Publications related to these materials

Publications related to these materials If you are interested in using the methodology of this project to analyse pupils' work, there is a

booklet called Technical accuracy in writing in G'CSF 1-.nglish: methodology, which contains the

coding frames and explains their use. Copies of this booklet can he obtained from the English

team at QCA (telephone: 0171 509 5624).

A more detailed account of the findings of the research into writing in GCSE English scripts is

found in the report "technical accuracy in writing in GCSE English: research findings, which is

available on the QCA website or from the English ream at QCA.

Further discussion of some of the issues raised by this work and possible applications of the

coding frames is to he found in the forthcoming publication from QCA Not whether but how:

teaching grammar in English at key stages 3 and 4.

Acknowledgements We would like to thank Debra Myhill and Alun Hicks for their commitment to this project and

the excellence of their work.

QCA is also grateful to the following teachers, and their English departments, who took part

in the study:

Naomi Boulding Corsham School, Corsham, Wiltshire

Sarah Conway King Solomon High School, Barkingside, Essex

Heather Coombs Nottingham High School for Girls, Nottingham

Kevin Eames Wootton Bassett School, Wootton Bassett, Wiltshire

Kathleen Furlong Purbeck Upper School, Wareham, Dorset

David Gilbert Heathfield High School, Congleton, Cheshire

Roslin Hamer West Kirby Grammar School, West Kirby, Wirral

Paul Norris Wilmslow High School, Wilmslow, Cheshire

Helen Reed Monkwearmouth School, Seaburn Dene, Sunderland

Paul Wilkes Kingdown School. Warminster, Wiltshire

First published in 1 999

O Qualifications and Curriculum Authority 1999

ISBN 1 85838 370 6

Reproduction, storage, adaptation or translation, in any form or by any means, of this

publication is prohibited without prior written permission of the publisher, unless within the

terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Excerpts may be reproduced for

the purpose of research, private study, criticism or review, or by educational institutions solely

for educational purposes, without

permission, provided full acknowledgement is given.

Printed in Great Britain

The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority is an exempt charity under Schedule 2 of the

Charities Act 1993.

Qualifications and Curriculum Authority

29 Bolton Street

London

W1Y 7PD

Contents

Page

Acknowledgements inside front cover

Using this booklet 2

Introduction 3

The Technical Accuracy Project 3

Usefulness of the findings 4

Linguistic features of writing: research findings 5

Summary 5

Spelling 6

Punctuation 8

Sentence/clause structure and word class usage 10

Paragraphing 14

Textual organisation 17

Non-standard English 19

Pupils' writing analysed 21

Implications for teaching 28

Teaching linguistic features: planning over time 30

Planning over time: clauses 33

Planning over time: effective closure 34

Planning over time: cohesion 35

Teaching linguistic features: focusing on purposes 36

GCSE purpose: to explore, imagine, entertain 36

GCSE purpose: to inform, explain, describe 40

GCSE purpose: to argue, persuade, instruct 44

GCSE purpose: to analyse, review, comment 48

Useful resources 52

Glossary 53

(1)

Using this booklet In 1996, the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) (then SCAA) began a project designed to investigate the accuracy and effectiveness of pupils' writing in GCSE English examinations. This booklet summarises the research findings and explores their implications for teaching English in the classroom.

This booklet covers extensive ground in both analysing and teaching writing in key stages 3 and 4. It may be helpful to gain an overview of the materials and the purposes of the different sections before deciding where to focus reading.

The Introduction (page 3) indicates the origins of the research that underpin this booklet and explains why it is important.

Linguistic features of writing (page 5) outlines the research findings of the Technical Accuracy Project, which analysed spelling, punctuation, sentence/clause structure and word class usage, paragraphing, textual organisation and non-standard English in the writing of candidates achieving grades A, C and F in GCSE English in 1998.

Pupils' writing analysed (page 21) comments on pupils' writing, exemplifying features commonly found in grades A, C and F.

Implications for teaching (page 28) introduce the second half of these materials and indicate how the research into pupils' writing may have a direct impact on English teaching.

Teaching linguistic features: planning over time (page 30) gives practical examples of how teachers involved in the project built the teaching of specific grammatical and textual features into existing schemes of work across key stages 3 and 4.

Teaching linguistic features: focusing on purposes (page 36) is divided into materials on the four

categories of writing purposes in GCSE English:

• explore, imagine, entertain; • inform, explain, describe; • argue, persuade, instruct; • analyse, review, comment.

For each of these categories there are examples of how teachers built explicit language study into units of work.

At the end of this booklet there are some suggested useful resources and a glossary.

2

Introduction The Technical Accuracy Project

The areas for investigation in the Technical Accuracy Project related to:

• spelling;

• punctuation;

• sentence and clause structure; word class usage;

• paragraphing;

• textual organisation; non-standard English.

Coding frames were devised so that these features could be analysed in the writing of large numbers of 16-

year-old GCSE pupils. Using the frames, coders identified specific linguistic features and the

results were analysed to provide information about the incidence of these features in GCSE writing. The

study was a constructive analysis of pupils' writing, investigating patterns of usage of the

linguistic features rather than just analysing error. It provides valuable information about the

correctness and effectiveness of pupils' writing, and about patterns of language use.

The methodology of investigating writing in this way is a development from previous work which counted the

occurrence of particular features in a single sentence (see Massey and Elliott, UCLES 1996). The Technical

Accuracy Project looked at whole pieces of writing for textual organisation and paragraphing, and a 100-

word block of text was used for the analysis of spelling, punctuation, word class usage, sentence and

clause structure, and non-standard English. Furthermore, the coding frames made a distinction between

narrative and non-narrative texts. This methodology allowed comparisons about features of writing to be

made between different text types, between coursework and examination writing, between boys and girls,

and across grades.

The data produced a complex picture of pupils' writing and has enabled the description in linguistic terms of

features that are often part of impression marking but are not well articulated. When we talk of the qualities of

an effective piece of writing, either among teachers or to pupils in the classroom, how is that effectiveness

described? This study roots such discussion in more specific terms, such as the effectiveness of openings or

closure, the way the reader-writer relationship is established, or the coherence of a piece. Similarly, pupils are

often advised to include more detail in their writing; but what exactly constitutes detail? From the findings of

this study, it is possible to talk more precisely about detail in terms of expanding and elaborating sentence

structure around the finite verb, for example by using adverbials, or by considering the lexical density of a

piece. The process of quantifying linguistic features has enabled us to put flesh onto the qualitative

judgements many English teachers habitually make.

3

Usefulness of the findings

The investigation also provided specific information about pupils' performance at different grades

and in narrative and non-narrative writing. English teachers often refer to `having a sense of what an A grade

is like', particularly when moderating GCSE coursework. The analysis furnished more detail about the

linguistic characteristics of A, C and F grade writing, making explicit some aspects of more impressionistic

judgements. Similar detail was drawn from the study to enable focused consideration of the principal linguistic

differences between narrative and non-narrative writing, and to permit some tentative discussion of gender

differences in writing at GCSE.

A significant outcome of the investigation is the richness of the information it provides for teachers. The

implications arising from the study form two distinct, but complementary, strands. The first is that teachers'

pedagogic knowledge of writing can he enriched by the inclusion of knowledge relating to the linguistic

characteristics of pupils' writing. Knowing precisely what devices and linguistic techniques constitute a typical

narrative, or the development of detail, or the expression of a coherent argument is a powerful tool making

for greater clarity in planning, marking and recognising standards.

The second important implication arising from this study is that it draws attention to features of

writing that need more explicit teaching attention. Focused teaching of some of these linguistic

features might enable pupils to improve their accuracy, to develop more authorial control, and to

understand better how to improve writing between drafting and final copy. Awareness of the way

language operates within texts and upon readers may help young writers to develop a sense of the act of

writing as a creative but skilled craft, in which what is written is complemented by hour it is written.

4

of both; clause structure, especially weaknesses in handling clauses.

use of variety of subordinating/ co-ordination;

co-ordinating conjunctions. less varied conjunctions used.

Word class usage greater use of abstract nouns; higher number of finite verbs;

greater lexical density; some use of abstract nouns;

lower number of finite verbs. more reliance on adjectives and

adverbs for detail.

Paragraphing paragraphing nearly always paragraphing usually present

present and used accurately; and handled appropriately in

in narrative and non-narrative, 50% of cases where used;

a greater variety of paragraph in narrative and non-narrative.

linkage using conjuncts to less variety of linkage than at

contrast and place adverbials. A; reliance on conjuncts to

order and time adverbials.

Textual organisation establishes good relationship generally successful

with reader; relationship with reader and

successful openings; openings (though less strong

less successful closure and than A grade);

cohesion/coherence. less successful closure;

less successful

cohesion/coherence.

little use of abstract

nouns; lower lexical

density;

highest number of finite

verbs; more reliance on

adverbs, low use of

adjectives.

paragraphing as likely to be

omitted as used;

limited number of paragraphs

means limited range of

paragraph links, particularly

in non-narrative.

some success in openings

and

closure, but very little

success

establishing relationship

with

reader;

lack of cohesion.

5

Spelling Spelling accuracy Typically, in 100 words, A grade candidates made just over one error, C grade candidates three, and F grade candidates six.

Patterns of error Of the errors categorised in some way as related to sound, the largest number were homophone

errors. This category included common errors such as confusion between to and too, know and no, knew

and new, their and there, your and you're, many of which occurred repeatedly. Other homophone errors

included heard/herd, fore/four, seams/seems, sites/sights, maid/made, brakinglbreaking and courselcoarse.

Phonetically plausible errors were wide-ranging and often inventive. They included broused, shaire, hove,

highe, gritty, terned, thaw (though), chirch, ghoast, orfanages, tort, shorely. oister., colledge, domb (dome),

fiulter, thrre, moaring, amoungst, attact, and sourcers. Since a large number of other errors were also

phonetically plausible, it seems likely that these GCSE candidates had little difficulty in bringing phonological

knowledge to bear. What they seemed to lack was a range of other strategies against which to check such

knowledge.

Approximately one in five errors involved omission, while endings accounted for approximately five per cent

of all errors. However, comparing omission errors with ending errors is clearly not comparing like with like:

every word contained the potential for omission, but few offered opportunity for errors in ending (for example

by forming a participle from a verb ending in è').

Errors of omission divided themselves naturally into two types. Omission of phonemes and single letters

accounted for approximately one in seven errors. Examples of phoneme omission included happ(en)ing,

amou(n)t, th(r)ough, diff(er)ent, sta(n)d, me(n)tally, physi(ca)lly, ex(er)cise, fie(I)d, b(r)oken, exam(p)les,

clean(in)g, mill(i)ons, ster(e,)o, and terro(ri)st. Single letter omissions included incorrect formation of past tense

(glistend, happend), omissions where the letter was part of a digraph (ment, jepordises, souud, mecanism,

caos) and other particular omissions of 'e' (snak, then, slid).

