Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The...

Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall (c) 2005 Prentice Hall

The Science of Psychology

Chapter 1


What is Psychology?What is Psychology?

Psychology is the study of Psychology is the study of behavior and mental processesbehavior and mental processes

Includes the study of both Includes the study of both humans and animalshumans and animals


The Fields of The Fields of PsychologyPsychology Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology Physiological PsychologyPhysiological Psychology Experimental PsychologyExperimental Psychology Personality PsychologyPersonality Psychology Clinical and Counseling PsychologyClinical and Counseling Psychology Social PsychologySocial Psychology Industrial and Organizational Industrial and Organizational

PsychologyPsychology


Developmental Developmental PsychologyPsychology Study of physical and mental Study of physical and mental

growth from birth to old agegrowth from birth to old age SubfieldsSubfields

– Child psychologyChild psychology– Adolescent psychologyAdolescent psychology– Life-span psychologyLife-span psychology


Physiological Physiological PsychologyPsychology Investigates the biological basis Investigates the biological basis

of human behaviorof human behavior– NeurotransmittersNeurotransmitters– Effects of drugs on the nervous Effects of drugs on the nervous

systemsystem– Development of the nervous systemDevelopment of the nervous system– Gender differences in brain structure Gender differences in brain structure

and functionand function


Experimental Experimental PsychologyPsychology Perform experiments on basic Perform experiments on basic

psychological processespsychological processes– LearningLearning– MemoryMemory– Sensation and perceptionSensation and perception– CognitionCognition– MotivationMotivation– EmotionEmotion


Personality PsychologyPersonality Psychology

Study of how people differ from Study of how people differ from one another on traits such asone another on traits such as– AnxietyAnxiety– SociabilitySociability– Self-esteemSelf-esteem– Need for achievementNeed for achievement– AggressivenessAggressiveness


Clinical and Counseling Clinical and Counseling PsychologyPsychology Clinical psychologists are Clinical psychologists are

concerned with diagnosis and concerned with diagnosis and treatment of psychological treatment of psychological disordersdisorders

Counseling psychologists deal Counseling psychologists deal with “normal” problems, such as with “normal” problems, such as stress caused by career change stress caused by career change or marital problemsor marital problems


Social PsychologySocial Psychology

Study of how people influence Study of how people influence one anotherone another

Topics include:Topics include:– First impressionsFirst impressions– Interpersonal attractionInterpersonal attraction– Attitude formationAttitude formation– PrejudicePrejudice– Behavior in a groupBehavior in a group


Industrial and Industrial and Organizational Organizational PsychologyPsychology Study of psychological principles Study of psychological principles

in industry and businessin industry and business ExamplesExamples

– Selecting and training personnelSelecting and training personnel– Productivity improvementProductivity improvement– Working conditionsWorking conditions– Impact of automation on workersImpact of automation on workers


Enduring Issues in Enduring Issues in PsychologyPsychology Person–SituationPerson–Situation

– Is behavior caused by factors inside the Is behavior caused by factors inside the person or outside?person or outside?

Nature-NurtureNature-Nurture– Is a person the product of genetics (nature) Is a person the product of genetics (nature)

or simply the sum of their experiences or simply the sum of their experiences (nurture)?(nurture)?

Stability–Change Stability–Change – Are behavior patterns learned in childhood Are behavior patterns learned in childhood

permanent or do people change over time?permanent or do people change over time?


Enduring Issues in Enduring Issues in PsychologyPsychology Diversity-Universality Diversity-Universality

– How are people similar to others and How are people similar to others and how are they unique?how are they unique?

Mind–Body Mind–Body – What is the relationship between the What is the relationship between the

mind and the body?mind and the body?


Psychology As SciencePsychology As Science

Psychologists use the scientific Psychologists use the scientific methodmethod

Steps to the scientific methodSteps to the scientific method– Collect dataCollect data– Generate a theory to explain the Generate a theory to explain the

datadata– Produce a testable hypothesisProduce a testable hypothesis– Systematically test the hypothesisSystematically test the hypothesis


The Growth of The Growth of PsychologyPsychology The "New Psychology": A Science The "New Psychology": A Science

of the Mindof the Mind

Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Bradford Titchener: Voluntarism Bradford Titchener: Voluntarism and structuralismand structuralism– Search for the basic units of Search for the basic units of

experienceexperience


The Growth of The Growth of PsychologyPsychology William James: FunctionalismWilliam James: Functionalism

– Studied how humans use perception Studied how humans use perception to function in our environmentto function in our environment

Sigmund Freud: Psychodynamic Sigmund Freud: Psychodynamic psychologypsychology– Behavior results from forces at work Behavior results from forces at work

within the individual, often at an within the individual, often at an unconscious levelunconscious level


