that “emotion =representation” and considers the correspondence of theprimary emotions to Ekman’s six basic emotions (anger,surprise, fear, sadness, disgust, and joy) [10] for easy rep-resentation by facial expressions. In other words, there

2. A target of attention is a candidate for selection. For example, if onewants a branch that fits within the palm of the hand, the targets of atten-tion are the branches appropriate to that condition (one does not observebigger branches). All targets of attention at some point in time are col-lectively called the target system.

are three urges, i.e., anger, surprise, and fear, that can cor-respond to the general emotions among those placed inthe activation phase. Joy and sadness are represented bythe demonstration urge. The physiology urge that dealswith the internal factors (physiological and physical sit-uation variables) specific to the agent is considered tobe activated when the physiological condition degrades,and it corresponds to the representation of disgust. Werespond to contentment, interest, and distress as below,which are not made correspondent to the six basic emo-tions. Contentment is made correspondent to joy whenself-sufficiency is successful. Interest is excluded becauseit has no relation to self-sufficiency. Distress is made cor-respondent to disgust.

The activation phase is the one in which various urgesare activated by situation cognition, but the agent is placedin a condition that continues to momentarily receive envi-ronmental inputs and to activate an urge at any time.

The following is a description of the activation condi-tions of various urges.

(a) Physiology UrgeThe physiology urge is an activity plan that dependsmainly on internal signals, such as pain, appetite,and sexuality. The physiology urge correspondingto physiological load i was decided to be activatedby the following equation:

Pi(t)> θphys, . . . . . . . . . . (4)

where θphys is the threshold of the physiology urge.

(b) Anger UrgeThe nature of anger can be seen from the action todefend the domain of animals. That is, if another an-imal intrudes on one’s authorized domain, the occu-pant of authority activates the emotion of anger anddirects it at the intruder. In this study, it is consid-ered that the so-called original emotional function ofa wild animal can be fully referenced. This paper as-sumes the activation condition of the anger urge tobe an abnormal physical value in response to an ex-ternal input (user).

o(t) = 1 and ∃i(pi(t)> θang), . . . (5)

where θang is the threshold of anger urge activation.

(c) Surprise UrgeThe activation condition of the surprise urge can beconsidered a situation without any expected inputfrom the anticipated target system3 or with an inputfrom the target among general targets of attention4that does not belong to this anticipated target sys-tem. One example is a surprise urge that is activatedeven if a large sound is expected, but no sound isheard. The activation condition of the surprise urge

3. The target system fitting established expected conditions.4. Targets of attention with respect to circumstances highly related to sur-

vival.

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Ando, T. and Kanoh, M.

was decided to be “an input value outside the ex-pected range or an input from the unexpected inputsystem.”

∃i(pi(t)− pi(t −1))> θsup or o(t) = 1and ∃ j(P j(t)> φsup) and

∃k(pk(t)> ρsup), ( j �= k), . . . . . (6)

where θsup, φsup and ρsup are the thresholds of sur-prise urge activation.

(d) Fear UrgeA situation in which the fear urge is activated is de-termined including situations in which “if you do nottake any action, you will be hurt” or in which “youhave an extremely small possibility of controlling thedanger.” The activation condition of the fear urgewas decided to be the “situation in which no rest isallowed in case of a high level of danger.” A condi-tion with a high level of danger can be represented byusing accumulation P(t) in the internal input sys-tem. A situation in which no rest is allowed is one inwhich the action of the physiology urge is restrainedby external input control. From the above, fear isactivated by the following equation.

o(t) = 1 and ∃i(Pi(t)> θ f ear), . . . (7)

where θ f ear is the threshold of the fear urge activa-tion.

(e) Demonstration UrgeThe demonstration urge is intended for the socialcognition of improvements in its condition. The ac-tivation condition of this urge was determined as be-low by using an increase or decrease in the joy orsadness mood-state depending on the success of thehelp from the user.