A prominent category of error was that of word division, accounting for approximately one in seven errors.

These errors included predictable examples of elision, such as alot, obit, and aswell. Very occasionally, hyphens

were inappropriately used (foot-bailer. stylish-kid, shot-gun and re-act). More often, single words were written as two, with a

failure to join or hyphenate compound words such as house work, grand father, flat mate, back up, boy friend, base

ball, brake shoes, down stream, over spill, eye witness, nation wide. Several of these can be appropriately

separated, depending on the context within the syntax of the sentence. The complexity of this issue is exemplified by

dictionary entries which, for example, state that girlfriend is one word when applied to a sweetheart, but two

when meaning a girl's young female friend. Context within the sentence was significant in the decision of coders to

include as errors rubbish filled, profit making, and short term. Familiar words involving an adjective followed

by a noun or pronoun were often divided up, including every thing, any thing, some thing, some body, some

times, any way, every one, and no body. Variations on this theme included when ever, where ever, where by,

with out, our selves, him self, mean while, all ready, all too getherr, and all together.

6

Sophistication of words used

Ability in spelling is not simply a matter of the number of errors. The nature of the words spelt must also be

taken into account. The three-point `vocabulary sophistication' scale used gave a guide to the lexical

context in which errors were made. To illustrate this point, all of the five F grade candidates who scored

100% for accuracy were graded 1 (least sophisticated). Conversely, the three F grade candidates coded 3

for sophistication of vocabulary made, between them, 12 errors, which included coco, aparaently,

increaseing, hopeing, ghoast, shrapnell, tonnnorrow, evactuation, bycycles, polloution, and addvantage.

Patterns of error according to grade awarded

For F grade candidates, more than one in four errors were implausible errors that could not safely be

placed in any other category. Exemplifying these errors in detail would be fruitless, but they included oppion,

manufactors, though (for throw), vacanances, sucsefally, fallind, puninant, leasening, and poasivel.

Examples ranged from those where it was possible to see what the word was meant to be, to those where

context was needed to make any guess.

One in four F grade errors involved omission of one form or another. Where A grade pupils omitted a letter

from a word, the omission tended to leave the sound of the word largely unaffected (apprentiships,

goverment, shoud, suvive, casulty). Among F grade errors, however, more of the omissions related to the

way the word is heard (happ(en)ing, amou(n)t, diff(er)ent. sta(n)d, physi(ca)lly, abou(t), finis(h)ed,

clean(in)g, mill(i)ons). An error virtually absent from A grade candidates, inversion, accounted for a small

percentage of F grade errors, including beign, dosen't

, strenght, agianst, nevre, frielndy, regiures, figther, desing,

hoilday, and filed (field).

For A grade candidates, the category relating to word division was much more significant, accounting for

one in five errors (of course F grade candidates still made more errors in total in this category than A grade

candidates). These A grade errors, sometimes related to syntactical context, included taste buds, stick like,

brittle bone disease, land mines, can not, over beard, some what, fox hunt, over spilling, pitter pattering, un-

balanced, alot, and infact. Arguably, this category was prominent for A grade candidates because they had

already eliminated most errors involving inclusion or ordering of letters, and were more likely to experiment

with compound words.

At A grade, about one in ten errors were unstressed vowel errors, including indefinately, definate,

appatising, dependant, desperate, persistent, correspondant, detinated, rnollastation, marvallous, and

domented. F grade errors in the same category included servive, pro fey; distroyed, behavier, and differcult.

One other significant area for A grade candidates appeared to be errors related to consonant doubling. In

total, this accounted for more than one in ten A grade errors, including accruss, ballance, herron,

dissapointed, succesfully, untill, adress, embarassment, and the topical milennium and

millenium.

In general, patterns of C grade spelling errors were not very different from A grade. The most

notable exception was in the use of homophones, which represented one in ten of C grade

errors.

Punctuation

Sentence demarcation: capital letters and full stops

While 92% of all capital letters to start sentences were correctly placed, the figure for correct use of full

stops was 72%. The accuracy of sentence demarcation decreased with declining grade, with A grade

writers being largely accurate in all respects. C grade writers were highly accurate in the use of the initial

capital letter, but less secure in the use of the full stop. Problems for C grade writers appeared to be almost

equally attributable to incorrect placing of full stops and to omission. By contrast, F grade writing was characterised by

omission approximately half of all F grade full stops were placed correctly, but F grade writers were substantially

more inclined to leave them out altogether than to position them incorrectly.

Sentence demarcation: the comma splice

The comma splice is a term used to describe the use of a comma where a full stop is required, thus

`splicing' together two sentences that should be separate. It was a noticeable feature of both C and F

grade punctuation (although omission for F grade writers was considerably more significant). It may be that

teaching of sentence demarcation needs to focus on the needs of the writer omission may indicate poor

understanding of the conventions of marking text with full stops or semi-colons, while comma splicing is

more clearly a consequence of poor understanding of the grammatical and syntactical structure of the

sentence.

The tendency to comma splice was marginally more frequent in narrative, but as narrative texts tend to

have more sentences this may simply reflect more opportunities to splice. The scripts showed that

the comma splice was a feature of some pupils' writing regardless of task type, and that for others success in

sentence demarcation was evident whatever the task. The data also suggested that it may be more

characteristic of girls' writing than boys'. The following samples from one pupil's narrative and non-narrative

writing typifies the way comma splicing occurs.

Most people affected by homelessness are young people between the age of 16-25, some of the

reasons are because their parents throw them out of home because they were too much for their parents to

handle, they ran away from home because they couldn't live for another

day under the same roof...

I went out on Wednesday night, just for a drink with the girls up the Bull's Head, there was only Ang, Lizzy,

Amy and me but we had a good laugh. They had a Karaoke tip the pub which was a laugh, we

all went up on the stage and sang All Saints, Never Ever'...

Commas

Given that the majority of sentences in the sample were multiple (compound and/or complex)

sentences, the frequency of comma usage was low. There were almost half as many commas as full

stops, when it would have been reasonable to expect the figures to be similar. The data indicated that the

omission of commas was a considerably more significant feature than the incorrect placing of commas.

Omission occurred most frequently in the use of commas to demarcate clauses or to act as a discourse

marker. Omission was also significant in the use of the parenthetic comma.

Although F grade writers were sometimes inaccurate in the use of commas, their writing was

characterised more significantly by a relative absence of internal sentence punctuation. Since many F grade

writers also omitted full stops, it is apparent that the conventions and purposes of punctuation were poorly

understood by writers at this level.

8

In most writing, commas as a discourse marker or to demarcate clauses were more likely than parenthetic commas or commas to separate lists. The data indicated that the use of the parenthetic comma increased substantially at grade A, suggesting that this may be a mark of increasing sophistication. There is also a

link between this punctuation and the reader-writer relationship (see Textual organisation, page 17) –

writers using parenthetic commas were often addressing the needs of their readers. In narrative, this sometimes took the form of additional detail in parenthesis, while in non-narrative, it often took the form of an aside or emphasis in the development of an argument.

• Mr Brooks, the older farmer; was leaning anxiously against the barn wall. • Homelessness, as you may have observed, is a problem in our cities. • Britain, on the other hand, is opposed to joining a common European currency.

Boys at all grades made more use of commas than girls, and did so with greater accuracy. The difference was particularly noticeable in the use of the parenthetic comma, which boys used almost twice as much as girls.

The use of apostrophes

The correct use of the possessive apostrophe caused significantly more difficulty than the omissive

apostrophe. The problem was widespread, with A grade writers making errors in their use of the possessive

apostrophe in 50% of occurrences.

Overall, C grade writers used more apostrophes, both possessive and omissive, than either A or F

grade writers. The use of the omissive apostrophe was more frequent at C and F grade, suggesting

that these writers made more use of contractions than A grade writers. It is possible that this reflects a

higher degree of formality in A grade writing and a stronger control of the reader-writer relationship. A

comparison of an A grade writer and a C grade writer responding to the same task shows that the absence

of contractions contributes to the formality of the A grade piece. The task was to write to a headteacher

complaining about the decision to discontinue school dinners.

• A grade: So it is your responsibility to provide for them the one meal a day that can give them

some much needed nourishment. If/ allow my children money to buy their dinner then I have no

doubt that they too will be misled by fatty burgers and chips. I am not saying we should

deprive children of this but they should at least have a choice.

• C grade: That's who I feel sorry for because it isn't cheap doing packed lunches. I strongly believe

that you should re-think this through because I think you haven't thought about this at all. I

personelly think it's a disgrace and I will be taking action against this.

The use of dialogue

Girls used more dialogue than boys and were considerably more accurate in their use of speech marks.

F and C grade writers made slightly more use of dialogue than A grade writers. C grade writers were largely

accurate in their deployment of speech marks, whereas F grade writers were largely inaccurate.

The use of other punctuation devices

The examination tasks set for 1998 did not naturally invite the use of other punctuation devices that often

feature in particular documents, such as bullet points in information leaflets. Most writing in the sample was

continuous prose. Within this, there were relatively few occurrences of colons, semicolons, parentheses or

dashes. A grade writers made greater use of these punctuation devices, particularly dashes and

parentheses. Often these were used to create very deliberate effects, as in the following case where the

writer used a dash to create the effect of surprise that the protagonist in the story felt.

...the rocks disappeared from my line of sight to show n ie - paradise.

Sentence/clause structure and word class usage Sentence structure and length

The number of finite verbs increased with declining grade, while sentence length decreased.

The significance of this data is not so much in the numerical detail of numbers of verbs or the number of

words per sentence, but in what this pattern reveals about the way writers construct sentences. This pattern

reflected the greater degree of elaboration and expansion within sentences found in A grade writing,

particularly the use of adverbials, non-finite clauses and parenthetic comments. C and especially F grade

writers were more dependent on the verb to move the writing forward and provided less additional detail.

This is exemplified in the following three extracts.

• A grade: Who knows what might lurk around the next corner? The high rise buildings threaten the

dark alleys and streets. All is dark and silent.

As I watch over the city I see the moonlight catching an office window making it look almost golden.

The smells from the rubbish dumped by people shopping and the overloaded bins rises up. The

stench is unbelievable like dead bodies left to rot in a cold, damp cellar:

• C grade: We both had to be home at 9:00. As we aproached the bolted gates we both glanced at

each other in anxiety. "You go first" I said to Jayne, but wouldn't go, Jayne by this time was very

wary of what we were about to do.

"Let's just forget it now and head back" said Jayne, but I disagreed and begged her to come. We

decided to climb the gates together, ensuring there was no body else present. We climed the

gates, which were very tall and extreamly pointy.

• F grade: When I came out she said she was going to run away and never come back. I just said

"yes" and carried on to work. At 6.00 when I come home from work I went in her bedroom and

sonic of her clothes had gone. So as I looked in her room I looked she had gone. I sat down and

phoned the police and they carne over and I gave them a statement and a picture o f what she

looked like and...