The Growth of The Growth of PsychologyPsychology John B. Watson: BehaviorismJohn B. Watson: Behaviorism

– Studied only observable behaviorsStudied only observable behaviors– Expanded upon the work of PavlovExpanded upon the work of Pavlov

B.F. Skinner: Behaviorism revisitedB.F. Skinner: Behaviorism revisited– Expanded behaviorismExpanded behaviorism– Viewed the mind as a “black box” Viewed the mind as a “black box”

that was irrelevantthat was irrelevant


The Cognitive The Cognitive RevolutionRevolution The precursors to cognitive The precursors to cognitive

psychology:psychology:– Gestalt psychology Gestalt psychology

Study of how we perceive objects as Study of how we perceive objects as whole patternswhole patterns

– Humanistic psychologyHumanistic psychology Emphasizes realization of full potentialEmphasizes realization of full potential Recognizes importance of love, self Recognizes importance of love, self

esteem, belonging, and self-actualizationesteem, belonging, and self-actualization


The Rise of Cognitive The Rise of Cognitive PsychologyPsychology Study of mental processesStudy of mental processes

– ThinkingThinking– LearningLearning– FeelingFeeling– RememberingRemembering– Decision makingDecision making


New Directions in New Directions in PsychologyPsychology Evolutionary psychologyEvolutionary psychology

– Studies tha adaptive value of Studies tha adaptive value of behaviors and mental processesbehaviors and mental processes

Positive psychologyPositive psychology– Study of the subjective feelings of Study of the subjective feelings of

happiness and well-beinghappiness and well-being– Focus is on positive attitudeFocus is on positive attitude


Multiple PerspectivesMultiple Perspectives

There is no single right answerThere is no single right answer

Several perspectives can provide Several perspectives can provide insight into behaviorinsight into behavior


Where Are The Where Are The Women?Women? Women have made important Women have made important

contributions despite contributions despite discriminationdiscrimination

Christine Ladd-FranklinChristine Ladd-Franklin– Completed requirements for Ph.D. in Completed requirements for Ph.D. in

1880s1880s– Became a leading theorist in color Became a leading theorist in color

visionvision


Where Are The Where Are The Women?Women? Mary Whiton CalkinsMary Whiton Calkins

– First woman president of APA in 1905First woman president of APA in 1905– Developed theory of self-psychology Developed theory of self-psychology

and a technique for studying verbal and a technique for studying verbal learninglearning

Margaret Floy WashburnMargaret Floy Washburn– First woman in America to receive a First woman in America to receive a

Ph.D. in psychologyPh.D. in psychology– Became head of psychology at Vassar Became head of psychology at Vassar

CollegeCollege


Where Are The Where Are The Women?Women? In recent years, the number of In recent years, the number of

women with Ph.D.s has increased women with Ph.D.s has increased dramaticallydramatically


Human Diversity In Human Diversity In PsychologyPsychology Psychology has begun to focus Psychology has begun to focus

attention on issues of diversityattention on issues of diversity


Gender IssuesGender Issues

Defined as the psychological and Defined as the psychological and social meanings attached to social meanings attached to being biologically male or femalebeing biologically male or female

Gender stereotypesGender stereotypes– Limited view of people based on Limited view of people based on

gendergender– For example, “Only men can be For example, “Only men can be

police officers”police officers”



Feminist psychologyFeminist psychology– Study of the psychology of womenStudy of the psychology of women– Argue thatArgue that

Much research is based on all-male Much research is based on all-male samples, thus does notsamples, thus does not

Reports of gender differences focus too Reports of gender differences focus too much on extremes and ignore similaritiesmuch on extremes and ignore similarities

Psychologists only study what they Psychologists only study what they consider to be importantconsider to be important



Sexual orientation Sexual orientation – Gender to which one is sexually Gender to which one is sexually

attractedattracted


Race and Ethnicity Race and Ethnicity IssuesIssues Race is a subpopulation defined Race is a subpopulation defined

by identifiable characteristic, e.g., by identifiable characteristic, e.g., skin color or facial featuresskin color or facial features

Ethnicity is a common cultural Ethnicity is a common cultural heritage, such as religion, heritage, such as religion, language, or ancestrylanguage, or ancestry


Culture IssuesCulture Issues

Tangible goods and values, Tangible goods and values, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs that are passed on from that are passed on from generation to generationgeneration to generation

Psychology must take cultural Psychology must take cultural differences into account, e.g., the differences into account, e.g., the difference between individualistic difference between individualistic and collectivist societiesand collectivist societies


Research Methods in Research Methods in PsychologyPsychology Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic Observation

– Systematic observation in natural Systematic observation in natural settingsetting