F (t)< θsad or θ joy < F (t), . . . . (8)

where θsad and θ joy are the thresholds of the demon-stration activation and θsad < θ joy. Note that an ac-tivated urge is the demonstration urge, but the actionplan varies depending on the value of F (t).

3.2.3. Decision-Making PhaseThere is not always only one urge that is activated in

the activation phase. Some urges may be activated at thesame time depending on situation cognition (in almost allcases). Even if the same urge is activated, the equiva-lent action plan is not always determined. However, thedecision-making phase with many factors that are closelyinterconnected is very difficult to implement. This paperemploys a decision-making method based on the priorityranking of urges.

Specifically, the decision-making priority is based thenature of emotional “interrupt” or “survival.” Each urgeof fear, anger, physiology, or demonstration is closely

related to the survival action. The priority of thesefour urges can be determined based on the sequence offear > anger > physiology > demonstration in terms ofthe avoidance of their own danger. The “surprise” urge isone that has a strong interrupt nature rather than survivalnature and is activated to direct the target of attention toothers when another urge is activated. It is not activatedinstantaneously at the same time attention is changed. Inthis way, the surprise urge is the most important urgein view of changing the target system of attention forsurvival. In consideration of the above, the priority bystrength of urge was defined as in the equation below.

surprise urge > fear urge > anger urge> physiology urge > demonstration urge. . (9)

3.2.4. Action-Control PhaseThe action-control phase is the one that starts or termi-

nates the actual action in the action plan determined by thedecision-making phase. For actual processing, when theaction plan is determined by the decision-making phase inactual processing, its corresponding action is generated.

3.2.5. Post-Mortem PhaseThe post-mortem phase evaluates whether or not the

urge action just terminated was successful and what wentwrong in case of failure, and then it makes a learning cor-rection in the same type of urge activity. This model feedsback success or failure in the user’s help to the joy andsadness mode-states. In other words, when the user’s helpsucceeds, the joy mood-state increases; when it fails, thesadness mode-state increases. To implement this matter,the favorability rating should change as follows.

f (t) ={

1 (Help success)−1 (Help failure). . . . . . . (10)

4. Simulation Experiment

This section describes an evaluation experiment on theself-sufficiency model to which the urge system is ap-plied. In this experiment, the validity of this model isverified by making a qualitative analysis of the effectof the mental interaction between an agent and a personby means of qualitative analysis through a questionnairebased on the Semantic Differential method (SD method).Ifbot is used as the agent in this experiment (Fig. 3).

4.1. IfbotAn overview of the Ifbot is shown Fig. 3. Ifbot has a

length of 45 cm and a weight of 9.5 kg. It has two armsand moves on wheels. Fig. 4 shows an overview of the fa-cial expression mechanism of the Ifbot. Ifbot is equippedwith 10 motors and 101 LEDs for its facial expressions.These motors operate the neck on two axes (θN1, θN2 inFig. 4), the right and left eyes on two axes (θ (L)E1 , θ

(L)E2 ;

θ (R)E1 , θ(R)E2 ), and the right and left eyelids on two axes

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Psychological Effects of a Self-Sufficiency Model

Fig. 3. Ifbot overview.

Fig. 4. Facial expression mechanisms.

(θ (L)L1 , θ(L)L2 ; θ

(R)L1 , θ

(R)L2 ). LEDs are placed in the head (LH ),

mouth (LM), eyes (LE ), cheeks (LC), tears (LT ), and ears.They generate three head colors (orange, green, and red),one mouth color (orange), three eye colors (green, red,and blue), one cheek color (red), one tear color (blue),and one ear color (orange). These mechanisms enable theIfbot to communicate through a variety of facial expres-sions.

This paper used the parameters θ (L)E1 , θ(L)E2 , θ

(R)E1 , θ

(R)E2 ,

θ (L)L1 , θ(L)L2 , θ

(R)L1 , θ

(R)L2 , LM , and LT to represent the facial

expressions of the agent.