The A grade piece uses very few finite verbs, and adds narrative detail through the use of adverbials

(around the next corner, over the city), through premodification (dark: overloaded; cold, damp), and through

non-finite participial clauses (catching an office window, dumped by..., left to...). Both the C and the F grade

writers make considerably more use of finite verbs, but the C grade piece includes more descriptive detail,

principally through the use of adjectives (wary, tall and extreanily pointy), and through adverbials in anxiety,

by this time). The F grade piece lacks adjectival or adverbial colour and is almost entirely driven by its

verbs. Coders also frequently commented on the restricted range of verbs used in F grade pieces, and

these examples illustrate this. Both the A and C grade pieces make use of lexical verbs that themselves

add colour to the writing (lurk, threaten, approached, glanced, disagreed), whereas the F grade piece

makes use of a very limited range of verbs and is repetitive (looked, came, sat, gave).

Sentence variety

The mean number of finite verbs in the sample was more than double the number of sentences,

indicating that many of the sentences were sentences of more than one clause. The data show that

not only did A grade writers use fewer sentences and fewer finite verbs per 100 words, but they also used

fewer subordinate and co-ordinate clauses than C or F grade writers. This would suggest that in A grade

writing there were more simple sentences, of one clause only, and verbless sentences. In the extracts

quoted above, the A grade writer uses several simple sentences, including one short simple sentence (All is

dark and silent); the C grade writer uses one (excluding the simple sentence in dialogue); and the F grade

writer uses none. The greater use of simple sentences in A grade writing may also indicate more variety in

sentence length. In the above example, the A grade piece has one sentence of just five words, and there

were further examples of effective writers using very short

10

Sentences for effect or emphasis within text that made confident use of longer, more elaborate

sentence structures.

• I feel the dome being built containing all of the 20th century indentions as clearly mapped

out in The Times' is the push Britain needs to Leap into the 21st century. I for one have

booked my ticket.

• The knife? What knife? ...The handle was gold with a carved eagle on it, such a strong symbol like me strong.

• Have you read about some of the things that go on out there? It's chaos.

• As many more mines are detinated, people are still looking for help, and people are still dying.

Unknown, innocence is dying.

Boys tended to write longer sentences than girls. The analysis also suggested that boys were more effective in

their handling of clauses than girls.

Clause structures: co-ordination and subordination

Regardless of task type, gender or grade, a pattern emerged of poorer control of co-ordination than

subordination. A repeated cause of poor handling of co-ordinate clauses was excessive co-ordination, where a

writer used ànd' or `but' to string together long sequences of clauses. Ineffective handling of co-ordination may

indicate that co-ordination was used where subordination might have been more effective.

After that Sarah never spoke to fire for ages we were all upset about it but Sarah was getting really

had and in the end Sarah had another horse but she's called it paddy and he is lovely and we still

have all mystery picture and when 1 look at them it makes me think I wish I never said that about

Sarah's horse because mystery could have been here right this

minute...

Here the writer, who uses no sentence punctuation at all, strings together a long sequence of clauses using

ànd' or 'but'. Although there should clearly be a full stop after the word ages, where the first sentence

reaches its grammatical end, the remaining section of the extract is all one sentence. This sentence is 64

words long with six co-ordinating conjunctions. Not only does this writer overuse co-ordinating conjunctions in

one sentence, but she uses the conjunctions where the notion of connection between the ideas expressed is

weak. For example, in the two clauses he is lovely and we still have all mystery's picture, the conjunction links

two separate ideas about two different horses. By contrast, the subordinate clauses are handled without

difficulty and introduce a welcome moment of reflection into the rather breathless narrative.

Clause control in narrative and non-narrative writing

Accomplishment in handling clauses, of whatever type, was less secure in non-narrative writing than in

narrative. This may reflect less assurance in controlling syntactical structures to express argument or opinion -

pupils appear to he more confident in using both co-ordination and subordination to narrate and describe.

This tendency towards less assurance in handling clauses in non-narrative can be seen when extracts from the

same candidate are compared. Below are two pieces from an A grade candidate.

• Narrative: Intelligence had told there the man was awned. Normally that didn't make any difference though. The guy would be too busy trying to avoid getting shot at to think about confrontations. And if they did confront Peters and his squad, all he'd do is threaten to shoot

them, crack up and start crying on the floor, before being taken in. Thank goodness for the human

soul, Peters thought. Thinks it's so cocky and then loses its bottle, like someone who's so hungry they

say they'd eat anything, but offer them anything on brown bread and they say they'll wait.

II

• Non-narrative: The money that the Millenium Donne is costing could be used to keep all

museums all over the country open for a while, and so everybody could get the same amount of

knowledge as they would from going to the Alillenium Dome, if not more. I believe that the

government should spend its money like a family does, and that is to buy what it needs and what is

useful to it.

The narrative piece is well controlled, showing confidence in using co-ordination and subordination in a

variety of structures. The final sentence is a very sophisticated construction: a complex sentence, with three

co-ordinating conjunctions and a series of relative clauses, which contrasts with the direct simplicity of the

preceding sentence. The non-narrative piece, however, demonstrates more mixed success in handling

clauses. The first sentence is rather awkward and clumsy, partly due to the use of the co-ordinating ànd so'

where a more decisive subordinator is needed to make the argument clear. By contrast, the final sentence is

an articulate statement of an argument, demonstrating a well-executed use of both subordination and co-

ordination.

In non-narrative, confidence in handling clauses meant that writers were able to use subordination to

express and justify their ideas or opinions clearly, with co-ordination often used to assert or to emphasise. In

the following extract the writer makes deft use of subordinate constructions (I think that o that) to articulate

a proposition and a justification, and uses the balance of co-ordination (they will... and we with to underline

the viewpoint expressed.

I think that many people would want the money spent on repairing collapsing school

buildings, building community centres and reducing the NHS waiting lists, so that Britain can enter the

new millennium with an education system and an NHS we can be proud of again.

In a few years time the Dome and many other silk, schemes will be one. They will have used

millions of pounds and we will have nothing to show for there.

In narrative writing, secure control of clauses frequently meant that co-ordination and subordination were

used to complement each other. Co-ordination was used to achieve pace and to move the narrative action

forward, while subordination provided reflective comment or additional detail, as the following extract

demonstrates.

He rang up the Children's Hospital and ordered a bed to be vacant. While that was happening, I

began to feel upset.

Later that day, I went to the Hospital where they gave me a temporary bed. They carried out blood

tests to see what was wrong. 1 hey said they were going to be a fete minutes and as they left, my

parents were talking anxiously and I was terrified of what might happen next.

A grade writers used fewer subordinate and co-ordinate clauses than either C or F grade writers, indicating

greater variety in sentence type and structure at grade A. At both A and C grades subordination was used

more than co-ordination. F grade writers, however, used co-ordination and subordination almost equally.

Word class usage: abstract nouns

The pattern of word class usage by grade revealed notable differences between the grades. The frequency of

use of abstract nouns rose steadily with increasing grade, suggesting that the use of abstract nouns is a mark

of greater sophistication in writing.

12

Lexical density

In any text, some words (nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and some verbs) carry semantic meaning, while

others have a grammatical or syntactical function (pronouns, prepositions, articles). The

proportion of non-lexical items in writing increased with declining grade able writers achieved a

higher lexical density, selecting words to convey meaning with greater economy than weaker writers.

These general patterns can be observed in the following two pieces. The A grade writing is lexically

dense, using present tense lexical verbs and several abstract nouns. The F grade extract has a

considerably lower lexical density and only one commonly-used abstract noun (trouble).

• A grade: Nobody minds the noise. It is all part of the atmosphere. A shaft of light momentarily

fills the room as the doors open to let a newcomer enter. Some turn around to see the source of

the disturbance while others just blink in the unnatural light. Legs lie sprawled over seats or

cramped between the aisles. The tawdry music invades the stillness and I feel somehow violated of

my peace.

• F grade: They only set homework how much the teacher now if her or his class could do. If you are

being arashed (harassed-] you go to a teacher and tell them what is the matter they will sort things

out for you. You will survive of being beaten up or being in trouble. If in case a fire does start just

break the fire alarm and you could survive and help other people...

Adjectives and adverbs

Adjectives were used least frequently at grade F, reflecting the tendency for F grade writers to use little

elaboration within their sentences. However, F grade writers made more use of adverbs than those at A or

C grade. There is a possibility that this is partly accounted for by the use of more adverbs with little lexical

meaning, such as really and just.

13

Paragraphing The appropriateness of paragraphing

Although most paragraphing, where used, was judged to he appropriate or partially appropriate, perhaps

the most striking feature was an absence of paragraphing. This was mainly an issue for F grade

candidates, who were as likely to omit paragraphs as they were to use them. For A grade candidates,

omission of paragraphs was rare and the vast majority used paragraphs appropriately. C grade

candidates were more likely than A grade candidates to omit paragraphs. Of C grade candidates who did

use paragraphs, half did so appropriately and half with partial appropriateness.

Paragraphing in narrative was judged to be somewhat more effective than in non-narrative. Dialogue was

used in approximately one-third of the narrative scripts and was paragraphed effectively in less than half

of these. In a similar number of cases, paragraphing was omitted where it should have been included.

However, more than half of these examples were from F grade candidates.

Linking paragraphs: narrative At F grade, chronology was the main organising structure. Chronology was almost as important at

C grade, though more subtle organising features related to setting and character began to emerge. Coders' comments included:

• `poetic rhythmic style picks up the feel of the tide and storm'; `

• structured on three different sets of relationships'.

At A grade, as well as chronology, there was a wider range of organising structures related to setting and

character, including effective use of dialogue. Coders' comments included:

• narrative hinges on journey home';

• moves from calm sea to storm and back again'; • 'organised by a combination of dialogue and a movement through the days'; • good use of dialogue between reporter and news desk to hold narrative';

• `moves from scene setting to shattering to reflection'; • `shifts effectively between imaginary world of island and [real] world of examinations.'

In the case of one A grade candidate, the organising principle was almost cinematic:

• 'moves from overall picture to close-up'.

Evidence of linguistic patterning at F grade was scarce. At C grade, coders tended to note repetition:

• 'I begins 6 paragraphs';

• ‘repetition of title in my secret world'

At A grade, some coders noted deliberate, poetic refrains, including the repetition of:

• cool gust of wind; sea gently laps; surreal city; your world our world.

Linking paragraphs: non-narrative At F grade, there was little evidence of any structural patterning (though coders' comments on

coursework noted some simple two-part structures). At C and A grade there were far more references

to logical development, with several coders noting the tendency of A grade candidates to locate a clear

and identifiable topic in each paragraph.

