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2 MARKS
Chapter 1
Define research
Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase ourunderstanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.
The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to aproblem is research.
Give the meaning of empirical research.
Empirical researchrelies on experience or observation alone.
It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified byobservation or experiment.
What is an applied research? Appliedresearch aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing society or an organization.
Ex: Why have sales decreased during the last quarter?
State the meaning of qualitative research. Qualitativeresearch is concerned with qualitative phenomenarelating to or involving quality or kind.
Ex.-motivation research.
What is research?
A scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic
A systematized effort to gain new knowledge
A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch ofknowledge
What is business research?
What is ex-post facto research?In this type of research, an examination of relationship that exists between independentand dependent variable is studied. We may call this empirical research. In this method,
the researcher has no control over an independent variable. Ex-post facto literally meansfrom what is done afterwards. In this research, a variable A is observed. Thereafter,
the researcher tries to find a causal variable B which caused A. It is quite possiblethat B might not have been caused A. In this type of analysis, there is no scope forthe researcher to manipulate the variable. The researcher can only report what has
happened and what is happening.
State two characteristics of research.
1. It is directed toward the solution of a problem2. It emphasises the development of generalisations, principles, or theories that will be helpful inpredicting future occurrences.3. Research demands accurate observation and description.
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4. Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using secondary data for anew purpose.5. Research requires expertise.6. Research strives to be objective and logical7. Research is characterised by patient and unhurried activity8. It is carefully recorded and reported.
9. Research requires a strong determination to know the unknown.State any two objectives of social science research
To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it - Exploratory research
To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or group -Descriptiveresearch
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with somethingelseDiagnostic research To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variablesHypothesis-testing research
What is a survey?A survey is a data collection tool used to gather information about individuals. Surveys are commonlyused in psychology research to collect self-report data from study participants. A survey may focus onfactual information about individuals, or it might aim to collect the opinions of the survey takers.
Chapter 2
Mention any 4 sources of identifying research problem.
State any four sources of selecting a research problem.
Reading
Academic Experience Daily Experience Exposure to Field Situations
Consultations Brainstorming Research
Define research problem.What is research problem?
A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of
either a theoretical or practical situation and wants a solution for it
A research problem exists when the individual or the group, having one or more desiredoutcomes, are confronted with two or more courses of action that have some but not equal
efficiency for the desired objective(s) and are in doubt about which course of action is best
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Chapter 3
What is meant by research plan?
What is a research design?What do you mean by research plan?
What do you mean by research design?
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in amanner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure
Is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for thecollection, measurement and analysis of data
Mention any two features of a good research plan
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the
consideration of the following factors:
the means of obtaining information;
the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff;
the objective of the problem to be studied; the nature of the problem to be studied; and
the availability of time and money for the research work.
What is a dependent variable?
Dependent variable (DV)if one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other
variable, it is termed as a DV
Ex: if we say that height depends upon age, then height is the DV and age is the IV.
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Chapter 4
What is probability sampling?
Probabili ty sampling: In probability sample, every unit in the population has equal chances for
being selected as a sample unit.
What is a sample? The selected respondents constitute what is technically called a sample
Mention any 4 characteristics of a good sample.
Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error. Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study. Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way. Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for the
universe with a reasonable level of confidence.
What is snowball sampling? In this method, the initial group of respondents are selected randomly.
Subsequent respondents are selected based on the opinion or referrals provided by the initialrespondents.
Further, referrals will lead referrals thus, leading to a snowball sampling. The referrals will have a demographic and psychographic characteristics that are relatively
similar to the person referring them.
Example: College students bring in more college students on the consumption of Pepsi.
What is stratified random sampling?
What is stratified sampling?
If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous group,stratified sampling is applied in order to obtain a representative sample; here, the population is
divided into several sub populations that are individually more homogeneous (these sub
populations are called strata).
A probability sampling procedure in which simple random sub-samples are drawn from withindifferent strata that are more or less equal on some characteristics.
What is random sampling?
Simple random sample is a process in which every item of the population has equal probability
of being chosen.
What is meant by cluster sampling?Define cluster sampling.
If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a convenient way to take a sample is to divide
the area into a number of smaller non overlapping areas and then to randomly select a number of
these smaller areas (called clusters), with the ultimate sample consisting of all units in these
clusters.
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What is sample size?
The number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample.
The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness,
reliability and flexibility. Costs too dictate the size of sample that we can draw. Budgetary constraint must invariably be taken into consideration when we decide the sample size
What is systematic sampling?
Systematic Sampling: the most practical way of sampling is to select every ith
item on a list; an
element of randomness is introduced into this kind of a sampling by using random numbers to
pick up the unit with which to start.
What is sample design?
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population.
It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting items for thesample.
Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included in the sample i.e., thesize of the sample.
Sample design is determined before data are collected. Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be reliable and appropriate for his
research study.
What is sampling?It is the process of selecting the sample from the entire population for the purpose of research so it represents
the entire population.
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Chapter 5
What is primary data?
Primary dataare those which are collected for the first time and are original in character
What is secondary data?
Secondary dataare those which have already been collected by someone else and which havebeen passed through some statistical analysis
What is meant by tabulation?What is tabulation?