4.2. ConfigurationIn this paper, we made an application (Fig. 1) to carry

out a simulation experiment. This application is built upas a kind of game that images the coexisting task betweena human subject and a machine while the user helps theagent and aims at achieving the goal within a limited pe-riod of time. The main window displays the facial expres-sion of the agent in Fig. 1. The right part of the mainwindow is the user activation window and the lower partis the TASK VIEW window. Their extended figures are inFigs. 5 and 6, respectively.

The user sets up the amount of work with each button:“normal work,” “rather hard work,” or “hard work.” As

Normal work

Rather hard work

Hard work

Fig. 5. User activation window.

Fig. 6. TASK VIEW window.

the amount of work increases, so do the user’s movementsand physiological load. The amount of movement is dis-played in the TASK VIEW window. In this experiment,we assumed that there were three kinds of physiologi-cal load, and that one of them increased at random whenthe button was pressed to determine the amount of work.Thus, the user must decide the condition of the agent fromthe facial expression displayed in the main window.

The user observes the facial expression of the agent andhelps the agent with each of the A, B, and C buttons in theuser activation window. This help causes the cognitionsituation to change and newly activates a variety of physi-ology, anger, fear, surprise, and demonstration urges. Theuser looks at these changes to set up the amount of workand helps the agent again.

This setup is in such a way that an attempt is madefor an agent to arrive at the goal while the user helps theagent through a series of these interactions. The condi-tions for terminating each attempt are met when the agentarrives at the goal and does so within the limited periodof time. The goal condition is one in which the profileof the agent displayed in the TASK VIEW window ar-rives at the goal from its start. The agent shows a facialexpression adaptive to the environmental input momen-tarily given in accordance with the amount of work in-structed by the user (for example, one-step movement forthe “normal” amount of work or two-step movement forthe amount of “rather hard” work) in the main window.

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Ando, T. and Kanoh, M.

Disgust A Disgust B Disgust C

Joy A Joy B Joy C

Anger A Anger B Anger C

Fear A Fear B Fear C

Sadness A Sadness B Sadness C

Surprise A Surprise B Surprise C

Neutral A

Fig. 7. Action design.

During the interval that “reaction time now” is displayedon the screen in the user activation window, button inputs(inputs from the user) are assumed to be unacceptable.

4.3. Verification MethodThe application built in Subsection 4.2 was imple-

mented using 20 university students as subjects. Eachsubject evaluated three applications as described below.

Application (A), shown in Fig. 1, uses a total of 19facial expression groups (Fig. 7) as the actions of anagent. There are three facial expressions for eachemotion and they correspond to three physiologicalloads. The facial expression generated by a physiol-ogy urge was assumed to be the facial expression of

Fig. 8. Experimental environment of Application (C).

Table 1. Questionnaire items.

Comfortable–Uncomfortable Gentle–SevereFriendly–Distant Warm–Cool

Bright–Dark Soft–HardStern–Kind Pleasant–Unpleasant

Plain–Strong-featured Sophisticated–SimpleFree–Busy Humorous–Serious

Rational–Emotional Complicated–UncomplicatedBrave–Weak Motivated–Spiritless

Patient–Impatient Discreet–IndiscreetCute–Nasty Interesting–Uninteresting

disgust representing the feeling of discomfort. Thefacial expressions of anger, surprise, fear, sadness,and joy were generated using the various features ofthe face to convey each emotion. For example, thefacial expression of anger is characterized by the cor-ners of the eyes being turned up and the corners ofthe mouth being turned down. We referred to the re-lationship between the various features of the faceand each motion for the generation of facial expres-sion patterns, which are described in [10, 11].

Application (B) has same appearance of Applica-tion (A) as Fig. 1, but uses only the seven facialexpressions of A among those in Fig. 7 as actions.Thus, the agent corresponds to a facial expression ona one-by-one basis. A subject cannot read from theagent’s facial expression which physiological loadamount of the agent has been degraded.

In Application (C), shown in Fig. 8, subjects cannotobserve any facial expression of the agent (only “NOIMAGE” is displayed in the main window). Thus, asubject needs to generate an interaction from the cur-rent position and progress of the agent as displayedin the TASK VIEW window.

