--

“A scholar guide to

public administration” Attempt to make an insight

Course Code

PA-511

Date of Submission 5/30 2015

Name Roll Contribution

1. Nusrat Jahan Nipu 11 Paradigms of governance & administration

2. Mohammad Azizul Hoque 109 Governance in the age of globalization

3. Aysa Akter- 12 Confucius & moral basis of bureaucracy

4. Md. Masum 41 Classic of Public Administration

5. Md. Wasim Uddin 45 Caliph Ali’s letter to Malik Ashtar

6. Md. Muhibbur Rahman 30 Changing nature of PA

7. Abid Hasan Badol 27 The study of administration

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Table of Contents

Three Paradigms of Governance and Public Administration: ........... 4

Governance in the age of globalization ............................................ 6

Confucius and the Moral Basis of Bureaucracy ................................ 9

Classic of public administration ........................................................ 9

Caliph Ali’s Letter to Malik Ashtar .................................................. 15

The Changing Nature of Public Administration: ............................ 18

The study of administration ........................................................... 20

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INTRODUCTORY NOTE

As a professional field public administration is not new one. Its trace can be found

from primitive age to medieval age. Different kings and ruler used to apply their own

style of administration to run their state. Woodrow Wilson & Co were first to think

this as a field of study or academic discipline. The classic age of public administration

witnessed a series of theories and path breaking model to conceive public

administration. It ranges from Wilsons’ study of public administration, Weber’s ideal

type bureaucracy to Taylor’s principle of scientific management. This intellectual

journey didn’t end up with not only the then ideas but faced lots of challenges with

the advent of modernity & globalization. That is why Ali Farazmand made an attempt

to conceive this discipline from global perspective. Even this discipline has already a

series of paradigm-shift. So this paradigm-shift has certainly affected the nature of

government that is pointed out by Guy Peters in his article of ‘changing nature of

public administration’. Beside the ascendency and dominance of Western thought on

this discipline there are some scholars who conceive it from comparative lens. They

come up with a comparative study to understand the feasibility of the western model

of administration in a different social setting. That is the way Western model faced a

huge challenge to claim for having ‘a suit fit for all’. East Asian miracle ironically

demonstrated the success of Confucian style of administration. Even the Islamic

philosophy to run the administration as narrated in the letter of Caliph Ali seems to

think beyond all modern techniques of administration. How come someone explain

the philosophy of common man (protector of justice) so long time back? So,

comparative study of public administration helped to conceive this discipline from a

more comprehensive perspective.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This review paper is all from secondary sources. Seven key articles on the theoretical

basis of public administration have been taken as resources to pursue the research.

Besides some textbooks, journals and web resources pertaining to the discipline

helped this paper to come true.

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Three Paradigms of Governance and Public

Administration: Chinese, Western & Islamic

------Prof. Dr. H.C. Wolfgang Drechsler

Preview:

In this article Dr. Wolfgang discussed the different paradigms of public administration

and governance, which encompasses different fields of social sciences such as

political science and economics. He explained that there is no perfect model and

global best(practice of) Public Administration. This is in contrast to the general

assumption that the western or Anglo- American model of Public Administration

(PA) is the ideal, modern, democratic model of governance.

Dr. Drechsler attempted to show that in different contexts ,there are also solutions to

common problems that are different from global-western PA but not the worse, very

likely at least some of them even better and there are adequate ,good, indeed excellent

solutions that completely depend on contexts.

Three ways of looking PA

Dr. Drechsler has proposed three possible models of trajectories to good public

Administration: Western, Multi-cultural, Contextual.

Western: He described it as the global western mainstream: Global=Western=good

(=modern).According to this idea, the good PA is universal that by and at large this is

western PA and that will remain so for foreseeable times to come.

Multicultural: We may call multi-cultural PA would hold that there is no such thing

like ideal PA as such, that good PA depends entirely on culture and context, never

mind on which level.

Contextual: Third model, contextual says that there is something like good PA and

although it may be an amorphous entity and a moving target ,some solutions are

similar at all or most time.

Chinese and Islamic PA as alternative to Western PA

This essay argues that there are (at least) three paradigms of governance and

especially public administration: Chinese, Western, and Islamic – paradigms

understood here as potentiality and theory rather than reality and practice as observed

today. It then discusses classical Chinese, i.e. Confucian, and Islamic, specifically

Ottoman, public administration, as the alternatives of western PA.

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Chinese Public Administration

The Chinese public administration is influenced by the teachings of Confucius. Some

of the main characteristics of this model include an examination system for the civil

servants, centralized bureaucracy, ethics and accountability and results-orientation.

The author said that the Confucian system is easily acceptable to the West because of

its success and immense contribution towards the field of public administration and

governance. Countries practicing the Chinese model of public administration include

Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam, and Singapore which are the most successful

countries of the world. For PA specifically, it is once again worth pointing out the

features whereby China was leading the west. We can assume that even the modern

state started itself started in China and not in the west. In addition, the re-emergence

of China as a dominating world power has reaffirmed the influence and contribution

of the Chinese model of public administration and governance.