When a mass of data has been collected, it becomes necessary to arrange it in a concise and
logical order
Thus, tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying it in a compact form, forfurther analysis
Tabulation is essential for: It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive statement to a minimum It facilitates the process of comparisons It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and omissions It provides a basis for various statistical computations
Define observation.
Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection, when it serves a
formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks
and controls on validity and reliability
Under observationthe information is sought by way of investigators own direct observationwithout asking from the respondent
Ex: In a study relating to consumer behavior, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wristwatch used by the respondent, may himself look at the watch.
What is interview?
The Interview Method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oralverbal responses
Mention any two demerits of secondary dataIt is very difficult to assess the accuracy of secondary dataThe data may be out dated.
What is observation schedule?The schedules which are used for observation are known as observation schedules. Using this schedule,
observer records the activities and responses of an individual respondent or a group of respondents underspecific conditions. The main purpose of the observation schedule is to verify information.
What is a questionnaire?It is a tool used to collect data from the respondents.
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Chapter 6
What is bibliography?
The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list of books in some
way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all those works which the
researcher has consulted.
What is an abstract?An abstractis a brief summary of a research article, thesis,review,conferenceproceedingor any in-depth analysis of a particular subject or discipline, and is often used to help the reader quickly ascertainthe paper's purpose
What is interpretation of data?
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected data.
State any two characteristics of research report.
What is research report?It is a statement of the contents in brief, the procedure adopted and findings arrived at by the researcher.
What do you mean by data analysis?The data, after collection, has to be processed and analysed in accordance with the outline laid down forthe purpose at the time of developing the research plan. The analysis planning should be done earlier at
the research design stage itself.Processing involves editing, coding, classification and tabulation of data.
What is field study?Field study: Includes a depth study. Field study involves in-depth study of a problem such as reaction ofyoung men and women towards a product. Example: Reaction of Indian men towards branded ready to
wear suit. Field study is carried out in real world environment settings. Test marketing is an example offield study.
What is pre-test?
A very important part of the questionnaire contruction process is its piloting, known
as pretesting. This involves testing your research instrument in conditions as similar aspossible to the research, but notin order to report results but ratherto check for glitchesin wording of questions, lack of clarity of instructions etc. - in fact, anything that couldimpede the instrument's ability to collect data in an economical and systematic fashion.
Pretests should be conducted systematically, with potential respondents and using the same
method of administration. The temptation to hurry over them, using just a conveniencesample, should be avoided.
It is also beneficial to pretest the questionnaire with specialists in question construction,who may be able to pick up potential difficulties which might not be revealed in a pretestwith respondents.
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If there are a variety of respondent types, all should be included in the pretest, and if thequestionnaire is to be in several languages, it should be tested in each language
Give the meaning of hypothesis.It is an assumption made by the researcher. It may be true or false.
5 MARKS
Chapter 1State five objectives of research.
Explain any five objectives of research.
Briefly explain the objectives of research.
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures
To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with thisobjective are known as explorative or formulative studies)
To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group (studieswith this object in view are known as descriptive studies)
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated withsomething else (known as diagnostic studies) To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (known as hypothesis testing)
Distinguish between research methods and research design.
Distinguish between research methods and research methodology.
Briefly explain the research methodology.
Research methods are the various procedures, schemes, algorithms, etc. used in research. All the
methods used by a researcher during a research study are termed as research methods. They areessentially planned, scientific and value-neutral. They include theoretical procedures,
experimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical approaches, etc. Research methods help uscollect samples, data and find a solution to a problem. Particularly, scientific research methodscall for explanations based on collected facts, measurements and observations and not on
reasoning alone. They accept only those explanations which can be verified by experiments.
Research methodology is a method to solve the research problem systematically. It involves
gathering data, use of statistical techniques, interpretations and drawing conclusions about the
research data. It is a blueprint, which is followed to complete the study.
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Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of studying how
research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about theirwork of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology. It is
also defined as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the work
plan of research.
Name and briefly explain the five steps of research process.
Research Process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research.
The process consists of closely related activities; such activities overlap continuously rather thanfollowing a strictly prescribed sequence.