14

At F and C, the most likely linguistic pattern was the repetition of I, as in I think, or I feel, or I believe. At C grade there were examples of more subtle, rhetorical repetition such as: Remember.. remember; Disabled people... disabled people; W'e need snore... we need snore; People say... people say. A grade candidates shared the C and F grade tendency to repeat the first person pronoun, but with significant variations:

• I know; I wish; I hope; • I believe that; I am opposed to; • I believe that, I do believe that, • I am aware: I can remember; I ass sure.

Use of adverbials and other devices in narrative In general, narrative paragraphs were helpfully linked by adver6ials of time and/or place. One-third of narrative paragraphs contained a first sentence which was linked with the previous paragraph by a time adverbial, and a quarter by a place adverbial. In linking paragraphs, A grade candidates tended to use more place adver6ials than C grade candidates, while C and F grade candidates appeared to favour time links. For the majority of candidates, time-related narrative links in the first sentence of a paragraph tended to come at the start of the sentence, with some variations between grades. Not surprisingly, F grade time links were often limited to single adverbs (today, then, still, now). Variations, sometimes found within the sentence rather than at the start, included at night, at dawn, about 4 years ago. C grade time links included some use of the main clause (It was 12.30, It was seven fourteen pm, It was a Saturday, It was time for. It was now). More subtle variations on this way of foregrounding time came from A grade candidates (The night lives, The time had come). A grade examples also included the arguably more subtle adverbs such as eventually and currently. Variety in the use of common groups of adverbials is interesting, for example, variations on 'day' (today, yesterday, the next day, the following day, on Tuesday, the first day, then one day, the other day). The use of 'at' to locate the narrative in a particular moment in time (At about half-past ten, At dawn) contrasts with the use of àfter', to summarise an idea before moving on (After my painful telling, After half an hour, After she got home, After more mines exploded), or the use of 'as' to suggest a continuous past (As the day progressed, As I travelled, As Jane walked past). The most striking feature of the use of place adver6ials was their positioning within the first sentence of a paragraph. It was very rare to find a sentence linking paragraphs beginning with a place adverbial. If found, it was likely to in be the writing of an A grade candidate, and the effect on the reader was potentially stronger because of its foregrounding:

• Between the sand and...; Towards the left; In a slightly quieter corner; Around the town. Not surprisingly, the most commonly occurring adver6ials began with ìn' or 'to':

• in France; in a minefield; in Bosnia; in court; in the gysrs; in the hall; in the town; • to America; to the rock; to the floor; to Wales; to the address of.

Contrast these with the visual and active impact created by:

• into the supermarket; into the deeper sea; into a clearing; into the distance.

15

Use of conjuncts and other linking devices in non-narrative

In non-narrative writing, the issue was the quality of the links between paragraphs rather than the quantity.

At all grades there was a limited variety of either contrasting or ordering linking devices. Coders noted any

phrases which seemed to provide a link with previous paragraphs. These included

disjuncts like àdmittedly' and ìndeed', the conjunction `but' and rhetorical expressions such as -other

people say'.

The most commonly occurring ordering link was àlso', sometimes used at the start of the opening

sentence of the paragraph, sometimes within the sentence. Also, there were variations on `first',

`second' and `third':

• F grade: the second thing; the third thing; the last thing;

• C grade: the first point; the second point; the third point;

• A grade: firstly, finally.

Perhaps the greatest difference between grade was in relation to non-narrative links used for contrast. F

grade candidates were more or less limited to 'at least', 'anyway' and `hut'. C grade offered slightly more

variation, but only A grade candidates used 'however', 'yet', 'admittedly', 'indeed' and 'even so'.

16

Textual organisation

Effectiveness of textual organisation

Overall the data showed that openings and establishment of a reader-writer relationship were more

successful than endings and cohesion/coherence. The general picture is of engaging writing which

begins well, but loses some cohesion and ends less successfully than it begins. Of all the elements

of textual organisation the most successful was narrative openings, and the least successful was non-

narrative endings.

All four features of textual organisation were coded higher in narrative than in non-narrative. The

variation was greatest in opening: 52% of narrative openings were judged to be successful, compared to

44% of non-narrative openings.

A grade candidates were most successful when establishing a relationship with the reader and least

successful when maintaining cohesion/coherence. C grade candidates reflected the broad pattern found

at A grade. F grade candidates were successful at openings and endings but were particularly

unsuccessful in maintaining cohesion/coherence and a reader-writer relationship. Establishing a

reader-writer relationship was a weakness for F grade candidates. Given that openings and endings

relate to the ability to manage a short segment of text and the other two elements relate to the whole

text, this is not surprising.

Openings and endings

Successful narrative openings were characterised by clear establishing of context, influenced by the

emphasis in the tasks upon contextual description. Coder comments included 'concise evocation of

darkness'; `worlds of light and shadow effectively introduced'; 'establishes secret world'.

less successful openings left the reader in the dark: coders' comments included no clues to... setting';

`little detail re character or context'; 'setting and time-frame weak'. F grade openings had some merits

('setting clearer than time'; 'signals a letter'; 'unsophisticated but clear'). Comments on C grade writing

often referred to writers' confidence in establishing theme, but comparative lack of assurance in

establishing genre: ('opts for letter form but genre is eve-witness report; 'eye-witness genre not well

signalled').

Although most comments on A grade narrative endings were positive, there was a significant number of

comments noting a lack of clear or appropriate closure. Coder comments included 'not so much a

resolution as a new development'; 'simply an echo of the start hasn't gone anywhere'; 'misses the

opportunity to round off the report'. These reflect the comparative lack of success at A grade in

narrative endings suggested by the data.

Comments on F grade narrative endings occasionally referred to attempts to establish a coda. Some

coders noted how the use of the letter form to carry the narrative ('a personal, "factual" account')

ensured, at some level, a sense of closure for F and C grade candidates ('fits with letter form at a low

level'; 'ending provided by signing off in a letter'; 'letter closure, but not really a resolution'; 'more to do

with how to end a letter').

One coder felt that this same letter form, while offering a reminder of closure to F grade writers, proved

limiting for A grade writers commenting that 'genre of letter does not encourage skill in conclusion'.

Comments on A grade non-narrative openings tended to emphasise the writer's engagement with the

reader ('good rhetorical start'; 'lively and emphatic'; 'good use of modality'). At C grade, candidates were

likely to signal the topic clearly, but some seemed less assured than A candidates about tone ('very

aggressive opening'; 'ham-fisted'; 'opens with challenging/badgering questions'). F grade

17

candidates sometimes struggled with genre and form, and often failed to establish an appropriate tone

('writing to a friend, begins Dear Sir'; 'misses intended personal tone'; `too direct in approach').

While at A and C grades, coders often commented on how non-narrative endings successfully reflected

the opening and/or theme, at all grades a common criticism emerged:

• A grade: 'no weighing up of pros and cons'; 'does not round up argument';

• C grade: 'no summary or overt conclusion'; 'no attempt to provide a conclusion';

• F grade: 'no summary - some attempt at goodbye'; 'no summary'; 'no ending, just finishes'.

Reader-writer relationship

Coder comments on the reader-writer relationship in narrative were very different at the ends of the grade

scale. At A grade, coders noted engagement, demonstrating a real sense of an audience ('strives to pluck

the heart strings': 'works hard at creating a sense of tragedy'; 'story told with sensitivity'). At F grade,

however, comments more often referred to the lack of help that the reader received at a basic level ('very

little detail').

In relation to reader-writer relationships in non-narrative, the contrasting comments for A and C grades

were instructive. A grade candidates were not always successful in getting the relationship right ('strives

for the right tone, but doesn't come off'; 'jokey tone isn't altogether successful'), but mainly hit an

appropriate note ('vitality of piece wins reader over'; 'skilfully incorporates reader's presumed viewpoint').

C grade candidates, though generally successful, sometimes hit the wrong tone ('too conversational and

confrontational'; 'tone of challenge to reader crude'; 'becomes

quite vehement in places'; 'sticks doggedly to point of view rather than arguing').

Cohesion/coherence

In narrative and non-narrative scripts there were many comments related to the successful

management of cohesion/coherence. However, at all three grades in narrative, when cohesion was less

effective there were comments on the use of names and pronouns or the sustaining of character or

perspective:

• A grade: 'the central I character is rather fragmented'; 'needs to use names more'; • C grade: 'moves between you and I haphazardly'; 'you becomes confusing';

• F grade: 'weak use of pronouns'; 'who took him down?'; 'shift to we not explained'.

This issue was also referred to, probably to a greater degree, in coder comments on non-narrative.

Typically, where cohesion was lost in an argumentative piece, the writer was unclear in the use of

pronouns to indicate ownership of a particular viewpoint.

• A grade: 'some confusion over we and our'; 'some confusion over our and they'; • C grade: 'use of pronouns in an uncontrolled way'; 'pronoun you sometimes confusing';

• F grade: 'they used in first sentence without previous reference'; 'you used without indication or

audience'; 'pronouns not well used'.

At F grade, absence of cohesion was largely attributable to the tendency to omit paragraphs,

problems with consistency of tense, and other technical errors.

18

Non-standard English

Over two-thirds of all scripts in this study offered no examples of non-standard English constructions.

There was no significant difference in the frequency or nature of non-standard English used

according, to task type or gender.

The two most commonly occurring non-standard features were:

• the non-standard use of prepositions; • the non-standard use of the definite/indefinite article.

In the case of the latter, some of the occurrences noted may have been transcription errors rather than poor

understanding of written standard English.

The non-standard use of prepositions was the most frequently occurring pattern in the sample,

though it was still rare. One sub-category of this was accounted for by the use of phrasal verbs, some of

which might be considered sufficiently common to be acceptable as standard English (such as to tie up). In

general, these phrasal verbs reflect an informality of register in writing, sometimes using the characteristics

of spoken standard English. A more significant category was the choice of an nappropriate preposition in a

phrase, resulting in a register which read awkwardly or dissonantly.

This often occurred when a writer was seeking to express an idea, but did not have complete control of the

appropriate idiom. Sometimes this reflected non-standard forms that are commonly used (to pay for the bills

just getting board of where you are living).

Some examples of non-standard English found in the scripts are given below.

F grade writers used more non-standard English than either A or C grade writers, registering more occurrences

than A or C put together. As well as the tendency towards non-standard use of prepositions and articles, F

grade writers had occasional difficulty with plural markers on nouns of quantity (five mile, four pound'). Another

aspect of standard English that is a source of difficulty at F grade is correct formation of past tenses, past

participles and verb agreements. Many incidences of non-standard English involving a verb occurred only at

grade F, including forming a past tense by adding -ed on verbs with irregular past tenses (costed, knowed),

and confusing the past tense form with past participle (1 was sat). Further errors involved agreements between

singular verbs and plural subjects and vice versa (they was..., the main reasons was..., the car have to go...).

19

20

Pupils' writing analysed

The following examples of writing for GCSE examinations are annotated to indicate some significant

aspects of the texts. There is a detailed commentary on each piece which links the

linguistic features to the quality of the writing.