Islamic Public Administration

In contrast, the Islamic model which was the foundation of successful governments

such as the Ottoman Empire for 600 years has seen a decline over the years. Like the

Chinese counterpart, Ottoman PA was constantly under reform, too-perennially

modernizing at least since the 18th century like refocus on the sultan’s role as Caliph,

the dexterous use of media and communication technology, the emphasis of persona

loyalty and the purposeful creation of the ideology of Ottomanism by Sultan Abdul

Hamid. Today, Turkey remains a progressive Muslim nation that practices Islamic

public administration. This model places more emphasis on economic and political

performance compared to the Confucian system. One of the key features of this model

is decentralization of bureaucracy which enables each entity within a government to

have their own system of governance. The author concluded the article by

emphasizing the importance and influence of the Islamic and Chinese PA. Both are

alternatives to the western model and characteristics from both are still relevant to the

system of governance in many countries around the world. The guiding question is

whether we arrive more easily at good public administration if we realize that there

are different contexts and thus, potentially at least, different ways thither, as well as

legitimately different goals.

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Governance in the age of globalization ----Ali Farazmand Public administration is a journey where change is inevitable and inseparable. Most prominently among the national and international change agents, the international financial and regional organizations are playing the most overriding role in the domestic governance of the developing countries. Politics administration dichotomy was the first Goodnow- Wilsonian discourse that gives a hand its new academic journey. But at the end of the twenty century many scholars demanded that the “Politics-administration conjugality” because the administration cannot run by gainsaying the influenced of the national politics and certainly the international politics that is termed as globalization. It seems to be Turn back and due to increased complexity of the public affairs. Among the paradigms of public administrations, the new borne Governance considered as the supplementary of Public administration in the 21 century. Conventionally It is closedly observed that Public Administration is dealing with two types of policy such as organizational policy and the national policy and often skipping the international-global policy that is absent in almost all previous administrative paradigms. Public administration that is the confiscated only within the inter-organizational policy, formulated by organizational personnel’s, and the national level policy, formulate by the legislature, but very surprisingly we often skipping the international policy and global political affairs that is formulated by regional and the international organizations. Thought we do not care about the international affairs in the domestic policy process but paradoxically we are using and Appling the ideas and theories that developed by the World bank, IMF, WTO, UNDP and some others consultancy firms through their various proclamation, workshop, publications, seminar, symposium and conferences. That mean ultimately we cannot avoid the affairs of international political and financial actors from our domestic governance. The process of globalization is accelerated by a number of contributing factors or forces like technological innovations; declining domestic economies of powerful industrialized countries of the North; the military and political pressures as well as wars of the latter nations on the third world countries of the South; the fall of the former Soviet Union as an alternative world system power; the role of western ideological propaganda; the role of the United Nations’ agencies such as IMF, the World Bank, and WTO; international donors, including the USAID; the rising citizen expectations, including labor demands for sharing power in management and organizational democracy; and availability of new cheap labor force across gender and racial groups worldwide. To coping with the age of globalization we need for capacity building, enhancement, and innovation in policy and management. This paper is divided into three parts such as (1) key concepts of governance with a multitude of diverse notions of the term; (2) “sound governance” with major dimensions, key issues, and characteristics; (3) and challenges and opportunities, with implications for South and Southeast Asia; Weather it is good governance or sound governance, the entrepreneurial governance or the competitive governance or the

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mission driven governance or the meta governance or the social-political governance, the common characteristics in all the form of governance is rejecting the traditional form of governance of authority, bureaucratic nature, rigid hierarchy, the centralized decision making and implementations and suggest the flexibility of rues, giving more emphasis on the outputs and the impacts for of the project for the service takers, the broader citizen engagement and the active participation in the decision making and unionization among the state actors, social and non-state actors including some international actors. Among them the Good governance was first developed by the World Bank and UNDP which became the most pressing requirements on third world countries in Asia, Africa, pressures of donor institutions of the North demanded developing countries policy reforms in their governments and society as a condition for international aid. Ultimately the poor country stays in poor. So in this perspective we can adopt the sound governance. Sound Governance has some characteristic demands like First; it is more comprehensive and incorporates the important global or international force of governance. Second, it includes the normative as well as technical and rational features of good governance. Third, it requires soundness technically, professionally, organizationally, managerially, politically, democratically, and economically. Forth: it Accord the constitutional values. Sixth, the concept sound governance has an ancient origin in the First World-State Achievement with a highly efficient and effective administrative system And therefore inclusive and promotes participation and interaction in an increasingly complex, diverse, and dynamic national and international environment. Besides he talked about ten Dimensions of Sound Governance. First is the Process that involves a process of governing with the interaction of all elements or stakeholders involved; second is the Structure that indicates the constitutive elements, actors, rules, regulations, procedures, decision-making frameworks, and authoritative sources that sanctions or legitimates the governance process. Third is the Cognition and Values of governance. it breeds Normative values of fairness, equity, integrity, representation, responsiveness, responsibility, tolerance, and equality before law for all citizens regardless of color, race, ethnicity, gender, and age. In fourth dimension he said Constitution is the fundamental guiding document that serves as a blueprint for governance that should not ignored and bypassed most of time we do. In Fifth dimensions he talked about the Organization and Institution that is depended on each others. for example institutions without sound organization are fragile and doomed to failure, as they cannot perform and do what they have been created to do. Sixth is the Management and Performance. Mere performance is not sufficient; it must produce desired and intended outcomes, outcomes that translate into institutional and system legitimacy. Seventh is the Policy. The goal achievement Two types of policy are in order in sound governance: one is external to individual organizations of governance and The second type of policy is internal to the individual organizations and institutions of governance; both demand popular participation in policy making and management, citizens. Eighth is the International or Globalization Forces: the international and global organizations in this functional category are the United Nations, and its various agencies and organizations scattered worldwide. Their objectives and activities serve a wide range