The steps are as follows:
1. Formulating the research problem2. Extensive literature survey3. Development of working hypothesis4. Preparing the research design5. Determining sample design
6. Collecting the data7. Execution of the project8. Analysis of data9. Hypothesis-testing10.Generalization and Interpretation11.Preparation of the Report
1. Formulating the Research Problem:
Two typesof problems:
Problems which related to state of nature
Problems which relate to relationships between variables
The problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to theproblem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a
working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a
specific research problem is the first step in scientific enquiry
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Two steps in formulating the research problem:
Understanding the problem thoroughly Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view
Must review two types of literature:
The Conceptual literature concerning concepts and theories The Empiricalliterature consisting of earlier studies, which are similar to the one proposed Formulating/defining a research problem is of great importance and significance in the entire
research process
The problem must be defined unambiguously Must verify the objectivity and validity of background facts concerning the problem
2. Extensive Literature ReviewOnce the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for
Research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit itto the necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval. At this juncture the researchershould undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose he can
refer the following:-
Abstracting/Indexing journals Published/Unpublished bibliographies Academic journals Conference proceedings Govt. Reports Books
3. Development of Working Hypothesis The researcher should state, in clear terms the working hypothesis Working Hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical assumptions Hypothesis is the focal point of the research, for ex: students who receive counseling will show
a greater increase in creativity than students not receiving counseling or car A is performing as
well as car B
Functions of a Hypothesis
It guides the direction of the study. It identifies facts that are relevant and those that are not. It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate. It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result
4. Preparing the Research Design
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Need to prepare a research designa conceptual structure within which the research would be
conducted
The primary objective of the research design is to collect the relevant data
Research Purposes may be grouped into
1. Exploration2. Description3. Diagnosis4. Experimentation
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves
usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised and
the reasoning leading to the selection;(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
5. Determining the Sample Design
All the items under consideration in any field constitute a Universe or Population. A complete enumeration of all the items in the population is known as a census enquiry. Since a complete census enquiry is not possible generally, we select a sample a few items
from the universe for our study. Researcher selects the sample by using sampling design a definite plan determined before any
data is actually collected
Types of Sampling
1. Deliberate Sampling2. Simple Random Sampling3. Systematic Sampling4. Quota Sampling5. Stratified Sampling6. Cluster/area Sampling
7. Multi-stage Sampling8. Sequential Sampling
6. Collecting the Data
Need to collect appropriate data
Primary data can be collected thru experiment or survey
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The prefatory part The Main Body/Text The Supplemental Part
The Prefatory Part
Title pageCertificationAcknowledgmentsPrefaceContents page
The Main Body
Introduction Summary of Findings Main Report conclusion
The Supplemental Part
References, or Bibliography Appendices Index
Explain any two approaches to research.
Explain the approaches of research.
Quantitative approach
The purpose of in ferential approachto research is to form a data base from which to infercharacteristics or relationships of population.
This usually means survey research where a sample of population is studied (questioned or
observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same
characteristics.
Experimental approachis characterised by much greater control over the research environment
and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables.
Simulation approachinvolves the construction of an artificial environment within which
relevant information and data can be generated.
Qualitative approach It is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behaviour.
An approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form whichare not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.
Techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used.
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Explain the characteristics of research
Chapter 2
Explain the components of research problem
Components of Research Problem:
1. There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem2. There must be some objectives3. There must be alternative means (courses of action) for obtaining the objectives4. There must remain some doubt in the mind of the researcher regarding the selection of the
alternatives
5. There must be some environment to which the difficulty pertains
Explain the steps in formulating a research problem.
Briefly explain the basic parts of a problem definition.
Explain the various features of research problem.
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Chapter 3
Explain the different components of research design
Research Design has the following parts:
i. The Sampling Designwhich deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for thegiven study
ii. The Observational Designwhich relates to the conditions under which the observations are tobe made
iii. The Statistical Designwhich concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed
and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzediv. The Operational Designwhich deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified inthe sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out
Explain the need for research design.
NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various researchoperations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
Just as for better, economical and attractive construction of a house, we need a blueprint,similarly we need a research design or a plan in advance of data collection and analysis for our
research project. Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the
relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the
research and the availability of staff, time and money.
Briefly explain the various variables in research design
Briefly explain independent, dependent and extraneous variables in a research design.
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A concept which can take on different quantitative valuesis called a variable.
Ex: weight, height, income etc., are examples of a variable
Qualitativephenomena (the attribute) are also quantified on the basis of the presence or absence
of the concerning attribute
1. Dependent & Independent VariablesDependent variable (DV)if one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable,
it is termed as a DV
And the variable that is antecedent to the DV is termed as the Independent variable IV
Ex: if we say that height depends upon age, then height is the DV and age is the IV. Further, if
height also depends upon the individuals sex then, height is the DV and age and sex are the
IVs
2. Extraneous Variable
IVs that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the DV are termed asExtraneous Variable (EV)
Ex: suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between
childrens gains in social studies achievement and their self-concept. Here, self-concept is an IV
and social studies achievement is a DV. Intelligence may as well affect the social studies
achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study, it will be termed as an EV
Therefore, a study must be always so designed that the effect upon the DV is attributed
entirely to the IVs and not to some EV.
3. Control
One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence or effect of
the EV. The term Control is used when we design the study minimizing the effects of
extraneous variables
4. Confounded Relationship
When the DV is not free from the influence of the EVs, the relationship between DV and IV is
said to be confounded by the EV
5. Research Hypothesis
When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is
termed as a Research-Hypothesis
The Research-Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an IV to a DV
6. Experimental and Non-Experimental Hypothesis testing research
When the IV is manipulated it is an experimental design
Research in which the IV is not manipulated is called Non-experimental hypothesis-testing
research
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Ex: a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading ability for a group of
students and for this purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their intelligence and
reading ability by calculating the co-efficient of correlation between the two sets of scoresthis
is an example of non-experimental hypothesis testing, because the IV, intelligence is not
manipulated
But now, suppose that the researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group of students who
are to take a course in statistics and then divides them into two groups by randomly assigning 25
to Group A, the common program, and 25 to Group B, the special program. At the end of the
course, he administers a test to each group in order to judge the effectiveness of the training
program on the students performance. This is an example of experimental hypothesis testing
because the IV (the type of training program) is manipulated.
Explain the essentials of good research design.
Analyze the design for descriptive design
Chapter 4
Analyze cluster and stratified sampling.