21

22

Commentary

Spelling

Of the two clear spelling errors seperate (unstressed vowel) is more typical of A grade. Some would

argue that hot water taps would benefit from a hyphen between hot and water.

Punctuation

The sentence demarcation is accurate throughout and commas are used accurately, principally to

demarcate clauses. There is. however, a relative sparsity of commas. There are no omissive

apostrophes used and one possessive apostrophe is omitted (doctors).

Clause structure and word class usage

The writer makes use of a variety of sentence structures, including simple, compound and complex

sentences. There is one verbless sentence (Sometimes more.) and several short sentences.

In addition, there is a range of longer sentences, some involving co-ordination and subordination,

and others involving a simple sentence with elaboration (There was a long line of very scared people

waiting to get out.). The writer frequently expands the sentence around the finite verb, using adverbials

and adjectives to provide specific narrative detail and description for the reader. Co-ordination is used

effectively to move the narrative action forward (We quickly climbed out of the pool and rushed through

to the changing rooms), while subordination is used to note causes and effects of the narrative action

(when we noticed, what had happened, as we pleased, why we were... ). Several abstract nouns are

employed (intensity, desperation, uncertainty) to express a reflection on events.

Paragraphing

The paragraphs support the narrative, though it could be argued that there are too many. A variety

of time-related adverbials and clauses are used to link the paragraphs (It was the beginning of At the

time, Before the ambulances arrived). Place-related links are typically used in the second part of the

sentence (...at Runnymede pool, ...to the pool, ...in the pool, ...at the deep end of the pool).


• Opening: The opening is very effective, with a clear establishing of context (swimming pool,

heat) and character (My sister and I). There is a sense that the story already has an ending

(had decided). This use of time, along with the concentration on the heat of the journey, helps

to hint at a narrative problem something is clearly about to go wrong to break the mood.

• Ending: Towards the end, there is a very effective echoing of the opening: cruel and icey chill contrasts with the strong early images of sun and heat. However, the last sentence seems banal and closes the story in a very factual way. Explanations for the incident are not offered.

• Coherence/cohesion: The narrative remains coherent until the end, where the theme is lost.

The atmospheric contrasts and repetitions certainly contribute to the coherence. But while the

reader always knows where, when and how, the who is less clear. The narrator refers to sister,

Sarah only once; from then on we is used. Towards the end we is also used to include all

swimmers.

• Reader-writer relationship: Until the end, this is arguably the strength of this piece. The use of

the passive voice (swim was greatly welcomed) and the time-scale (had decided) gives a

reflective tone. A variety of rhetorical devices, contrasts, and metaphors are used. Particularly

effective is the choice of emotive lexis (hottest, knifed, intensity, impatiently, refreshing,

pungent, desperation).


There are no examples of non-standard English in this piece.

23

24

Commentary

Spelling

The main issues relate to inconsistent word division and hyphenation. Note non-uniform, and nun-

useable, but mini-bus, bonze baked, homemade, time consuming, five a side, and bowl full of water.

Punctuation

The writer is generally secure in sentence demarcation but tends to use comma splicing. Other

than comma splices, there are very few commas used even though there is at least one

parenthetic phrase (in the long run). The .apostrophe in it's is omitted (its almost impossible...).


The writer uses a relatively high frequency of finite verbs, though some elaborative expansion is

included. In particular, adjectives are employed to provide additional detail (dehydrated, hungary,

exspensive, homemade) and straightforward place and time adverbials are used. There is considerable

reliance on co-ordination which, though not excessive, does become repetitive: the writer tends to list

ideas for fund-raising by repeating a we could structure, using ànd' to connect the clauses.

Subordination is simple and unambitious, using only `because' and `where' as subordinating

conjunctions. The possibility of using subordination to express reasons why funds are needed is not

exploited.

Paragraphing

After the introduction, the second and third paragraphs carry the main ideas, helpfully linked by

Another idea. However, this other idea develops into at least four ideas, and the last two paragraphs are

disconnected from the overall structure.


• Opening: A strong case is made for more funds, though the ideas are listed rather than linked.

But the tone is firm and leaves the reader clear about the strength of the need.

• Ending: The last ten lines simply continue the suggestions. The last sentence implies a sense

of ending, but Finaly is not a conclusive point here. There is no attempt to connect with or echo

the opening.

• Coherence/cohesion: This is broadly effective in that it covers two main subjects the need for money and ideas for raising money, and the first three paragraphs are linked. However, coherence and cohesion are lost in the list of ideas and in the lack of subordination.

• Reader-writer relationship: The opening is forceful, using active and passive voice (children

are losing out, two runs are made). Where the writing is mainly in the third person, an objective

tone is established. In the first paragraph the choice of lexis is strong and judgemental

(impossible, virtually non-useable, necessary, expensive). Later, however, excessive use of the

modal could imply speculation without justification, and the lexis is notably weaker. In addition,

the third person becomes first person as a general argument and explanation becomes

personal justification.


There are no examples of non-standard English.

25

26

Commentary

Spelling

There is a range of spelling errors typified by confusion between been and being, spelt as been, beign

and beighn. This may suggest an over-reliance on phonological cues and lack of use of

syntactical/grammatical cues.

Punctuation

There is widespread omission of punctuation, especially in sentence demarcation, though the

five correctly placed full stops indicate the writer has some grasp of this aspect of punctuation.

Two commas are used correctly, but overall this piece makes little use of punctuation either for clarity

or for effect.


Taking into account the omission of sentence demarcation, the underlying grammatical structures of the

sentences in this piece arc often awkward. There are many long sentences connected by and, and these

frequently begin with one idea (for example, going bust) and end on a very different idea (for example,

demolition). Nevertheless, the writer makes good use of one short simple sentence for direct impact

(You could cut the atmosphere with a knife) and there is evidence of some expansion within sentences

(from maggot races to football). Subordination is used much less than co-ordination and is usually in the

form of simple relative clauses. There is considerable repetition of the subject-verb structure to open

sentences and, though there are several nominalised adjectives, there is little adjectival colour. However,

the two abstract nouns (atmosphere, pressure) are effective in providing a degree of abstraction and

detail that contrasts with the more concrete preoccupations of the rest of the piece.

Paragraphing

As occurs typically in the work of one in two F grade candidates, there is no paragraphing.


• Opening: The main character (dad) is very clearly established, as is the theme/narrative problem

(consequences of dad's gambling). But the time-scale is not clear and remains a weakness of the

narrative throughout.

• Ending: This remains congruent with the growing theme, and there are hints of future

developments. However, though there is some sense of closure, it finishes on a banal technicality

about the legal terms of a contract.

• Coherence/cohesion: This is probably typical of F grade in that coherence is stronger than

cohesion. The theme of obsession remains clear (reinforced by repetition and contrasts

anything from maggot races to football; morning afternoon, and night; from beighn up and

running to been flat on the ground). However, the noun phrase (my dad) is used only three times

and there is a consequent overuse of he/l:'is, but with only one character, this is less damaging to

cohesion than it otherwise might be.

• Reader-writer relationship: The choice of lexis is arguably too informal in the opening. An

A grade writer might lend distance and formality by using father instead of my dad and bad is not

a strong adjective to describe a gambler in this context. The lexis is stronger later (winging) and

at the end where pressure, collapse, nervous, and survive are more affective/judgmental. The

reader is positioned to be critical of the father by ironic repetition and contrast. But the main

problem is a lack of detail and excess of pace there is so much more that the reader wants to

know.


There is one example of non-standard usage - the incorrect use of the past participle sat.

27

Implications for teaching

The linguistic features of pupils' writing analysed in the Technical Accuracy Project highlighted for

teachers aspects of pupils' writing with which they were already familiar. The analysis suggested specific

areas in which teacher intervention was likely to make a significant difference to the quality of pupils'

writing and the standard of work in examinations. For example, the characteristics of writing identified

explicitly at grade C provide a focus for teaching pupils working below that level. This section of the

booklet seeks to help teachers move from consideration of the project's findings to more effective

English teaching in the classroom.

Some of the features identified by the investigation may require only brief emphasis in the course of a

lesson, while others, such as sentence structure, clearly require more systematic teaching. The teaching

of features that initially appear to merit only passing attention should focus on the way they operate and

the effect they have on readers and texts. For example, comma usage can be taught simply as an

appropriate way of making meaning clear to the reader. But the least used comma type in GCSE writing,

the parenthetic comma, plays a significant role in establishing an effective reader-writer relationship and

in providing additional detail for the reader. In narratives, parenthetic commas allow the writer to expand

upon the immediate action (Mr Brooks, the older farmer, was leaning anxiously against the barn wall). In

non-narratives, the parenthetic comma can act as an aside directly addressed to the reader as you may

have observed) or can emphasise an argument (Britain, on the other hand, is opposed to joining a

common European currency). Taught like this, the comma is an important part of a wider set of tools for

crafting and shaping writing, rather than simply a system for demarcating text on the page.

The findings of the Technical Accuracy Project suggest that teaching and learning metalinguistic

knowledge is complex, and that looking at linguistic features offers considerable potential for illuminating

how successful texts operate. As a consequence of this, two principal questions for teaching emerge:

• where can these features be taught?

• how are they best learned?

Planning for teaching

Looking again at the features of writing identified by the investigation, it is easy to see how their

explicit teaching can be omitted from the normal pattern of English teaching. Some features, such as

spelling, punctuation and paragraphing, are often addressed in marking. However, this is in response to

errors made or omissions, rather than teaching a constructive understanding of the way the feature

works. Other features, such as clause structure or patterns of word class usage, are rarely referred to,

either in teaching or marking. To ensure that these aspects of writing receive specific attention, it is

necessary to plan explicitly for their coverage. English departments need to identify how and where

teaching of each of these features best fits current schemes of work. This offers both the possibility of

capitalising on opportunities provided by the nature of work in existing schemes, and the possibility of

adapting current schemes to ensure the incorporation of linguistic features that have previously not been

given explicit teaching time.

Planning for learning

Pupils' understanding of metalinguistic concepts is enriched if they are given opportunities to explore

linguistic features in meaningful contexts. A lesson on the classification of abstract nouns is more easily

understood if it is combined with the study of the way abstract nouns are used in a text (for

28

example, to express ideals in Martin Luther King's famous speech), or the way abstract nouns can be

deployed in their own writing. Studying the way such concepts function within texts may help to apply

their knowledge of a linguistic term or feature. Therefore effective planning for learning

should root linguistic features in schemes of work or lessons, where explicit teaching of a particular

feature is closely related to study of how it is used in texts.

A further important consideration when planning for learning is the need to look across the English

curriculum to identify when linguistic features might be introduced, revisited and developed. When, for

example, would be the most constructive time to introduce the concept of closure? What aspect of

closure will be introduced? When will closure be recapped or reinforced? How could pupils'

understanding of closure be developed further? This implies planning for learning over time, in order

to ensure continuity, progression and development.

