Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 17 Chapter...

Psychology: A Modular Approach to Mind and Behavior, Tenth Edition, Dennis Coon Chapter 17

Chapter 17: Applied Psychology


Industrial-Organizational Psychology (I-O)

• Applied Psychology: Use of psychological principles and research methods to solve practical problems

• Industrial-Organizational Psychology (I-O): Focuses on psychology of people at work and in organizations–Typically work in:

• Testing and placement (Personnel Psychology)• Human relations at work


Other Aspects of I-O Psychology

• Personnel Psychology: Branch of I-O psychology concerned with testing, selection, placement, and promotion

• Job Analysis: Detained description of skills, knowledge, and activities required by a particular job

• Critical Incidents: Situations where competent employees must be able to cope

• Biodata: Detailed biographical information about a job applicant


Psychological Testing

• Vocational Interest Tests: Paper-and-pencil test that assesses a person’s interests and matches them to interests found in successful workers in various occupations– Strong Campbell Interest Inventory is one

such example• Aptitude Tests: Rate a person’s potential to

learn skills or tasks used in various occupations


Psychological Testing (cont.)

• Multimedia Computerized Test: Use computers to present realistic work situations– Police officers will run through various

“situations” where they have to decide whether or not to use force, for example

• Assessment Centers: Do in-depth evaluations of potential employees; often set up within organizations


Figure 17.2


Psychological Testing (cont.)

• Situational Judgment Tests: Present difficult but realistic work situations to potential employees in order to rate and evaluate their performance

• In-Basket Test: Simulates decision making challenges that executives face– Basket full of memos is given to applicant,

and applicant must act appropriately as quickly as possible


Groupwork

• Leaderless Group Discussion: Test of leadership that simulates group decision making and problem solving


Management Theories

• Scientific Management (Theory X): Approach to managing employees that emphasizes work efficiency– Uses time-and-motion studies, task

analysis, and job specialization to increase productivity

• Work Efficiency: Maximum output at the lowest cost


More on Management Theories

• Psychological Efficiency: Maintaining good morale, labor relations, employee satisfaction, and similar aspects of work behavior– Happy workers are productive workers

• Theory Y: Emphasizes human relations at work; sees people as industrious, responsible, and interested in challenging work


More Management Strategies

• Participative Management: Employees at all levels are directly involved in decision making

• Management by Objectives: Workers are given specific goals to meet so they can know if they are doing a good job

• Self-Managed Team: Group of employees who work together toward shared goals

• Quality Circles: Voluntary employee discussion groups that look to improve quality and look for ways to solve business problems


Job Satisfaction and Enrichment

• Job Satisfaction: Degree to which a person is comfortable and satisfied with his or her work


Factors in Job Satisfaction

• Job satisfaction is highest when (listed in order of importance):– Work is interesting– Enough help and equipment exist to get

job done– Enough information to get job done– Enough authority to get job done

• Note that anything relating to pay is not listed in the top four (pay is ranked fifth)!


Job Enrichment

• Making a job more personally rewarding, interesting, or intrinsically motivating


How People Cope with Work Dilemmas

• Four Basic Coping Styles


Vigilant

• Most effective; individuals evaluate information objectively and make decisions, clearly understanding alternatives


Complacent

• Let chance direct their career decisions and tend to be nonchalant, not making plans


Defensive-Avoidant

• Aware of all risks and opportunities, but are uncomfortable making decisions; thus they tend to procrastinate, rationalize, and make excuses for inaction and indecision


Hypervigilant

• Panic when forced to make career decisions; making logical decisions is almost impossible for this type


Improving Communication at Work; Effective Communication

• State your ideas clearly and decisively• Do not overuse big words• Avoid excessive use of jargon or slang• Avoid Loaded Words: Words that have

strong emotional meanings should be avoided

• Use people’s names• Be polite


Being a Good Listener

• Make an honest effort to pay attention• Try to Identify the Speaker’s Purpose: Look

for main themes and not isolated facts• Suspend evaluation• Check your understanding• Pay attention to nonverbal messages• Accept responsibility for effective

communication


Environmental Psychology

• Concerned with the relationship between environments and human behavior; interested in:– Physical Environments: Natural or

constructed– Social Environments: Groups of people, such

as a dance, party, or business meeting– Behavioral Settings: Smaller areas within an

environment whose use is well defined, e.g., office, casino, classroom, or locker room