Stratified Sampling: if a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, stratified sampling is applied in order to obtain a representative sample;
here, the population is divided into several sub populations that are individually more
homogeneous (these sub populations are called strata).
Cluster Sampling: if the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a convenient way to take
a sample is to divide the area into a number of smaller non overlapping areas and then torandomly select a number of these smaller areas (called clusters), with the ultimate sample
consisting of all units in these clusters.
State the differences between census survey and sample survey
Write the difference between census and sampling.
Differentiate between census survey and sample survey.Explain the need for sampling
What are the advantages of sampling?
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Chapter 5
Analyze the characteristics of good questionnaire
Questionnaire is the heart of a surveyneeds to be carefully constructed
Need to understand the features of the Questionnaireits general form, question sequence andquestion formulation and the wording of the questions
1. General Form
May be eitherstructuredor unstructured
Structured Questionnairesare those in which there are definite, concrete, predeterminedquestions
The questions are presented with exactly the same wording and in the same order to allrespondents
The form of the questions may be either closed (yes or no) or open (inviting free responses Structured Questionnaires may also have fixed alternative questions in which responses are
limited to the stated alternatives Thus, a highly structured Questionnaire is one in which all the questions and answers are
specified and comments in the respondents own words are held to the minimum
UnstructuredQuestionnairewhen the above characteristics are absent, it is known as aunstructured Questionnaire
The Interviewer is provided with a general guideline on the type of information to be obtained
2. Question Sequence Proper sequence is needed to elicit valid responses Sequence must be clearthat is, the relation of one question to the next To establish rapport and to gain cooperation from the respondentdifficult questions, personal
questions etc should preferably come at the appropriate time rather than at the beginning
3. Question Formulation & Wording
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Phrasing the questions must be clear and unambiguous Questions should be impartial and unbiased Should be easily understood Should be simple (one idea at a time) Should be concrete
Form of questions may be multiple choice or open-ended
Discuss briefly different types of observation.
Types of Observation
Essentially two types:
1. Structured vs. Unstructured Observation
2. Participant vs. Non-participant Observation
Structured vs. Unstructured Observation
Structured Observationwhen the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the
units to be observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of
observation and the selection of pertinent data of observationUnstructured Observationwhen it takes place without the above characteristics
Participant vs. Non-participantThis distinction depends upon the observers sharing or not sharing the life of the group he is observing
State the merits and demerits of interview method of data collection.
Advantages
1. More information and in greater depth can be obtained2. Resistance may be overcome by a skilled interviewer3. Greater flexibilityan opportunity to restructure questions
4. Observation method can also be applied to recording verbal answers5. Personal information can be obtained6. Possibility of spontaneous responses and thus more honest responses
Disadvantages
1. Expensive method2. Interviewer bias3. Respondent bias4. Time consuming5. Under the interview method the organization required for selecting, training, and supervising the
field staff is complex with formidable problems
6. Establishing rapport to facilitate free and frank responses is very difficult
What are the advantages of mail survey as a research tool?
Explain the merits and demerits of questionnaire.
Merits of Questionnaire Method
1. Low costeven when the universe is large and is widespread2. Free from interviewer bias3. Respondents have adequate time to think thru their answers
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4. Respondents who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently5. Large samples can be used
Demerits
1. Low rate of return
2. Respondents need to be educated and cooperative3. Inbuilt inflexibility4. Possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of items5. This method is slow
Explain the advantages of observation.
Main advantagesare:
Subjective bias is eliminated
The information relates to what is currently happening
This method is independent of respondents willingness to respond
Explain the advantages and disadvantages of primary data.
Write any five advantages of secondary data
Write the guidelines that help the investigator in conducting interview
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Chapter 6
Analyze the technique of interpretation.
Briefly explain the techniques of interpretation.
The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rather it requires a great skill and dexterity on the
part of researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice and experience. The
researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from experts for accomplishing the task of
interpretation.
The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:
(i) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found and he must
interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes and must try to find out the
thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of his diversified research findings. In fact,
this is the technique of how generalization should be done and concepts be formulated.
(ii)Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while interpreting the
final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor in understanding the problem
under consideration.
(iii)It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone having insight
into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to point out omissions and errorsin logical argumentation. Such a consultation will result in correct interpretation and, thus, will
enhance the utility of research results.
(iv)Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all relevant factors
affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in no hurry while interpreting
results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear to be all right at the beginning, may not at
all be accurate.
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State the purpose of report writing.
Explain the purpose of report writing.
Explain the purposes as to why the data has to be analyzed statistically.
Distinguish between survey and case study
What is pilot study write the merits he conducting pilot study
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15 MARKS
Chapter 1
What is research? Discuss different types of research.
Explain the various types of research.
Types of Research
1. Descriptive vs. Analytical2. Applied vs. Fundamental
3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative4. Conceptual vs. Empirical
1. Descriptive vs. Analytical
The major purpose of thedescriptiveresearch is description of the state of affairs as it exists; usually
includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries.
The main characteristic here is that the researcher has no control over the variableshe can only
report what has happened or what is happening.
Ex: survey methods to identify peoples preferences.
Ex: A description of how the selected clerical staffare rewarded and what measures are used to record
their productivity levels.