Responses to the Technical Accuracy Project

In order to explore how to make practical connections between the findings of the Technical Accuracy

Project and the English classroom, a follow-up project was established. Ten English departments from

a range of schools across the country agreed to participate, and a representative from each

department attended an initial day at QCA to become familiar with the project. The

participating departments were asked to review their current writing curriculum and schemes

of work in the light of the teaching implications highlighted by the Technical Accuracy Project. Each

department was asked to focus on a specific cluster of grammatical features. Using the GCSE

writing purposes (for example, to analyse, review, comment), departments were asked to consider

how they could integrate explicit teaching of these grammatical features into existing

departmental teaching of writing for GCSE. Alongside this, departments were asked to look at the

key stage 3 curriculum to identify how the grammatical features could he introduced and developed

over time within existing schemes of work.

To support their activities, departments were given two models: a model of tracking a feature over

time; and a model of planning to teach several features within one unit. As the outcome of their work

on this project, departments were asked to devise their own planning records based upon these models.

Some examples from departments are included in the next two sections of this booklet.

29

Teaching linguistic features:

Planning over time

The issues of continuity and progression that underlie all aspects of curriculum planning are

particularly important with respect to metalinguistic knowledge. A key focus for the teachers in this

project was to consider how best to introduce the relevant linguistic features into their existing

teaching plans and how to ensure that pupils' understanding was consolidated, developed and

expanded in subsequent work.

Integrating linguistic study with existing schemes of work

Teachers in the project were concerned how best to integrate the teaching of particular grammatical

concepts or linguistic features into existing schemes of work. Underlying this is a recognition that

grammar operates in contexts, and that the English curriculum naturally provides rich opportunities to

study grammatical features in talk and when reading and writing texts. Planning in this way meant that

teachers considered which units of work, texts and activities offered the best opportunities for

addressing specific grammatical features.

Below are three illustrations of how focused and explicit teaching of a linguistic feature was incorporated

into existing work.

30

Introduction, consolidation and development

Teachers in the project considered what might be the most appropriate starting point for

consideration of a feature, and what might constitute development of understanding. In some cases,

such as closure, this took the form of expanding the range of closures that pupils explicitly considered

and encouraging writers to develop awareness of the variety of possibilities. In other cases, such as the

study of clauses, teachers incorporated opportunities for pupils to recap on what they had learned in

previous units of work, before moving on to consider clauses in greater depth. In this case complexity,

rather than range, was a significant guiding principle.

Below are three illustrations of how teachers handled the introduction of a feature and development of

pupils' understanding. The complete curriculum plans for these examples appear on pages 33-35.

31

On the following pages there are examples of how teaching of specific aspects of writing can be built into

ongoing work in English:

Clauses page 33

Effective closure page 34

Cohesion page 35

32

33

34

35

Teaching linguistic features:

focusing on purposes

In devising units to integrate work on language, teachers in the project focused on one of the broad

writing purposes currently described in GCSE syllabuses. Units of work were devised to encourage

pupils to write for one of the following groups of purposes:

• explore, imagine, entertain; • describe, inform, explain; • argue, persuade, instruct; • analyse, review, comment.

What follows is a summary of the activities devised by teachers to meet these purposes.

Each section also includes a table suggesting linguistic features characteristic of writing for these

purposes.

GCSE purpose: to explore, imagine, entertain

Fictional short stories and autobiographical writing featured in these units of work. The range of stimulus

reading included the thriller, romance and horror genres, Macbeth, and pre-twentieth century and

contemporary novels.

Narrative closure In teaching narrative closure, four broad approaches were adopted:

• Using Rebel With a Cause, pupils traced the development of a story from opening to closing,

identifying chains of connecting words or phrases and tracing the reoccurrence in the story of

adjectives first used in the opening. The culmination of this activity was a flow-chart tracing the

various facets of the narrative and linguistic development of the story. This flow-chart became a

model for the pupils' own writing.

• Pupils were given a story opening, a story scenario and four possible endings. They then

considered whether any or all of these endings in any way echoed or reflected the main

character's actions. They also considered whether the ending might contain a theme (as

opposed to a plot) and a moral (as opposed to a theme), and speculated on what the narrative

problem initially might have been.

• Pupils compared openings with endings in a number of autobiographies, reflecting on why

some endings appeared more effective than others.

• Narrative closure was made a significant and regular focus in pupils' reading logs.

In all of these, pupils wrote their own narrative endings. To increase the range of this writing without

needing to write a complete story each time, a number of strategies were adopted:

• producing a narrative opening followed by topic sentences to quickly represent the body of the

narrative;

• exchanging stories, providing a range of endings for the same story from which the writer could

eventually make a choice;

• providing the reader with two alternative endings (as in The French Lieutenant's Woman,

offered as a model);

• concentrating on writing an ending with a coda, or one with deliberate ambiguity rather than

clear resolution.

36

Linking paragraphs in narrative

Activities which helped pupils identify a linguistic route through to the end of the narrative were also

used to identify the methods by which narrative paragraphs are linked. Attention was drawn to the use,

variety and relative prominence of time and place adverbials as links between significant chunks of

narrative. In one unit, pupils were given a `quota' in their own writing and were encouraged to use two

place adverbial links for every time link. As part of this, pupils were encouraged to vary the position of

such adverbials within the opening sentence of a paragraph and to consider the impact. They were also

given a range of adverbial links with which to experiment and from which to make choices. Throughout

these activities, in their own analysis of texts and in their own reading logs, pupils were invited to record

the ways in which authors manage narrative transitions.

Proportion of abstract nouns to concrete nouns

In contrast to the broad scope of the study of effective closure, each unit also addressed the impact of

increasing the proportion of abstract nouns to concrete nouns in a given narrative. To do this, one group

of teachers asked pupils to carry out a statistical trawl in a range of texts to establish the

proportions of abstract and concrete nouns. Another unit required pupils to begin a given number of

sentences in their own writing with an abstract noun. A different approach was to employ

transformational strategies, inviting pupils to change adjectives into abstract nouns in a range of texts.

Expansion around the verb

In order to encourage pupils to use fewer finite verbs and more expansion around the verb, one

unit of work used texts that had been modified specifically to make the teaching point: passages of

narrative prose, heavy in the use of adverbial phrases, were compared to texts from which èxpansion

phrases' had been removed. An alternative approach was for pupils to highlight the finite verbs within

their own writing and in the writing of their peers. The highlighting then guided pupils to reduce the

number of finite verbs and develop the expansion around those which remained.

Excessive coordination

To discourage the use of excessive co-ordination, pupils were asked to highlight main clauses and

co-ordinating or subordinating links in their own writing. An alternative approach was to limit, for a while, the number of times 'and' might be used as a co-ordinator in any given sentence.

Terminology

Terminology used in these units of work included:

• adverbial, adjectives, finite verbs, abstract nouns, concrete nouns, conjunctions. connectives,

expansion;

• closure, synopsis, resolution, ambiguity, theme, genre, coda, denouement, sequel.

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38

This table suggests linguistic features that are often part of writing to explore, imagine, entertain. It can act as a checklist

of some aspects of writing which, if taught, are likely to improve pupils' work.

39

GCSE purpose: to inform, explain, describe

The teachers involved in teaching these particular writing units had been asked to plan activities for

weaker pupils. In practice this also meant paying attention to the needs of boys. These units produced a

wide range of specific writing contexts:

• a response to an article about teenage redundancy; a response to an article about stroppy

teenagers,

• a summary of the relationship between Seamus Heaney and his father in the poems, Digging

and Follower;

• a letter to school governors advising on how school surroundings could be made more

environmentally friendly;

• a student council article about healthy lifestyles;

• advice to friends from another area considering buying a home near you;

• a report on work experience that would inform pupils in subsequent years;

• a discursive piece of writing on things that annoy me.

The first three tasks were designed to develop summarising and response skills. In the remaining tasks

the emphasis was on clarity of explanation and information rate rather than persuasive purpose. In all of

these units of work, pupils were first exposed to a range of relevant texts in order to encourage the

generation of ideas and to offer models for writing.

Demarcation of sentences and paragraphs

One aim in these writing tasks was to support pupils in their use of paragraphs and demarcation of

sentences with full stops. The aim was to encourage pupils to use fewer co-ordinated clauses in

sentences and to link paragraphs with a variety of adverbials, since these are important features

in this category of writing.

Whatever the strategies employed, all of these tasks were meticulously staged and designed to take

pupils through a step-by-step process.

Paragraph structure was brought out in a number of ways:

• single ideas were gathered through a brainstorming activity. Categorising these ideas (or topics)

provided the foundation for paragraphing;

• single ideas were turned into topic sentences, which were then expanded into paragraphs;

• the use of headings was encouraged as a way of summarising ideas around a given theme;

• a series of broad questions were raised about a magazine article, and answers to these

questions formed the basis of paragraphing. This then underpinned the continuous writing that

followed. A different approach to responding to and/or summarising texts was for pupils to

produce independently a number of complete, syntactically accurate sentences that

represented different points of view on a given text. Then pupils were asked to collate these

sentences into coherent paragraphs.

40

One school, with boys particularly in mind, placed an emphasis upon a numerical target (for example

`write five paragraphs', `select five strategies'). For many of the activities, there was an emphasis on

variety of approach, employing a range of senses. For example, pupils were asked to read aloud a piece

of text (including their own), paragraph by paragraph. Ideas were listed in a number of boxes or graphic

frames so that they could be physically and visually separated; connecting them, typically, involved

devices such as arrows or lines between frames or physically moving ideas around. In some cases,

writing frames were provided, either to guide the planning or to support final drafts. Teachers, however,

were concerned not to make the writing formulaic, and the emphasis was on pupils collaboratively

producing their own templates, rather than using frames devised by the teacher.

Effective linking between paragraphs

To encourage effective linking between paragraphs, texts were used to discover the range of conjuncts

and adverbials used by other writers. One magazine article contained 'firsr look at', 'for example',

'another example', 'not only does this', `step one', 'step two'. It was important to offer paragraph

links that were directly relevant to the writing task in hand, so the Work Experience unit included

conjuncts like 'eventually', and 'overall' to reflect the likely chronology in the account. After using

templates, teachers felt it was important that pupils revise their completed writing to remove or adapt

links that appeared 'stilted' or unnatural in some way. Other teachers found it helpful to insist that no

single paragraph link could be used twice within a given piece of writing.

Subordination within sentences

Rather than emphasising the retrospective division of larger units of text (paragraphs) into smaller

units (sentences), work for these weaker pupils focused on building up information from single ideas to

groups of ideas, linked by appropriate conjuncts and conjunctions. As with the work on paragraphs,

single ideas (in the form of single sentences) were often physically or visually marked in some way (for

example by boxes) and displayed prominently on the wall, on the board, or on overhead transparencies.