– The main drawback is observer biasThe main drawback is observer bias


Research Methods in Research Methods in PsychologyPsychology Case StudiesCase Studies

– Detailed description and analysis of Detailed description and analysis of one or a few peopleone or a few people

– Prominent in psychologyProminent in psychology– Observer bias is a problemObserver bias is a problem– Unable to make generalizations past Unable to make generalizations past

person being studiedperson being studied


Research Methods in Research Methods in PsychologyPsychology SurveysSurveys

– Questionnaires or interviews, such Questionnaires or interviews, such as polls prior to an electionas polls prior to an election

– Can generate a lot of information for Can generate a lot of information for a fairly low costa fairly low cost

– Questions must be constructed Questions must be constructed carefully so as to not elicit socially carefully so as to not elicit socially appropriate answersappropriate answers


Research Methods in Research Methods in PsychologyPsychology Correlational ResearchCorrelational Research

– Research technique based on the Research technique based on the naturally occurring relationship naturally occurring relationship between two or more variablesbetween two or more variables

– Often used to make predictions, Often used to make predictions, such as the relation between SAT such as the relation between SAT scores and school successscores and school success

– Cannot be used to determine cause Cannot be used to determine cause and effectand effect


Research Methods in Research Methods in PsychologyPsychology Experimental ResearchExperimental Research

– The only research method that can The only research method that can be used to determine cause and be used to determine cause and effecteffect

– Often called the experimental Often called the experimental methodmethod


Components of an Components of an ExperimentExperiment Participants or subjectsParticipants or subjects Independent variable (IV)Independent variable (IV)

– Cause (what you are studying)Cause (what you are studying)– This is the variable that is manipulated by This is the variable that is manipulated by

the experimenterthe experimenter Dependent variable (DV)Dependent variable (DV)

– Effect (result of experiment)Effect (result of experiment)– This is the variable that is measured by This is the variable that is measured by

the experimenterthe experimenter


Components of an Components of an ExperimentExperiment Experimental group Experimental group

– Receives treatmentReceives treatment Control group Control group

– Does not receive treatment, but is Does not receive treatment, but is the same in every other waythe same in every other way


Research Methods in Research Methods in PsychologyPsychology Multimethod ResearchMultimethod Research

– Studies often combine several methodsStudies often combine several methods


The Importance of The Importance of Sampling in ResearchSampling in Research SampleSample

– Small representative subset of a larger Small representative subset of a larger populationpopulation

Random sampleRandom sample– Every subject had equal chance of being Every subject had equal chance of being

selectedselected Representative sampleRepresentative sample

– Characteristics of participants correspond Characteristics of participants correspond to larger populationto larger population


Ethics in Research on Ethics in Research on HumansHumans Participants must be informed of Participants must be informed of

nature of researchnature of research Informed consent should be Informed consent should be

documenteddocumented Risks and limits on confidentiality Risks and limits on confidentiality

must be explainedmust be explained


Ethics in Research on Ethics in Research on HumansHumans If participation is a course If participation is a course

requirement in an academic setting, requirement in an academic setting, alternative activities must be offeredalternative activities must be offered

Deception cannot be used about Deception cannot be used about aspects of research that would affect aspects of research that would affect participant's willingness to participateparticipant's willingness to participate

Deception about the goals of research Deception about the goals of research used only when absolutely necessaryused only when absolutely necessary


Ethics in Research on Ethics in Research on AnimalsAnimals Psychologists using animals must Psychologists using animals must

ensure “appropriate consideration ensure “appropriate consideration of the animal’s comfort, health, of the animal’s comfort, health, and human treatment”and human treatment”

Animals must not be exposed to Animals must not be exposed to pain, stress, or privation when pain, stress, or privation when alternative procedures are alternative procedures are availableavailable


Careers in Psychology Careers in Psychology

Academic and Applied PsychologyAcademic and Applied Psychology– Faculty positionsFaculty positions– Research facilitiesResearch facilities

Clinical SettingsClinical Settings– Licensed social workersLicensed social workers– Counseling psychologistsCounseling psychologists– Clinical psychologistsClinical psychologists– PsychiatristsPsychiatrists– PsychoanalystsPsychoanalysts


Licenses in PsychologyLicenses in Psychology

Psychologists - Ph.D., Psy.D.Psychologists - Ph.D., Psy.D. Psychiatrists - M.D.Psychiatrists - M.D. Psychoanalysts - M.D. or Ph.D.Psychoanalysts - M.D. or Ph.D. Social Workers (M.S.W.) - LSWSocial Workers (M.S.W.) - LSW Marriage Family Therapists - M.A.Marriage Family Therapists - M.A.

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Psychology: An Introduction 12/e - Charles G. Morris & Albert A. Maisto (c) 2005 Prentice Hall The...

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