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of purposes such as environment, poverty, migration, health and hunger, and human rights. The Ninth is the dimension of Ethics, Accountability, and Transparency and Tenth is the Participation and Citizen Engagement in throughout the process. Social capital is urgent for economic development. At the end of the papers Ali Farazmand talked about the some Challenges and Opportunities for South and Southeast Asia. It is true that the challenges of the twenty first century is facing by almost all the nation state but it is very true for the developing country like the south and south Asian countries. Due to the geographical location and the socio-cultural diversity the problems is quite difference from the western and European countries. For example the flood control, population density, urban-rural divide, urban governance and administration, public management , regional and sub-regional terrorism, regional misunderstanding, boarder security, human trafficking and so on and colonial legacy and so on. Besides many nation in this regions challenges are existing in this regions including the internal drug smuggling, rising citizen expectations, massive migration crises, ethnic and regional conflicts or wars, and doing impossible things with little or no resources. Besides the influences from the international donor agency and the international regulatory and financial institutions is prevailing if you want to live in the globe. So To face those challenges specifically two strategies can be undertaken. First: sticking to the local issues, thinking locally while being globally minded, but engaging people and citizens directly, the most important asset of the state, in communities, locally and nationally. Second is engaging national and regional issues of governance challenges at regional and global levels. Third is building capacity and skills in all areas of governance, public policy, and administration. Asian countries can meet the challenges of globalization by resorting to collective cooperative action like making supportive agency, issue based organization, coalition and joint venture in the industrial development to meet the economic need and to face the global challenges. In this rival situation some countries like china, Iran, China, Japan, India, Malaysia, Indonesia have massive resource capacities, while a little on the west, Iran can play a major role in helping alleviate many challenges and problems faced by countries Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, and smaller ones like Sri Lanka and Vietnam by offering them many of her capacity building experiences as well as resources. So finally to face the challenges of international hegemony, the three strategies can be taken place. First: One is resistance strategy, which is difficult but possible and can be accomplished; second is the adaptive strategy that requires a careful crafting of policy and administrative mechanisms by national leadership to adapt to positive changes while avoiding the harmful effects; and third is a combination of adaptive-resistance strategies. Cultural cultivation and enhancing the proficiency as well as the reduction of corruption should get pivotal priority. Receiving those globalization challenges and converting it into opportunities through building capacity and coalition in national and international level is one of the most striking strategies in the twenty first century.

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Confucius and the Moral Basis of Bureaucracy Writer-H.George Frederickson

Confucius was a great Chinese Philosopher. His contribution for bureaucracy and democratic self-government system are recognized in this present contemporary world though he gave the idea about 2000 years ago. His prime ideology was focus on moral and ethical standards for proper functioning of bureaucracy and to ensure betterment for all people where those who are rulers and rules must perform some duty and role and he descried itas a culture of reciprocity. He argued that culture of reciprocity make government and bureaucracy well- functioning.

Main contribution of this article : This article focus on the distinct between Confucianism Western model of bureaucracy such as Webern bureaucratic model. Western model focus on constitutional, economic, political, professional foundation of bureaucracy but Confucius model of bureaucracy focus on moral basis of bureaucracy. The moral basis of bureaucracy found in East Asia not western countries. Confucius focus on ethics of bureaucracy but Weber focus on structure and behavior of bureaucracy. Writer divided the whole article into different sub sections under three main sections.

Section One: Are there Bureaucratic Cultures?

This section basically focus on that before the emergence of modernization in early 1990s the concept of common culture was weak and degree of cultural constraint and fragmentation existed all group of human societies. Modernization theory focus on coherent cultural pattern for social, economic and technological development but such types of secular cultural system found in China more than 2000 years ago which was the mental thought of Confucius.