Again, as with the work on paragraphs, words and phrases used as linking devices were seen as the

key to producing more subordination within sentences. Teachers placed less emphasis on pinpointing

the language features of clauses or sentences, and more emphasis on developing the use of conjuncts

and conjunctions that would inevitably lead to a more varied writing structure.

Terminology

Terminology used in this work included sentence, full stop, paragraph, topics, topic sentences, links,

adverbials, conjuncts, verb-phrases, fonts.

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42

43

43

GCSE purpose: to argue, persuade, instruct

The subjects on which pupils were asked to write arguments or to persuade were varied, and strongly

embedded in reading. Topics included the contentious closing of a local school for disabled pupils, the

ethics of transgenic transplantation, and the oratory of Lincoln in the Gettysburg Address. The two

instructional activities required pupils to write leaflets. One was based on everyday practicalities and

experience, such as cookery recipes or instruction manuals, and one was based on Browning's Pied Piper

of Hamelin, where key stage 3 pupils were asked to describe how to construct a rat-trap. In each of these

activities there were opportunities to teach pupils about several grammatical and whole text features.

Using subordinate clauses to make arguments or to instruct

In order to develop pupils' skill in using subordinate clauses, a number of approaches were adopted. For

example, in one argument-based unit of work the focus was on conditional clauses and subordinate

clauses of reason, and teachers provided pupils with appropriate linking expressions, including 'if',

'whatever', `supposing', ùnless'. The focus of the instructions unit was ways in which cause and effect

and chronology can be conveyed in subordinate clauses, often introduced by subordinators such as

'because of the danger', 'when you have prepared', 'if you intend to'.

Teachers also ensured that pupils considered how other writers and speakers use subordinate clauses.

For example, one unit contrasted two pieces of prose, one with few subordinating clauses and the other

with many, so that pupils could explore for themselves the effect upon the reader. Another unit

concentrated on identifying and exploring such clauses within a 'model' text - the Gettysburg address. A

third required pupils to listen to and identify the language features of speeches made in a class debate.

Effective paragraphing and paragraph linking

The unit on oratory or debate also encouraged understanding of effective paragraphing and

paragraph linking. For example, pupils listened to speakers in opposition in a classroom debate and then,

working in pairs, identified and collated similar points of argument.

A common feature of the work involving clauses and paragraph linking was the perceived need to provide

pupils with a range of conjuncts and conjunctions that would take the writer (and reader) from one

paragraph to the next (or provide a bridge between main and subordinate clauses). For example,

conjuncts that introduce contrast ('rather', in other words', 'on the other hand', 'alternatively', 'however')

were given to pupils to help them make such choices in their argumentative writing. Another unit

addressed specific conjuncts used to list or order ideas, so that paragraphs or clauses could be more

effectively linked. These conjuncts included 'thus', `therefore', 'moreover', and 'finally'.

Commas used parenthetically

Teachers were keen to link the teaching of commas used parenthetically not only to a specific task, but

also to a specific linguistic effect. Pupils were alerted to how parenthetic commas can be used in

argumentative writing to introduce another perspective ('on the other hand'), or to cement the relationship

with the reader ('as you may have observed'). In the instructional writing, pupils' attention was drawn to

the ways in which parenthetic commas can lead to the writer providing the reader with clarification or extra

information ('if necessary', to begin with', 'if children are near').

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Closure

For all of these units, the conventions of closure appropriate to the writing genre were considered both in

reading, in the pupils' own writing, and in speaking (where formal speeches or debates featured in the

activities).

Terminology

The terminology used by the teachers in these units included:

• pronouns, subordinate clause, co-ordinating conjunctions, conjuncts, abstract nouns, imperatives,

parenthesis;

• graphology, bullet points; • situation, audience, purpose, tone.

This language was not used in all cases for all pupils, but, in general, it was felt that pupils would

benefit from being able to name the linguistic devices or conventions that were the focus of the

learning.

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46

47

GCSE purpose: to analyse, review, comment

Lexical and non-lexical words

In teaching Macbeth. teachers sought to encourage a better ratio of lexical and non-lexical words. In

particular, they asked pupils to select from an already established list of relevant abstract nouns ('nature',

'fertility', 'evil' etc) and, working in pairs, to create sentences which began with one noun from this list (for

example, 'Nature is attacked by...'). By placing the abstract noun at the head of the sentence, the teacher

ensured that pupils were conscious of the choices they were making and were unlikely to forget the

principle on which this activity was based. In addition, pupils were asked to expand upon topic sentences

provided by the teacher (for example, 'Macbeth's kingship attacks the good in human life') by offering three

examples from the text that would support the point. These were written in a coherent paragraph using

phrases such as 'This is important because...', 'A result of this is...'. It also ensured that pupils inevitably

began to establish the formal tone that the teachers wished to encourage for this piece.

Varying sentence length

In order to encourage variety in sentence length, the teachers of these two units took contrasting

starting points, one focusing on writing about a literary text, and the other on writing within a

literary context. The teachers of the Shakespeare unit focused the work by contrasting examples of GCSE

A and C grade writing on Macbeth, and inviting pupils to consider the differences in sentence openings and

use of conjuncts. Teachers of An Inspector Calls gave life to the clichéd Eva Smith's diary assignment by

focusing pupils' attention on two contrasting examples of diary-writing by pupils, one with longer, more

complex sentences than the other. Pupils' task was to improve the diaries by altering the balance between

simple and complex sentences in each text. The pupils were also directed back to the play and asked to

examine the variety in sentence length in some dialogue between Gerald and Sheila.

Textual cohesion

When they addressed the issue of textual cohesion, teachers focused in particular on the use of nouns and

pronouns. Pupils were invited to study one section of the text and consider the impact of the

Inspector's seeming overuse of pronouns on Sheila's understanding of events. The teachers asked

pupils to consider links between their own writing, the dramatist's writing, and the ideas and themes

conveyed in each. In a similar way, pupils looked at the impact of ellipsis upon textual cohesion in

dialogue involving Mr Birling and the Inspector, contrasted with other conversations between

Gerald and Sheila.

Establishing a relationship with the reader

The Shakespeare unit addressed the balance between use of pronouns and nouns, and also sought to

help pupils establish a relationship with their readers, focusing on information given by the writer and

knowledge that the writer assumes the reader already has. Since some of this unit was done through

role-playing court trials of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, it was appropriate that the practical activities

and metaphor for establishing cohesion should be focused upon the provision of 'evidence'. Role-players

and writers alike were required to tell their audience precisely what the audience needed to know.

In addition, role-play was used to convey the notion of formality or appropriate tone: parallels were drawn

between the formality of the dramatic roles and the relationship between pupil-as-writer and teacher-as-

examiner. The unit on An Inspector Calls adopted a similar approach, requiring pupils to consider the

formality of address between different characters, for example exploring why Gerald might make reference

to Sheila in one part of the play, but to Miss Birling in another.

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Teachers who devised these units were keen to link textual study with pupils' own writing, and were also

ready to provide pupils with a list of very specific language options. Just as pupils studying Macbeth were

given phrases from which to make selections, so those studying An Inspector Calls were encouraged, in

their writing, to develop an appropriate tone by choosing from a list of phrases produced by group

brainstorming. For example, in order to encourage a mixture of tentativeness and assertiveness, pupils

were asked to consider in detail a simple but specific question: `What do you make of the ending?'.

Appropriate phrases from which pupils might choose were categorised, and included:

Tentativeness

The above selection of assertive or tentative phrasing was taught in the context of the effective use of

modal verbs, encouraging consideration of using, for example, `could' and 'might' rather than `should'.

Terminology

Terminology these teachers felt to he appropriate included:

• nouns, pronouns, tense, co-ordinating clauses, subordinating clauses, simple sentences,

compound sentences, complex sentences;

• situation, audience, tone, active, passive, modal verbs;

• topic sentence, ellipsis.

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50

This table suggests linguistic features that are often part of writing to analyse, review, comment. It can act

as a checklist of some aspects of writing which, if taught, are likely to improve pupils' work.

52

Useful resources

Burchfield, R W, The New Fowler'' Modern English Usage, Oxford University Press,

1996 Crystal, 1), Rediscover Grammar, Longman, 1988

Crystal, D, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Cambridge University Press, 1987

Crystal, D, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, Cambridge University

Press, 1995 Derewianka, B, Exploring the Writing of Genres United Kingdom Reading

Association 1991

The Grammar Papers: Perspectives on the Teaching of Grammar in the National

Curriculum, QCA, 1998

Greenbaum, S, The Oxford English Grammar, Oxford University Press, 1996

Greenbaum, S, and Quirk, R, A Student's Grammar of the English Language,

Longman, 1990 Leech, G, An A-Z of English Grammar and Usage, Arnold, 1989

Massey, A J and Elliott, G H, Aspects of writing in 16+ English examinations between

1980 and 1994, University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate, 1996

Not whether but how: teaching grammar in English at key stages.3 and 4, QCA,

1999 Sinclair, J, Collins Cobuild English Grammar, Collins, 1990

Sinclair, J, Collins Cobuild English Usage, Collins, 1992

52

Glossary

This glossary gives a brief guide to the terms used in this booklet. More detailed grammatical information

may be found in the resources mentioned on the previous page.

accent features of pronunciation that vary according to the speaker's regional and

social origin. All oral language, including standard English, is spoken with an accent, and

speakers may use different accents in different situations. The term accent refers to

pronunciation only.

adjective a word or phrase that modifies the meaning of a noun. It may be added before a

noun (the pretty dress), or used after a verb to define a property of the subject

(the dress was pretty).

adverb a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective or adverb (we talked

happily or extremely quietly). Many adverbs are formed from adjectives by the

addition of the suffix ly. There are various additional categories of adverb:

manner happily, lazily, angrily, slowly, truthfully

time later, soon, now, hourly

place here, near, far, there

degree modifies another adverb: very, rather

adverbial the general term covering:

• a single adverb

• an adverb phrase (an adverb modified by one or more other adverbs) a noun phrase

• a subordinate clause where they have an adverbial function.

agreement some words agree in terms of number (singular/plural), for example, the agreement between this and book in this book compared with these books.

There is also agreement between a verb and its subject (she likes it but they like it). A

different kind of agreement involves maintaining a consistent time frame throughout a text, for

example, a narrative that starts with past tense verbs should use this tense consistently,

unless there is good stylistic reason for varying it.

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apostrophe punctuation mark indicating:

omission when two words are shortened into one, an apostrophe is placed where

letters have been dropped. The contraction is usually less formal than the

full form. With the auxiliary verbs to be and to have, the contraction links

subject and auxiliary verb (it's, I'm, we've). This can sound like of

(should've).