In analytical research, the researcher has to use facts or information already available and analyzethese for critical evaluation.
Ex: An analysis of any relationships between the rewards given to the clerical staff and their
productivity levels.
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2. Conceptual vs. Empirical
Conceptual researchis related to some abstract idea or theory. Used by philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
Empirical researchrelies on experience or observation alone; it is data based research coming upwith conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
3. Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Quantitativeresearch is based on the measurement of quantityit is applicable to phenomena that
can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitativeresearch is concerned with qualitative phenomenarelating to or involving quality or
kind. Ex.-motivation research.
4. Applied vs. Fundamental
Research can either be applied(action)research or fundamental(basic or pure).
Appliedresearch aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing society or an
organization.
Ex: Why have sales decreased during the last quarter?
Fundamentalresearch is mainly concerned with generalizations and with formulation of a theory.
Gathering knowledge for knowledges sake.
Ex: 2H+O2 ---- H2O
Explain the role of research in important areas of business.
Chapter 2
Discuss the various techniques involved in defining the research problem
TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM
(i) Statement of the problem in a general way: First of all the problem should be stated in a
broad general way, keeping in view either some practical concern or some scientific or intellectual
interest. For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter
concerning which he wishes to pose a problem.
The problem stated in a broad general way may contain various ambiguities which must be resolved by
cool thinking and rethinking over the problem. At the same time the feasibility of a particular solution has
to be considered and the same should be kept in view while stating the problem.
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem: The next step in defining the problem is to
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A concept which can take on different quantitative valuesis called a variable. Ex: weight, height, income etc.,
are examples of a variable
Qualitativephenomena (the attribute) are also quantified on the basis of the presence or absence of the
concerning attribute
Dependent variable (DV)if one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed
as a DV
And the variable that is antecedent to the DV is termed as the Independent variable IV
2. Dependent & Independent Variables
Ex: if we say that height depends upon age, then height is the DV and age is the IV. Further, if height also
depends upon the individuals sex then, height is the DV and age and sex are the IVs
2. Extraneous Variable
IVs that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the DV are termed as Extraneous Variable
(EV)
Ex: suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between childrens gains in
social studies achievement and their self-concept. Here, self-concept is an IV and social studies achievement is a
DV. Intelligence may as well affect the social studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of
the study, it will be termed as an EV
Therefore, a study must be always so designed that the effect upon the DV is attributed entirely to the IVs and
not to some EV.
3. Control
One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence or effect of the EV. The
term Control is used when we design the study minimizing the effects of extraneous variables
4. Confounded Relationship
When the DV is not free from the influence of the EVs, the relationship between DV and IV is said to be
confounded by the EV
5. Research Hypothesis
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When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific methods, it is termed as a
Research-Hypothesis
The Research-Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an IV to a DV
6. Experimental and Non-Experimental Hypothesis testing research
When the IV is manipulated it is an experimental design
Research in which the IV is not manipulated is called Non-experimental hypothesis-testing research
Ex: a researcher wants to study whether intelligence affects reading ability for a group of students and for this
purpose he randomly selects 50 students and tests their intelligence and reading ability by calculating the co-
efficient of correlation between the two sets of scoresthis is an example of non-experimental hypothesis
testing, because the IV, intelligence is not manipulated
But now ,suppose that the researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group of students who are to take a
course in statistics and then divides them into two groups by randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the common
program, and 25 to Group B, the special program. At the end of the course, he administers a test to each group
in order to judge the effectiveness of the training program on the students performance. This is an example of
experimental hypothesis testing because the IV (the type of training program) is manipulated.
What is research design? Explain the nature and importance of research design.
Discuss any three types of research design of your choice.
Different Research Designs :
1. Research Design in the case of exploratory research studies ( Formulative Research Studies ) :The main purpose of this study is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or for
developing the working hypothesisdiscovery of ideas and insight.In such cases the design must be flexibleE.g.. Pilot Study - Survey of concerning literatureexperience survey, secondary data, focus group2. Research Design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research :Research design is: - Formulating theobjective of the study - Designing the method for data collection -Selecting the sample Collecting the
dataprocessing and analyzing the datareporting the findings3. Research Design for Hypothesis Testing Research Studies ( Experimental Research Studies) :Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but permitinferences abut causality. Usually experiments meet these requirements.
Prof. R.A.Fisheragricultural researchHe has enumerated three principles of experimental design,
they area. The principle of replication :experiment will be repeated more than onceeach treatment is applied
in many experimental units instead of one ( repetition and duplication)b. The principle of randomization:-is a technique in which each member of the population has an equaland independent chance of being selectedthis is a method of controlling extraneous variables.
c. The principle of local control :- through this principle we can eliminate the variability due to extraneousfactors from the experimental errorgrouping (of homogenous units)blockingbalancing
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Types of Research Designs
1. Exploratory
2. Descriptive & Diagnostic
3. Experimental
Exploratory Research Design
Also known as Formulative Research Design
Main purposeis that of formulating a problem for precise investigation or developing hypothesesfrom an operational point of view
Major Focusdiscovery of new ideas and insights
Exploratory studies must have flexibility in design to provide opportunity for considering differentaspects of a problem under study
Exploratory Research DesignThe following 3 methods are used:
The survey concerning literature
The experience survey
The analysis of insight-stimulating examples
1. The Literature Survey
The most simple and useful method of formulating the research problem or developing a hypothesis
Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness evaluated as a basis forfurther research
Use the bibliographical survey of studies already done in ones area of interest for formulating theproblem
An attempt must be made to apply concepts and theories
2. Experience Survey
Is the survey of people who have had practical experience with the problem
The object is to obtain insight into relationships between variables and new ideas relating to theresearch problem
3. Analysis of insight-stimulating examples
The method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the phenomenon in which one is
interested
For this purpose, existing records may be examined; unstructured interviews with experts may be
conducted; etc.