Section Two: To What Extent Confucius Culture uniquely Bureaucratic And Values constitute A Moral Justification Of Bureaucracy?

This section basically focus on moral justification of rulers to ensure peace, prosperity and justice so that people can lead a happy life. The idea of Reciprocity is central of Confucianism which resemblances the idea of social contract theory of Locke, Rousseau and Kant .Some central features of Confucianism for moral justification of bureaucracy are given below which are found in East Asian countries such as China, Singapore and Korea.

Central Features of Confucianism: Central features of Confucianism are-

1)The rule of law versus rule of man: There are explicit distinction between Confucian and western thinking regarding law. In western countries it is said that Public administration is the law in action but Confucius focus on man in action while

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ethics, norms and value are the prime indicators to guide the behavior of ruler. Confucius argue that law make people cunning, law foster amorality as well as foster ruthlessness

2) The characteristics of good officials: Confucius developed a new concept of ruler and rule and maintained characteristics of ruler to ensure welfare for citizen. He said that ruler must be determined by virtue, culture, talent ,competence and merit which helped china from rule by social elite to rule by a moral elite. The concept of gentleman was developed by Confucius who will be educated, culturally refined and an absolutely a moral public official as well as good officials.

3) The nature of moral convention and their importance in governing:This indicates what standards should guide behavior and provide social cohesion for rule of man. Bureaucratic moral conventions should include the proper forms of supervision of others. To be a good official all officials must learn and practice the moral conventions of governance. According to Confucius all bureaucratic relations are to be guided by moral conventions rather than public administration being the law in action. Public administration is morality in action.

4)The importance of education and merit:Confucius focus on formal as well as moral education at a large scale. Confucius believed that both governmental and family investments in education will reap cultural, social and specially economic benefit. In case of bureaucratic form of East Asia the first priority was proper educational qualification. Today’s Chinese celebrate Confucius birth day as “Teachers’ Day”. Though Confucius emphasized in education but his true vocation was politics. Confucius built an enduring link between education and political power. For proper recruitment of bureaucrat he also emphasized on proper examination based recruitment system.

5)How to serve those in power: There was one of the primary problems faced by the good officials How to serve those in power if they are evil or corrupt. Confucius good officials must emphasis on morality the issue which is a key feature of education and moral conventions. He also said thatThereis one of the primary problem faced by the good officials How to serve those in power if they are evil or corrupt. He also believed that moral self-cultivation and an understanding of a commitment would enable a good official to perform his duties and functions neutrally. . He also focus on courage which is essential for moral attribute for the good officials. In western countries the effects of specialization, division of labor and compartmentalization of work undermine andspoil the courage of good officials.

6) The nature of order in society: In every society nature of social order is important. Concepts of social order, harmony and balance are central to Confucianism. In this case the best known statementis that” let the lord be a lord, the

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subject to a subject, the father a father and the son a son”. According to Confucius the sociopolitical order depends on appropriate definition of each person’s identity.

7) Definition of virtue & morality: It indicates what traits of character make one a good person. As well as Western and Confucian philosophy there is a congruence on the subject of individual virtue and morality. At first Confucius focus on intelligence that means an understanding of awareness of right or wrong, learned through education and experience. Second is righteousness which is doing right rather than wrong.

Section Three: The implication of Confucian bureaucratic morality

Confucius focus on most complete and robust moral justification of bureaucracy. It is found not in western countries but in East Asian countries. There is a distinct Confucian based bureaucratic culture found today in China, Japan and Korea. From 1965 to 1984, 5of the 10 fastest growing nations in the world were countries shaped by the Confucian and Buddhist traditions and those countries are Singapore, Taiwan, hongkong, south korea and japan.

Table: Comparison between bureaucratic morality in western & Confucian thought

Subject Western thought Confucian or East Asian thought

Instrument of governance

Constitutional laws, regulations.

Man, judgment

Power From authority and position From morality and position

Purpose Efficiency, effectiveness and equity

Understanding to do good

Rules and roles Ambiguous Clear

Values Neutrality and policy advocacy

Virtue

Education Knowledge and skills Understanding, virtue

Aspirations To serve, to lead To do good

Example Western countries China, japan and korea

China, japan and Korea as Confucian states with bureaucratic culture is entirely appropriate. Though at this present time the ideology of Confucius is somehow eroded but those countries bureaucracy are still well functioning compare to other countries of the world. The moral basis for government never lost force even while the state losing ground to human weakness, corruption and immorality. Because morality and value judgment give state proper direction to choose right path to ensure betterment for people. . Both traditional western philosophy and Confucian thought

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predate theory and practice of democratic self-government. In East Asia today , the big issues are democratic self-government, economic development and elimination of corruption. Both countries have strong professional bureaucratic built on Confucian tradition. In the west the moral arguments of the Confucianism can complement a bureaucratic morality primarily tried to constitution and laws. So morality and values are utmost necessary for proper functioning of bureaucracy.

