Psychological FactorsAttention - Focusing on specific

behaviors to observe.Sensation - Using senses to focusPerception - Meaning of information from

observation.Conception - Differentiating

characteristics of the information from observation.

Obstacles to Observation

Previously acquired knowledgeAnticipationStrong personal interestPreconceptions

Sources of DistortionEmotionsPrejudicesMotivationsMental setsSense of valuesPhysical conditionErrors of inference

Steps for Systematic Observation

Select aspect of behavior to be observed.Define specific behaviors which fall within

this aspect of behavior.Train observers for uniformity and

standardization.Quantify observations using standard

method.Develop procedures to facilitate recording.

Additional Aids for Observation

Electronic recordingChecklistsObservation guides

Semantic Differential

Semantic Differential

A method of observing and measuring the psychological meaning of words, usually concepts.

Semantic Differential StepsChoose the concepts or other stimuli

that are to be rated with bipolar objectives.

Select appropriate scales or adjective pairs. This selection is determined by (1) factor representatives and (2) concept relevance.

Semantic Differential Example

School

Good __ __ __ __ __ __ __ Bad

Unfair __ __ __ __ __ __ __ Fair

Clean __ __ __ __ __ __ __ Dirty

Slow __ __ __ __ __ __ __ Fast

Sharp __ __ __ __ __ __ __ Dull

Active __ __ __ __ __ __ __ Passive

Conference

ConferenceFace-to-face discussion, usually

around a table, with personalities a strong factor in determining consensus

Conference Steps Experts are brought together at a common site. Ideas are brainstormed to generate as many

ideas on the problem as possible (Rule - no negative reactions to any suggestions.)

Evaluate and rate the suggestions Determine the most popular responses

(arbitrary number chosen on the basis of natural breaks or logic).

Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the top suggestions and rank order.

Delphi Studies

James P. Key

Delphi Study

Multiple questionnaire method of arriving at expert consensus without face-to-face discussion.

Delphi StepsOpen ended questionnaire is mailed to

respondents who remain anonymous to each other.

The first questionnaire generates a laundry list of ideas which the researcher records.

The second questionnaire is a list of unduplicated ideas from the first survey and asks the respondents to rate the ideas on a scale of importance.

Delphi StepsThe researcher determines the mean and

relative rank for each idea.The list of ideas along with their relative

ranks are returned to the respondents as the third questionnaire. They are asked to revise their rating based on the group rating or defend their position.

The fourth questionnaire includes the idea list, ratings, consensus and minority opinions. It provides the final chance for revision of opinions.

Delphi Advantages

It allows planners to get the views in a broad perspective rather than from an isolated point of view.

It is a potent device for teaching people to think about education in complex ways.

Delphi Advantages It is a useful instrument even for a general

teaching strategy. It is a planning tool which may aid in

probing priorities held by members and constituencies of an organization.

It saves time and travel which are required to bring people together for a conference.

It prevents personality biases from affecting the results.

DelphiDisadvantages Interpretation of the participants’ responses and the

meaning or importance of the factors in planning is difficult.

How the findings can be generalized to delphis which cover a 30-year extension is unknown.

Delphi at present can render no rigorous distinction between reasonable judgment and mere guessing.

It is difficult to determine the degree of bias injected into the results by the delphi administrator.

Nominal Group Technique

A combination approach of incorporating both written responses and face-to-face discussion to arrive at expert consensus.

Nominal Group Technique

The group meets at a common site.Each person generates in silence a list of

ideas independently on paper (similar to delphi) to the first question.

The recorder lists an idea from each member on newsprint, chalkboard, overhead projector, etc. No discussion is allowed and overlap is ignored.

Group members are then encouraged to generate new ideas triggered by the group list.

Nominal Group Technique

The group now discusses all items listed in order to clarify, explain or combine ideas. New ideas may also be added.

Independently, without discussion, each member selects her/his top ten items and writes each on an index card in order of perceived importance.

Average ranking and frequency of selection are used to determine relative ranks of items. The outcome of this procedure is then discussed.

Nominal Group Technique

Focus Groups

A carefully planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a permissive, nonthreatening environment

Focus Groups

Focus Group Characteristics

Involves peopleConducted in seriesPossesses certain characteristicsProvides dataProduces qualitative dataFocused discussion