In negative forms, the verb is linked to not (didn't). New nouns are

sometimes contracted and if the short form becomes more common, the

apostrophe may he dropped ('phone). An apostrophe is also used with

missing figures (1997/'97; the '60s).

possession the possessive apostrophe represents a contraction of the possessive

suffix in early English, which was usually -es. The apostrophe came to be

applied to all possessives marked by s, except possessive pronouns (his,

its, hers, theirs, yours, ours). With a singular or collective noun, the

apostrophe is added before the s (the cat's tail, the girls frock, child's

hook, children's work, the people's princess). When a plural is

marked by s, the apostrophe is added after the s (cats' tails,

the girls' toilets).

article the definite article (the) refers to an individual of whom the reader already has some

knowledge (the man walked in); the indefinite article introduces a new individual (a man

walked in).

clause a distinct part of a sentence including a verb. There are different types of clause:

main the main part of the sentence. The main clause usually has a subject and

finite verb and makes sense on its own: I'll phone you when I have some

news.

subordinate this gives more information about the main clause and does not make

sense on its own. It may come after or before a main clause: I'll phone you

when I have some news; When I have some news I'll phone you.

co-ordinate two main clauses linked by a co-ordinating conjunction, often and or but:

I'll phone you and tell you the news.

non-finite a clause which begins with a non-finite verb form: Leaving school, they all

ran for the bus.

Some clauses can be abbreviated into phrases which do not have a verb:

When happy, the children sing.

coherence the underlying logic and consistency of the meaning of a text.

cohesion the underlying grammatical logic and connections within a text, achieved through such

features as the use of pronouns, reference and repetition.

colon a punctuation mark used to introduce a list, a quotation or a second clause which expands or

illustrates the first (he was very cold: the temperature was below zero).

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comma a punctuation mark that marks the relationship between parts of a sentence, or is used to separate items in a list.

compound a word made up of two other words (football, headrest, broomstick). word

conditional a clause or sentence which expresses the idea that the occurrence of one thing depends upon another. A conditional subordinate clause is usually introduced by if but sometimes by an auxiliary verb such as should or had.

conjunct an adverbial, used to link independent grammatical units, such as clauses, sentences and

paragraphs. Similar to conjunctions, they connect across sentences as well as within sentences

and provide linkages at whole text level (meanwhile, however, to conclude, therefore).

conjunction a word, also referred to as `connective', used to link sentences or clauses or to connect words within the same phrase. Co-ordinating conjunctions include and, but, or, yet, neither... nor, not only... but also. Subordinating conjunctions include because, although, while, when.

dash a punctuation mark which may he used:

a) in pairs, to replace brackets/parentheses;

b) singly to indicate an afterthought;

c) to replace other punctuation marks in informal writing, as in letters to friends, postcards,

notes.

digraph two letters representing one phoneme (ch/ur/ch).

ellipsis found in writing when part of a sentence is omitted because it would repeat what is said elsewhere, for example: While her parents were away she threw a party. The party of the year. The writer assumes that the reader will understand that it was is operating in the second sentence.

finite verb the form of the verb which indicates number, tense, person and mood (I walk, I walked, she walks, they walk). In a series of verbs in a verb phrase, the finite verb is always the first (I had been walking for hours).

homophone words which sound the same but have different meaning or different spelling (readlreed,

pairlpear, right/writelrite).

hyphen a punctuation mark that links two words or parts of words to:

a) make a single word or expression (ear-ring, well-known). Particularly used

where there are two similar sounds in the words: (sword-dance, game- master, co-operate);

b) join a prefix to a proper name (anti-Darwinian) or to another word where lack of a hyphen

would make it into a different word (re-cover / recover, resign / resign );

c) clarify meaning (twenty-odd guests/twenty odd guests);

d) divide words at the end of a line of print. Rules for this are very complex!

There is some variation in use of hyphens; the main point is to he consistent, and explain basic

rules clearly.

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inflection

lexical

met language

modal verbs morpheme

non-finite verb

noun

object

paragraph

56

an affix which alters a word by changing the tense, number, etc (walk, walks, walked,

walking).

words which carry semantic meaning rather than perform grammatical functions (red, table,

dance, quickly). Nouns, adjectives, adverbs and most verbs are lexical. Non-lexical verbs

include auxiliary and modal verbs.

the language we use when talking about language itself. It includes words like

sentence, noun, paragraph, preposition.

a group of auxiliary verbs which express possibility, probability and likelihood (can, could,

shall, should, will, would, may, might, must).

the smallest unit of meaning. A word may consist of one morpheme (house), two

morphemes (house/s, housling) or three or more morphemes (houselkeep/ing,

un/happilness). Suffixes and prefixes are morphemes.

the verb form which does not express tense, number, person or mood. There are three

non-finite verb forms:

a) the present participle - ending with -ing (going, walking); b) the past participle - usually ending with -ed (walked, went);

c) the infinitive (to walk, they could walk).

a word that names a thing or person. A noun may be modified by an adjective and may be

singular or plural.

There are two main types of noun:

proper a name for a unique person, thing or place (John, London,

France, April). Proper nouns start with capital letters.

common word for a general kind of person or thing (man, dog, shop). There are two

important sub types of common noun:

collective a group of people or things (army; flock, crowd, gaggle)

which may he treated as a singular noun, though plural verb agreement is

possible (the crowd are shouting).

abstract a concept or idea (love, justice, sympathy).

the noun or noun phrase which follows the verb in a declarative sentence and which often

indicates the target of the verb's action. (John kicked the ball).

a section of a piece of writing. A new paragraph marks a change of focus, a change of

time, a change of place, or a change of speaker in a passage of

dialogue.

A new paragraph begins on a new line, sometimes with a one-line gap

separating it from the previous paragraph. Some writers also indent the first line of a new

paragraph.

Paragraphing helps writers to organise their thoughts, and helps readers to

follow the story-line, argument or dialogue.

parenthesis a word or phrase inserted into a sentence to explain or elaborate. May be

placed in brackets, or between hyphens or commas:

Sam and Emma (his oldest children) will visit hits; Margaret is generally happy

- she sings in the mornings! but responsibility weighs her oom; she is, I believe, our best

student.

The term can also refer to the brackets themselves.

participle present participle usually ends in -ing (she is walking home, Angela has been

working all night, We will be going home).

past participle usually ends in -ed, -d, -t, -en, -n and follows the words

has, have, had or was (Marcella has alien out of bed, Michael was

helped by the teacherr. Leo has driven home).

Present and past participles can also be used as adjectives (the

smiling child, the falling leaves, the broken vase).

person a text may be written in:

a) the first person 11 said... I am...);

b) the second person (you said... you are...);

c) the third person (she said... they are...).

Person is indicated by use of verbs and pronouns.

The writer chooses according to her/his intention. Narratives are

generally written in the first or third person; the second person is

used in procedural texts, guidebooks etc, where the writer

addresses the reader directly.

phoneme the smallest unit of sound in a word. There are approximately 44 phonemes in

English. A phoneme may be represented by one, two, three or four letters (to,

shoe, through ).

phrase two or more words which act as one unit.

prefix a morpheme which can be added to the beginning of a word to change its

meaning (in-finite, un-decided, over-hear, re-tread).

preposition a word such as of, under. between, which usually links a following noun or

pronoun to another word (fear of fire, between two trees, tinder the table).

Normally the object of a preposition follows it (the cat sat on the

mat, they dived into the water, we will talk after dinner). However,

the object may be moved to an earlier position in the sentence (what

are von writing ahcittt? we still had enough to live on).

Pronoun a word used like a noun but which cannot be modified by an article or adjective

(uve, himself, no-one, who).

rhetorical an expression in which the meaning intended by the speaker/writer is different

from that which might he inferred by a listener who is unaware of the conventions of the

language. For example, Do you know his name? is a question that seems to require a yes/no

response; in fact, the speaker is asking What is his name? Rhetorical expressions are often

questions disguising imperatives: Would you like to get out your English books? usually means

Get out your English books.

57

semi-colon a punctuation mark used to separate phrases or clauses in a sentence. It is stronger than a

comma, but not as strong as a full stop. Semi-colons may be used more flexibly than

colons. The semi-colon can be used to separate two clauses of equal weight, in which case

it acts as a connective (I love Indian food; John

prefers Chinese).

It can also be used to separate items in a list, particularly if the items are

phrases or clauses rather than words (I need large, juicy Italian tomatoes; half a

pound of unsalted butter; a kilo of fresh pasta, preferably tagliatelle; a jar of

black olives).

sentence unit of written language that makes sense on its own. There are four types of sentence:

declarative I am happy.

interrogative Are you happy?

imperative Cheer tip!

explanative What a good game we had!

In writing, a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark or

exclamation mark.

Sentences may have a range of constructions:

simple sentences with only one clause (Fluffy bit him).

multiple sentences made up of more than one clause. They can be

either compound or complex.

compound a sentence made up of simple sentences joined by co-ordinating conjunctions. Each sentence makes a clause, and the clauses are equal in weight. A compound sentence is easy to divide into short sentences

(Fluffy bit him and then she ran away).

complex a sentence containing a main clause and subordinate clause or clauses (Fluffy bit him because he pulled her tail again; Fluffy will bite him if he pulls her tail again).

standard English the language of public communication, distinguished from other forms of

English by its vocabulary, and by rules and conventions of grammar, spelling

and punctuation. It contrasts with dialect, archaic forms, and other forms of

standard English, such as American/Australian English.

subject the agent of the verb's action, which is the noun or pronoun usually

preceding the verb. The subject is `who' or `what' the sentence is

about.

suffix a morpheme which is added to the end of a word. There are two main categories:

inflectional changes the tense or status of the word: from present to past

(talk-ed); from singular to plural (clown-s); and so on.

derivational changes the class of word: verb to noun (walk-er); noun to adjective (logic-al), and so on.

58

verb names an action or state of being and can show tense, past or present

(carrylcarried, knowlknew).

Verbs can be expressed in the first person (I eat), the second

person you eat), or the third person (she, he, it eats).

Verbs can be active or passive:

active The dog bit Ben.

passive Ben was bitten by the dog.

auxiliary verb combines with a main verb to form a verb phrase. Some

auxiliary verbs may also act as main verbs (he, have, do); other

auxiliary verbs, related to probability, include cast/could,

may/might/must, will/would, shall/should. A further group of verbs which

may have an auxiliary function are need, dare, used to, ought to.

59

English teachers, heads of departments, ITT English

departments, English language

departments in Higher Education

What's it about? Features of pupils' writing in English and suggested ways

to improve the quality of pupils' written work

Related material Technical accuracy in writing in GCSE English: research findings

Technical accuracy in writing in GCSE English: methodology

What's it for? To support teachers in analysing pupils' writing, and planning

their teaching of writing and grammar

What next? Not whether but how: teaching grammar in English at key

stages 3 and 4

For more information, contact:

The English team, QCA, 29 Bolton Street, London 1N1Y 7PD, te: 0171 509 5624

For more copies, contact:

GNVQ

GCE A LEVEL

NVQ

OTHER

VOCATIONAL

QUALIFICATIONS

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