At last it is said by Confucius if people are afraid of the rulers and administrators the bureaucracy won’t be well functioning and rulers would not be inclined to serve citizens properly. Rather the proper collaboration and understanding help people to get their better service.

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Classic of public administration Jay M. Shafritz & Albert C. Hyde

In the very beginning of the paper the authors made an attempt to give an insight of public administration so far as orthodoxy stage of the discipline is concerned. It is started with identifying the trace of public administration in Egyptian and Babylonian administration, Alexander Great’s use of staff. All these were impetus of management techniques and somewhat analogues to 20th century public administration. It imbued with dominance of scientific management that considers personnel as just extension of machine. In past, those empires saw victory and maintained an ascendency of monarchy they have better administrative capacity than their competitors.

The civil service reform & meritocracy in government

The authors demonstrated the trajectory of public administration in U.S. The reform in American public administration was started with the introduction of merit based recruitment followed by a series of incidences which include removing officials for solely political reasons in Jefferson administration, assassination of President Garfield by job-seeker, Eaton’s contribution towards Pendleton Act of 1883. Civil service commission was formed and competitive examination became ethos for recruitment in civil service. In the primary years merit preference was mainly in entry level at federal administration. Still higher level employees can be appointed- via lateral entry or own choosing. The weakness of Pendleton Act to enforce federal agency to classify the positions of state/local government administrators under civil service resulted in reaffirming ‘relative autonomy’ that most cities enjoyed. In recent time 28 states out of 50 and some local governments moved away from civil service that guarantees a secured job for employees because it leads to inertia among employees. So they adopted ‘at will employees’ who are not given protection under civil service guideline.

Politics administration dichotomy & premise of scientific management

When previous American presidents find it too hard to adjust with default complexities for running administration Woodrow Wilson was first to think public administration as a conscious and professional field. Wilson’s essay “the study of public administration” paved the way of it as an academic discipline. Wilson urges for politics administration dichotomy because of ever increasing complexities in running government. Then Goodnow steered the wheel claiming that politics and administration should be distinguished. As multi disciplinary functions leaved public administration at debacle it had to establish its own identity by incorporating progressive reform. This reform movement was a reaction to Social Darwinism which suggests for rejection of government intervention in social development. So the progressive movements seeks that it is government who should involve in human

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development. That is why democratic participation, application of science and special knowledge became necessary elements in administration. Adams was credited for his contribution in political and social reform, addressing vision of self governance. Taylor’s scientific management came up with development of time & motion studies for attaining ‘one best of way’ of accomplishing a given task. Replacing rule of thumb, scientific selection, division of work all were some attempts to ensuring efficiency considering personnel as just extension of machine. F. Willoughby, Another proponent of classic public administration, wrote for budgetary reform. He argued budget would establish co operation between legislative and executive and how would ensure management efficiency. With the change in global perspective the role of government changed it U.S. Aftermath of world war- I leaved U.S. to transform from an agrarian society to an urban industrial nation. it required considerable response from public administration ranging from creating highways, maintaining traffic management system, establishing public parks and public health. This 1920s perspective of administration was followed by Great Depression in 1930s. Government’s response to recover from this economic malady made public administration more pervasive part of American life.

Proponents of classical public administration (Ideal type bureaucracy to behaviorism)

Max Weber contributed public administration with ‘ideal type of bureaucracy’ which prefers neutral and impersonal bureaucracy. More importantly, Weber’s model doesn’t necessarily mean that whenever an organization is missing a single feature of bureaucracy it will be nonbureaucratic rather less bureaucratic. L. D. White was first to clearly articulate the objective of public administration and credited to write the first text book in this field. He argued for politics administration dichotomy saying that the basis of it is management not law. Besides he presented three unique ideas to study public administration.

� Administration is a unitary process � It is still an art but transformation to science is plausible � Administration will be heart of problem of modern government

When all primary proponents of classic of public administration emphasized on efficiency and White discussed about macro of public administration (overall government system and their parts). Follet & Elton Mayo were two of the first to focus micro level of personnel (theory of individual within organization). While scientific management thought for having correlation between work environments and productivity Hawthrone experiments found correlation between peer pressure and productivity than to management controls.

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Caliph Ali’s Letter to Malik Ashtar

Hazrat Ali (Ra.) was the fourth caliph of Islam. He was well known for his great contribution to spiritual thought. He contributed in the field of philosophy, religion, law and politics. Among his great contributions, the some of the masterpieces are taught in the Muslim colleges and Universities. Here I present the essence of Imam Ali’s famous letter of advice to the Governor of Egypt, Malik Ashtar, which was transformed by RasheedTurabi. The Richest Treasure (Good Administrator):

At the beginning of the letter, Imam Ali gave some advice that is worth to a ruler. Here he defined as an administrator what to do and not to do. He advised to control the temptation, to abstain from prohibited activities, to love people, to behave well, to forgive people if the commit mistake and to prioritize people above all. He prohibited to behave like dictator that makes the ruler corrupt. He suggested to protect the rights of God, rights of man and to motivate people to do so.