II. Descriptive & Diagnostic Research Design
Descriptive Studies are those which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular
individual or of a group.
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Studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning
individual, group or situation are ex.'s of descriptive research studies
Diagnostic Studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with
something else
Studies about whether certain variables are associated, are ex.s of diagnostic studies
The research design here must focus on the following:
1. Formulating the objective of the study
2. Designing the methods of data collection
3. Selecting the sample
4. Collecting the data
5. Processing and analyzing the data
6. Reporting the findings
III. Hypothesis-Testing research design
Generally known as Experimental Studieswhere the researcher tests the hypothesis of causal
relationships between variables
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Such studies require procedures that not only reduce bias and increase reliability but will permit
drawing of inferences about causality
Prof. R A Fishers name is associated with experimental designs.
He developed certain experimental designs for testing hypothesis
Principles of experimental designs
The three important principles are:
1. Principle of Replication
2. Principle of Randomization
3. Principle of Local control
Principle of ReplicationThe experiment should be repeated more than once to ensure that each treatment is applied in many
experimental units instead of one.
By doing so the statistical accuracy is increased
Principle of Randomization
Provides protection against the effect of extraneous factors in an experiment.That is, we design the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all
be combined under the general heading of chance.
Principle of Local ControlHere the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a
range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be
measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error
Important Experimental DesignsThere are several designs:
Informal Experimental Designs
Formal Experimental Designs
Informal Experimental Designs
1. Before-and-after without control design
2. After-only with control design
3. Before-and-after with control design
Formal Experimental Designs
1. Completely Randomized design2. Randomized block design3. Latin Square design4. Factorial design
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Explain the basic principles of experimental design.
Principles of experimental designsThe three important principles are:
1. Principle of Replication2. Principle of Randomization
3. Principle of Local control
Principle of Replication
The experiment should be repeated more than once to ensure that each treatment is applied in manyexperimental units instead of one.By doing so the statistical accuracy is increased
Principle of RandomizationProvides protection against the effect of extraneous factors in an experiment.
That is, we design the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can allbe combined under the general heading of chance.
Principle of Local Control
Here the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a
range as necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can bemeasured and hence eliminated from the experimental error
Important Experimental DesignsThere are several designs:
Informal Experimental Designs
Formal Experimental Designs
Informal Experimental Designs
4. Before-and-after without control design
5. After-only with control design
6. Before-and-after with control design
Formal Experimental Designs
5. Completely Randomized design6. Randomized block design7. Latin Square design8. Factorial design
Discuss the components of a research design with suitable examples.
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Chapter 4
Discuss various probability sampling techniques.
Discuss the various kinds of probability sampling.
Probability Sampling
Also know as Random samplingor Chance sampling
Under this design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in
the sample
It is a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group
not deliberately but by some mechanical process
It is blind chance alone that determines whether one item is selected or not
The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms
of probability, that is, we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance
Random sampling ensures the law of statistical regularity (which states that if on an
average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the samecomposition and characteristics as the universe)
This is why it is considered as the best technique of selecting a very representative
sample
In sum, Random sampling:
1. Gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into the
sample; and all choices are independent of one another
2. Gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen
How to select a Random Sample
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Cluster Sampling: if the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a
convenient way to take a sample is to divide the area into a number of smaller non
overlapping areas and then to randomly select a number of these smaller areas
(called clusters), with the ultimate sample consisting of all units in these clusters .
Area Sampling: if clusters happen to be some geographic subdivisions, then it is
better known as area sampling
Multi-stage Sampling: is a further development of the principle of cluster
sampling.
Ex. suppose we want to investigate the working efficiency of nationalized banks in
India and we want to take a sample of few banks for this purpose the first stageis to select large primary sampling units such as States then we select certain
districts and interview all the banks in the chosen districts. This is two-stage
sampling design
Explain various sampling techniques.
Explain the various methods of sampling.
Non-Probability Sampling
Is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the
probability that each item in the population has of being in included in the sample?
Also known as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgment sampling
Here, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher, that is,
purposively choose the particular units of the universe for constituting a sample on
the basis that the small mass that they select out of a huge one will be
representative of the whole.
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Ex.s if the economic condition of people living in a state are to be studied, a few
towns and villages may be purposively selected for intensive study on the principle
that they can be representative of the entire state.
Here, personal element (bias) has a great chance of entering into the selection ofthe sample
However, if the investigators are impartial, work without bias and have the
necessary experience the results obtained may be tolerably reliable.