Personal Space

• Area surrounding the body that is defined as private and is subject to personal control


Proxemics

• Systematic study of human use of personal space, especially in social settings


Four Basic Zones


Intimate Distance

• Most private space immediately surrounding the body; 18 inches from the skin; reserved for special people or special circumstances


Personal Distance

• Maintained in interactions with friends; 18 inches to 4 feet from body; arm’s length


Social Distance

• Impersonal interaction takes place; 4 to 12 feet


Public Distance

• Formal interactions take place (like giving a speech); 12 feet or more


Figure 17.3


Territoriality

• Territorial Behavior: Any behavior that tends to define a space as one’s own or that protects it from intruders

• Territorial Markers: Objects and other signals that signal ownership or control of a particular area – Gates, pictures, plants, posters,

decorations– Check your psychology professor’s office

to find some examples of territorial markers


Crowding and Noise

• Crowding: Subjective feeling of being overstimulated by nearness of others or loss of privacy (especially when social contact with them is unavoidable)– When crowding causes a loss of control

over one’s immediate social environment, stress can result

– John Calhoun’s “Horrible Mousery” (1962) is a good example of how overcrowding can affect mice


Noise and Stress

• Attentional Overload: Stressful condition that occurs when sensory stimulation, information, and social contacts make excessive demands on attention

• Noise Pollution: Stressful, annoying, and intrusive noise; usually generated by machines (jackhammers, sirens, planes), but also including noise made by humans and animals


Figure 17.4


Social Traps

• Any social situation that rewards individual actions that will have undesired effects in the long run– Anya, Gabi, and others want to drive cars

because they are convenient, even though the subway in NYC is more efficient; thus, the subways in major cities in the USA are underused


Tragedy of the Commons

• Type of social trap where individuals share a scarce resource; each person acts in his or her self-interest, which causes the resource to be used up so eventually everyone suffers– No efforts made, for example, to conserve

water, gasoline, electricity, or food– Some social behaviors produce immediate

rewards but have significant consequences in the long run


Architectural Psychology

• Study of the effects buildings have on behavior; buildings can be designed using psychological and behavioral principles– Making rooms with more space and more

light, having bathrooms in the middle of the hall; higher or lower ceilings


Figure 17.5


Psychology of Law

• Study of behavioral dimensions of legal system


Jury Behavior

• Jurors rarely can put aside biases, attitudes, and beliefs when making a decision

• Jurors are not very good at separating evidence from other information, e.g., what they think the judge wants

• Final verdict is often influenced by inadmissible evidence

• Jurors cannot suspend judgment until all information is in; opinion often formed early in trial


Jury Selection

• Mock Jury: Group that realistically simulates a courtroom jury


Scientific Jury Selection

• Social science principles are applied to jury selection process


Scientific Jury Selection Principles

• Gather demographic information• Perform community survey to get information

about attitudes toward case• Look for authoritarian personality traits in

potential jurors– Tend to believe that punishment is

effective, and more likely to vote to convict• Look at nonverbal behavior


Death-Qualified Jury

• Jury composed of people who favor death penalty or are at least indifferent to it


Sports Psychology

• Study of psychological and behavioral dimensions of sports performance

• Task Analysis: Breaking sports skills into subparts so that key elements can be identified and taught

• Motor Skills: Series of actions molded into a smooth and efficient performance

• Mental Practice: Imagining a skilled performance to help learning

• Peak Performance: Physical, emotional, and mental states are harmonious and optimal


Figure 17.6


Space Psychology: Visions of Arthur C. Clarke?

• Space Psychologists: Study behavioral challenges that accompany space flight and life in restricted environments

• Some potential problems psychologists have studied– General Environment: How to handle lack

of showers, etc.– Privacy– Sensory Restriction


More Potential Problems in Space

• Cultural differences• Social isolation• Conflict resolution• Mental health

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