We asked subjects to respond to the items in Table 1 forthese three applications. We also recorded the goal-arrivaltimes.

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0

1

2

3

4

5

6

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A

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Ando, T. and Kanoh, M.

description ones. It may be necessary to verify and dis-cuss in detail the viewpoint of the complete autonomoussystem by using an internal parameter (physiological loadvalue) of the agent. Themes of the Human Robot Interac-tion (HRI) other than the theme of self-sufficiency of theautonomous agent, the theme this paper treats, will needto be experimentally verified before this paper’s model isimplemented as in artificial emotion agents or sensitiverobots.

AcknowledgementsPart of this study was carried out by the Grant-in-Aid for YoungScientists (A) of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Sci-ence and Technology (No. 20680014).

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[2] K. Wada and T. Shibata, “Robot Therapy in a Care House – its So-ciopsychological and Physiological Effects on the Residents,” IEEEInt. Conf. on Robotics and Automation 2006, pp. 3966-3971, 2006.

[3] S. Takeuchi, A. Sakai, S. Kato, and H. Itoh, “An Emotion Genera-tion Model Based on the Dialogist Likability for Sensitivity Com-munication Robot,” J. of Robotic Society of Japan, Vol.25, No.7,pp. 1125-1133, 2007. (in Japanese)

[4] M. Toda, “Emotion and Urges,” The Urge Theory of Emotion andCognition, Chapter 1, SCCS Technical Report, 1993.

[5] M. Toda, “Basic Structure of the Urge Operations,” The Urge The-ory of Emotion and Cognition, Chapter 2, SCCS Technical Report,1994.

[6] R. Pfeifer and C. Scheier, “Understanding Intelligence,” MIT Press,1999.

[7] M. Toda, “Man, Robot, and Society, Models and Speculations,”Martinus Nijhoff Publishing, 1924.

[8] M. Lewis and J. M. Haviland-Jones, “Handbook of Emotions,”Guilford Publications, 2000.

[9] C. E. Izard, “The Psychology of Emotions,” Plenum Press, 1991.[10] P. Ekman, “Unmasking the Face, Prentice-Hall,” 1975.[11] A. Araki and M. Kanoh, “Effective Use of LEDs on Face of Com-

munication Robot “Ifbot”,” Joint 4th Int. Conf. on Soft Computingand Intelligent Systems and 9th Int. Symposium on advanced Intel-ligent Systems, in CD-ROM, 2008.

Name:Teruaki Ando

Affiliation:Graduate School of Computer and CognitiveSciences, Chukyo University

Address:101 Tokodachi, Kaizu-cho, Toyota 470-0393, JapanBrief Biographical History:2009 Received B.S. degree from Chukyo University2009- Master Course Student, Chukyo UniversityMain Works:• “A Self-sufficiency Model Using Urge System,” 2010 IEEE WorldCongress On Computational Intelligence (IEEE WCCI 2010), 2010.Membership in Academic Societies:• Information Processing Society of Japan (IPSJ)

Name:Masayoshi Kanoh

Affiliation:Associate Professor, Department of Mechanicsand Information Technology, School of Informa-tion Science and Technology, Chukyo University

Address:101 Tokudachi, Kaizu-cho, Toyota 470-0393, JapanBrief Biographical History:2004 Received Ph.D. degree from Nagoya Institute of Technology2004- Assistant Professor, Chukyo University2010- Associate Professor, Chukyo UniversityMain Works:• “Emotive Facial Expressions of Sensitivity Communication Robot“Ifbot”,” Kansei Engineering International, Vol.5, No.3, pp. 35-42, 2005.Membership in Academic Societies:• The Robotics Society of Japan (RSJ)• The Japanese Society of Public Health (JSPH)• The Japan Society of Kansei Engineering (JSKE)

884 Journal of Advanced Computational Intelligence Vol.14 No.7, 2010and Intelligent Informatics