Sampling Error cannot be estimated and the element of bias is always
This is why; this design is rarely adopted in large inquiries of importance
Quota Sampling is also an example of non probability sampling. Under quota
sampling the interviewers are simply given quotas to be filled from the different
strata
Very convenient and inexpensive
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Probability Sampling
Also know as Random samplingor Chance sampling
Under this design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in
the sample
It is a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group
not deliberately but by some mechanical process
It is blind chance alone that determines whether one item is selected or not
The results obtained from probability or random sampling can be assured in terms
of probability, that is, we can measure the errors of estimation or the significance
Random sampling ensures the law of statistical regularity (which states that if on an
average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the same
composition and characteristics as the universe)
This is why it is considered as the best technique of selecting a very representative
sample
In sum, Random sampling:
3. Gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting into the
sample; and all choices are independent of one another
4. Gives each possible sample combination an equal probability of being chosen
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How to select a Random Sample
In actual/ideal practicethe Random Sample is taken by the following process:
write each of the possible samples on a slip of paper, mix these slips in a
box/container and then draw as a lottery. In complex and large universes this is
practically possible.
An easier methodis without taking the trouble of enlisting all possible samples
on paper slips, we can write the name of each element of a finite population on a
slip of paper, put the slip into a box and mix them thoroughly and then draw
(without looking) the required number of slips.
In doing so we must make sure that in successive drawings each of the remaining
elements of the population has the same chance of being drawn
This procedure will also result in the same probability for each possible sampleThus, to draw a sample from a finite population is easy, with the aid of random
number tables, only when lists are available and items are readily numbered
Complex Random Sampling Designs
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What is a schedule? Write the merits and demerits of schedule method in collecting primary data.
What is an interview? Explain different types of interview.
II. Interview Method
The Interview Method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral
verbal responses
Personal Interview
PI Method requires the interviewer asking questions in a face-to-face contact with the person.
Collecting information thru PI is structuredthe use of a set of predetermined questions and highlystandardized techniques of recording.
Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure, asking questions in a form andorder prescribed
In unstructured interviewsthere is a flexibility of approach to questioning
Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniquesof recording information
Focused Interviewto focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and its effects
The Interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence of questions to elicit/explore reasons and
motives. The main task is to confine the respondent to a discussion of issues
Clinical Interviewis concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of an
individuals life experience. Eliciting information is left to the interviewers discretion
Non-Directive Interviewthe interviewer's function is simply to encourage the respondent to talk about the
topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning. The interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive
expression of the respondents feelings and beliefs
Explain the qualitative techniques of data collection.
I. Observation Method
Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection, when it serves a
formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and
controls on validity and reliability
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Under observationthe information is sought by way of investigators own direct observation
without asking from the respondent
Main advantagesare:
Subjective bias is eliminated
The information relates to what is currently happening
This method is independent of respondents willingness to respond
Main Limitationsare:
It is expensive
The information provided by this method is very limited
Unforeseen factors may interfere with the observation task
Types of ObservationEssentially two types:
1.Structured vs. Unstructured Observation2.Participant vs. Non-participant Observation
Structured vs. Unstructured Observation
Structured Observationwhen the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the unitsto be observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of
observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation
Unstructured Observationwhen it takes place without the above characteristics
Participant vs. Non-participantThis distinction depends upon the observers sharing or not sharing the life of the group he is observing
II. Interview Method
The Interview Method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral
verbal responses
Personal Interview
PI Method requires the interviewer asking questions in a face-to-face contact with the person.
Collecting information thru PI is structuredthe use of a set of predetermined questions and highlystandardized techniques of recording.
Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure, asking questions in a form andorder prescribed
In unstructured interviewsthere is a flexibility of approach to questioning
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Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniquesof recording information
Focused Interviewto focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and its effects
The Interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence of questions to elicit/explore reasons andmotives. The main task is to confine the respondent to a discussion of issues
Clinical Interviewis concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of an
individuals life experience. Eliciting information is left to the interviewers discretion
Non-Directive Interviewthe interviewer's function is simply to encourage the respondent to talk about the
topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning. The interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive
expression of the respondents feelings and beliefs
Advantages
1. More information and in greater depth can be obtained2. Resistance may be overcome by a skilled interviewer3. Greater flexibilityan opportunity to restructure questions4. Observation method can also be applied to recording verbal answers5. Personal information can be obtained6. Possibility of spontaneous responses and thus more honest responses
Disadvantages
1. Expensive method2. Interviewer bias3. Respondent bias4. Time consuming5. Under the interview method the organization required for selecting, training, and supervising the
field staff is complex with formidable problems6. Establishing rapport to facilitate free and frank responses is very difficult
Explain the interviewing process.
Chapter 6
Discuss the various types of report in research.
TYPES OF REPORTS
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Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case, both the
length and the form are largely dictated by the problems at hand.
Business firms prefer reports in the letter form, just one or two pages in
length.
Banks, insurance organisations and financial institutions are generally fond
of the short balance-sheet type of tabulation for their annual reports to their
customers and shareholders.
Mathematicians prefer to write the results of their investigations in the form
of algebraic notations.
Chemists report their results in symbols and formulae.
Students of literature usually write long reports presenting the critical
analysis of some writer or period or the like with a liberal use of quotationsfrom the works of the author under discussion.
In the field of education and psychology, the favourite form is the report on
the results of experimentation accompanied by the detailed statistical
tabulations.