The Common Man (Ombudsmen, different parliamentary committees):

Here he defined the relationship between Government and the mass people. Imam Ali advised his administrator to maintain justice in administration, to seek the consent of the people. He advised not to prioritize the few(nepotism) above masses that may cause disorder in the state. Mass people is the strength of the state. They fight against enemy. He suggested to live in close contact with people and to protect their rights.

The Counselors (Advisor):

Imam Ali outlined some essential qualifications for a good advisor. These include as an advisor not to be a miser who can null and void the good initiative of the government and frighten of poverty, not to be a coward and a greedy as the advisor of the state department. An advisors must be truthful, kind, intelligent, foresighted but unpolluted by seen, and will be those who fear God and never aid the tyrant and criminal. He also referred to take learnings from the experience of wise, and learned so that the peace and order, prosperity and goodwill can be maintained.

The Different Classes of People (Espirit de corps):

People are composed of different classes. The progress of one is dependents on the progress on every other. A state is composed of Army formed of the soldiers, civil officers and their establishments, judiciary, customs officers and public relation officers. The general public also consists of Muslims and other subjects and among them of merchants and the tradesmen, craftsman, the unemployed and poor. All of they have equal rights, duties and obligations. If all of they complete their duties and responsibilities and cooperate each other, the state can run well.

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The Army (Military force):

Here Imam Ali defined the quality of the Army and relationship between Government and Army. For being a soldier of an Army, one must be faithful to their God and the prophet and loyal to their chief and they have to control their passion and temper. The leader has to care their soldiers like his children and he has to attend every little of their wants. Imam Ali also suggested to look aftertheir families when they are absent from their homes.

Chief Justice and subordinate judiciary (The Judiciary):

Imam Ali here outlined the act of chief justice and the subordinate judiciary that is today known as one of three essential organs of the Government. The qualification for being a chief justice, according to Imam Ali, would be best among the people, not to be possessed with domestic worries, cannot be intimidated, not err too often, not turn back from right way to wrong way, consider the consent of the two parties, examine with patience every disclosure of fact and must be impartial in his decision. There would be a subordinate judiciary. Imam Ali advised his Governor to pay the higher salaries to give them a contended life. He also recommended to establish surveillance over their activities so that they improve their true honesty and true concern for the public welfare. In time of their dishonesty, taking the case of occurrence as serious is essential.

Revenue administration (Customs and excise):

Without revenue collection, a state cannot run properly. Here he emphasized on the cultivation of land properly and productively rather than collecting revenue forcefully. The prosperity of the state depends on the care of the revenue collection. In time of natural disaster like drought, excessive rainfall, soil infertility, floods epidemics or the cause of crop damage, the rate of tax must be reduced or exempted.

Trade and Industry (Industrial policy):

Here the Caliph Ali (Ra) directed to his Governor to facilitate the trade and industry. The people who are involved in business are generally peace loving and contribute to a lot for the development of the state. But he reminded about businessmen to his Governor that they cannot engage in creating syndicate that can cause disorder in the market. He also directed to punish the guilty who is involve in creating syndicate and black marketing.

The Poor (Poverty alleviation):

In this extract, Imam Ali emphasized on poverty alleviation and redistribution of state resources. He directed his Governor to protect the rights equally whatever they are far from him or nearer to him.They(poor)have right to live, right to eat, right to speak though they are in trouble, victim of vicissitudes of time. He also recommended to recruit high officials such men who will be sincere about the rights of the poor.

Open Conference (People’s participation):

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Here Imam Ali mentioned to communicate between mass people and Government that is today well known as people’s participation. He guided his Governor to meet the people who are oppressed and needy (stakeholders) to converse closely removing the armed guard or civil officers or members of the police or the intelligence department from his side so that they can feel free to share their needs and demands and their miseries.

Aloofness is not desirable (embedded autonomy):

Here he advised his administrator not to be aloof from people that may keep oneself ignorant of their ruler. It may cause harmful to the Governor. Here the Caliph made the demarcation between just and unjust, between rights and wrong. For being a just ruler, one must be kept oneself close ties with people, willing to hear them and meeting their needs and requirements.

Peace and Treaties (Foreign Policy, Bi-lateral and multi-lateral relations and relationship with international organization):

Here Imam Ali recommended to his Governor to take the opportunity of treaty and proposal of peace that is today maintained through foreign policy and through different international organization. He referred peace as the source of comfort for the army and it reduces the worries of the leader and it promotes the order of the state. In times of signing the treaties, he suggested to his Governor to be with his armed forces so that the enemy cannot attack to compel him receiving the forced terms and condition. After signing the treaties, as Imam Ali directed to his Governor, one must discharge the peace treaties faithfully. It is a trust that must be created to him. He directed to the Governor to keep the promise that has been given to anyone. He also reminded to keep the divine promise.

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The Changing Nature of Public Administration:

From Easy Answers to Hard Questions B. Guy Peters

Over the past several decades public administration has experienced a great pressure for change. These changes were resulted in the emergence of New Public Management (NPM). Along with traditional public administration and NPM, here a third concept is developed called “governance”. Much of these changes have been practical and political. The blending of the practical and scientific is a distinctive feature of public administration.

The Old Time Religion of Public Administration (Traditional Public Administration):

The traditional public administration which was based on classical models focused on the career, neutrally competent civil servant working within a structure of hierarchical authority; emphasized on rule based management rather than market based. Five assumptions suggested by Walsh and Stewart (1992) highlighted the traditional model. First, self-sufficiency, i.e. government need to be organized and equipped in order to make and implement programs. Second, direct control, i.e. mangers at the top echelon was capable of controlling their own organizations. Third, upward accountability, i.e. government accountability was flowed from officials to political masters. Fourth, uniformity, i.e. government was supposed to treat all citizens equally in providing service. Fifth, civil service system, featured by standardized establishment procedures. In addition to these five assumptions, another three assumptions were further listed. First, legal and procedural performance, i.e. performance was to be judged on legal and accounting grounds. Second, constrained democracy, i.e. public involvement in decision making was not considered necessary or appropriate. Third, limited policy role of administration, i.e. bureaucrats were supposed to provide information and advice to politicians in making policy without having influence.

The New Public Management:

The emergence of NPM was the result of rising demand to reform the traditional model of public administration. It encourages following and involving with private sector management to provide better citizen service delivery. Here also developed five assumptions that reflect the function of NPM. First, organizational autonomy and self-sufficiency, indicates “steering not rowing” i.e. government will play enabling role in providing services through contracting with private sector organization or sponsor them and should be highly autonomous from their political sponsor. Second, controlling public employees, same as like traditional model, only difference here in

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the source of control. In traditional model, the control was based on law and rules while in the NPM contrsol is exercised through financial incentives. Third, accountability of public organizations, accountability will more internalize and professional rather than the product of political controls exerted from external institutions. Fourth, uniformity of public services, NPM opposes this concept and drive toward differentiation and difference. Fifth, policy and administration, it tends to institutionalize the dichotomy between policy and administration.

Governance and Public Administration:

In addition toward using the ideas of the NPM, a crucial shift in thinking about the role of public administration in government has been moving away from a concentration on government per se and toward more concern with governance. Governance is fundamentally about steering the economy and society, a central instrument for goal setting and for accountability. The shift toward governance means that government has become more of an enabling state than it is a hierarchical, commanding state. Six assumptions highlight the functions of governance. First, self-sufficiency, public administration is autonomous from society and government utilizes organizations in the private sector as part of the service delivery strategy for public programs. Second, control of government employees, this assumption emphasize on empowering the lower echelons of the public sector in making their own decisions. Third, accountability regimes, accountability tends to become defined more in terms of the average performance of an organization rather than in terms of potentially isolated and exceptional. Fourth, uniformity of public services, public services is valued less than in the traditional model. Normatively, the differences that may emerge are generally regarded positively. Fifth, governance and the civil service, the personnel systems of government will require increased flexibility, and greater openness to a range of career and management arrangements, than has been true of traditional formalized personnel systems. Sixth, limited policy role of bureaucracy, here bureaucracy plays a mediocre role in making policy. It manages its relationships with the civil society, so that the management of networks becomes a crucial means of shaping policy. An expanded conception of democracy is that governance is premised upon steering society and that steering can be at a distance. It involves private sector organizations and actors as crucial elements of service delivery. Now emerging question is that if we want to reform we must be certain about the question of reform from what, as well as that of reform towards what. If the assumption about the nature of the pre-existing public sector is incorrect then the prescriptions for reform are also likely to be incorrect. The capacity to implement the governance style of reforming public administration will depend very heavily upon the existence of strong organizations within civil society.

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The study of administration ---- Woodrow Wilson

The eminently practical science of administration is finding its way into college courses in this country. Civil service reform is granted among us improvement f personnel and methods of government offices are granted. The objective of administrative study is; what government can properly and successfully do, how government do these proper things with outmost possible efficiency at the least possible cost either of money or of energy. In this case a light is important what can provide only a careful study. Here three aspects are needful

1. Some accounts of what other done in the same line 2. What’s its subject matter? 3. The best method by which to develop administration and most clarifying

political concepts.

No one wrote systematically of administration as a branch of the science of government until the present century (1887) had passed. Political writers whom we now read had thought , argued, dogmatized only about the constitution of the government , nature of the state, the essence and seat of sovereignty, about the greatest meanings lying at the heart of government. The question was always arise how shall law should be administered with enlightened, with equity, with speed and without friction. In early times, trouble was almost about altogether about the constitution of the government. There was no trouble about administration. The function of government was simple as life was itself simple. There was no complex system of public revenues, there were plenty of farms but no stocks and bonds but it was substantially true also of comparatively late times. If difficulties in government action are to be seen gathering in other countries they are to be seen culminating in our own. This is the reason why now we are having “Science of administration”

Why science of administration:

a. To straighten the paths of government b. To make it’s business less unbusiness like c. To strengthen and purify it’s organizations d. To crown it’s duties with dutifulness.

Differences between old and new administration by Mr. Bagehot’s way: A despot wishes to govern a distant province, he sends down a eatrap on a grand horse, and other pople on little horses; and very little is heard of the satrap again unless he send back some of the little people to tell what he has been doing. No great labor of superintendence is possible. Common rumor and casual report are sources of intelligence. In civilized countries the process is different. You erect a bureau in the province you want to govern you make iit write letters and copy letters. It is not of our

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making, it a foreign science. It has been developed by French and German professors and it is consequently in all parts adopted to the needs of a compact state. Government has received in Europe first where government has long been a monopoloy, rather than in England or the united states where government has been common franchise. Why in Europe, two reasons i.e. just government was independent of popular assent, there was more to be govern and the monopolists became interested in discovering the least imitating means of governing. Prussia where administration has been studies and most nearly perfected in . Frederic the great was sincerely professed to egard himself as only the chief servant of the state , to consider his grate office a public trust. It was he who , building upon the foundations laid by his father. Frederic William three under the inspiration of stein again in his turn, advanced the work still further, planning many of the broader structural features which give firmness and form to Prussian administration to day. The field of administration is a field of business. It is a part of political life only as the methods of counting –house are a part of the life of society. The objective of administrative society is to rescue executive methods from the confusion and costliness of empirical experiment and set them upon foundations laid deep in stable principle. Administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics, administrative questions are not political questions although politics sets the tasks for administration. It should not be suffered to manipulate it’s offices. German eminent write Bluntschil bids us separate administration alike from politics and from law. He says politics is the state activity” in things great and universal” on the other hand administration is “ the activity of the state in individual and small things”. But administration is not therefore politics. A great deal of administration goes about incognito to most of the world , being confounded now with political “management” and again with constitutional politics. Confusion may be explained with the Niebuh’s liberty . he says” liberty depends comparatively more upon administration than upon constitution”. The broad plans of governmental actions are not administrative; the detailed execution of such plans is administrative. Constitutions , therefore , properly concern themselves only with those instrumentalities of government which are to control general law. The study of administration is closely connected with the study of the proper distribution of constitutional authority. To be efficient it must discover the simplest arrangements by which responsibility can be unmistakably fixed upon officials. To discover the best principle for the distribution of authority is of greater importance, that can be under democratic system. Where officials serve many masters. All sovereigns are suspicious of their servants. This suspicion can be allayed by knowledge as trust is strength.

The proper relations between public opinion and administration

To whom of official trustworthiness to be disclosed and by whom it is to be rewarded? The right answers to be, that public opinion shall play the part of authoritative critic. Woodrow Wilson emphasized on the openness of bureaucratic activities and criticism of the general people about that. A German professor of political science said emphasizing on the opinion” please try to have opinion about

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national affairs” to improve public opinion which is the motive power of government. In this case better officials as apparatus of government are much significant. For getting better officials it is necessary to organize democracy by sending up to the competitive examinations for the civil service men definitely prepared for standing liberal tests as to technical knowledge. Corps of civil servants prepared by schooling and drilled.Without comparative studies in government we can not rid of ourselves of the misconceptions that administrations stands on an essentially different basis in a democratic state from that on which it stands in a non- democratic state.We borrowed our whole political language from England but we leave the words “king” and “lord”. We can borrow the science of administration with safety and profit if we only read all fundamental differences of conditions into it’s essential tenets. In this respect we can never learn either our own weakness or our own virtues by comparing ourselves with ourselves. Even the English system is too much like ou own. It is best on the whole to get entirely away from our own atmosphere and to be most careful in examining such system as those of France and Germany. We thus devise an adjusting weight for our comparative method of study. We can thus scrutinize the anatomy of foreign government without fear of getting any of their diseases into our vains.

Reference

� Ali Farazmand, Governance in the age of globalization: challenges & opportunities for south and southeast asia

� Writer-H.George Frederickson, Confucius and the Moral Basis of Bureaucracy � Paul S Armstrong, Caliph Ali’s Letter To Malik AshtarIntroduction � Jay M. Shafritz & Albert C. Hyde Classic of public administration � Woodrow Wilson, The study of administration (Political science quarterly) � B. Guy Peters, The Changing Nature of Public Administration: From Easy Answers

to Hard Questions

� Prof. Dr. H.C. Wolfgang Drechsler, Three Paradigms of Governance and Public Administration: Chinese , Western & Islamic