Clinical psychologists and social pathologists frequently find it necessary to
make use of the case-history form.
News items in the daily papers are also forms of report writing. They
represent firsthand on-the scene accounts of the events described orcompilations of interviews with persons who were on the scene. In such
reports the first paragraph usually contains the important information in
detail and the succeeding paragraphs contain material which is progressively
less and less important.
Book-reviews which analyze the content of the book and report on the
authors intentions, his success or failure in achieving his aims, his language,
his style, scholarship, bias or his point of view. Such reviews also happen to
be a kind of short report. The reports prepared by governmental bureaus, special commissions, and
similar other organisations are generally very comprehensive reports on the
issues involved. Such reports are usually considered as important research
products.
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Similarly, Ph.D. theses and dissertations are also a form of report-writing,
usually completed by students in academic institutions.
The above narration throws light on the fact that the results of a research
investigation can be presented in a number of ways viz., a technical report, apopular report, an article, a monograph or at times even in the form of oral
presentation. Which method(s) of presentation to be used in a particular study
depends on the circumstances under which the study arose and the nature of the
results.
A technical report is used whenever a full written report of the study is required
whether for recordkeeping or for public dissemination.
Apopular report is used if the research results have policy implications.
We give below a few details about the said two types of reports:
(A) Technical ReportIn the technical report the main emphasis is on
(i) the methods employed,
(ii) assumptions made in the course of the study,
(iii) the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and
supporting data.
A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three
pages.
2.Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation
of the problem in operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis
and data required, etc.
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3.Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For
instance, in sampling studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample
size, sample selection, etc.
4.Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics and limitations.If secondary data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand be fully
assessed. In case of a survey, the manner in which data were collected should be
fully described.
5.Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and
presentation of the findings of the study with supporting data in the form of tables
and charts be fully narrated. This, in fact, happens to be the main body of the report
usually extending over several chapters.
6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications
drawn from the results be explained.
7.Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and
attached.
8. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to
questionnaire, mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of
analysis and the like ones.
9.Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.
The order presented above only gives a general idea of the nature of a technical
report; the order of presentation may not necessarily be the same in all the
technical reports. This, in other words, means that the presentation may vary in
different reports; even the different sections outlined above will not always be the
same, nor will all these sections appear in any particular report.
It should, however, be remembered that even in a technical report, simple
presentation and ready availability of the findings remain an important
consideration and as such the liberal use of charts and diagrams is considered
desirable.
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(B) Popular Report
The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness.
The simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimization of
technical, particularly mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and diagrams.Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an occasional
cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of the popular report.
Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and policy
implications.
We give below a general outline of a popular report.
1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the
findings of most practical interest and on the implications of these findings.
2.Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the
findings of the study is made in this section of the report.
3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arise is presented
along with the specific objectives of the project under study.
4.Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and
techniques used, including a short review of the data on which the study is based,
is given in this part of the report.
5.Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results
of the study are presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all
sorts of illustrations such as charts, diagrams and the like ones.
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc.
is presented in the form of appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if
the report is entirely meant for general public.
There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be
prepared. The only important thing about such a report is that it gives emphasis on
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simplicity and policy implications from the operational point of view, avoiding the
technical details of all sorts to the extent possible.
What is research report? Explain the various steps involved in report writing
Explain the steps in report writing.
DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT
Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work.
The usual steps involved in writing report are:
(a) logical analysis of the subject-matter;
(b) preparation of the final outline;
(c) preparation of the rough draft;(d) rewriting and polishing;
(e) preparation of the final bibliography; and
(f) writing the final draft.
Though all these steps are self-explanatory, yet a brief mention of each one of
these will be appropriate for better understanding.
Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is primarilyconcerned with the development of a subject.
There are two ways in which to develop a subject
(a) logically and
(b) chronologically.
The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and
associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Logical
treatment often consists in developing the material from the simple possible to the
most complex structures.
Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or
occurrence. The directions for doing or making something usually follow the
chronological order.
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the second part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles.
Generally, this pattern of bibliography is considered convenient and satisfactory
from the point of view of reader, though it is not the only way
of presenting bibliography.
The entries in bibliography should be made adopting the following order:
For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:
1. Name of author, last name first.
2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.
3. Place, publisher, and date of publication.4. Number of volumes.
Example
Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques,New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.
Ltd., 1978.
For magazines and newspapers the order may be as under:
1. Name of the author, last name first.
2. Title of article, in quotation marks.
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics.
4. The volume or volume and number.
5. The date of the issue.
6. The pagination.
Example
Robert V. Roosa, Coping with Short-term International Money Flows, The
banker, London, September, 1971, p. 995.
The above examples are just the samples for bibliography entries and may be used,
but one should also remember that they are not the only acceptable forms. The only
thing important is that, whatever method one selects, it must remain consistent.
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Writing the final draft: This constitutes the last step. The final draft should be
written in a concise and objective style and in simple language, avoiding vague
expressions such as it seems, theremay be, and the like ones. While writing
the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract terminology and technical jargon.
Illustrations and examples based on common experiences must be incorporated inthe final draft as they happen to be most effective in communicating the research
findings to others.
A research report should not be dull, but must enthuse people and maintain interest
and must show originality. It must be remembered that every report should be an
attempt to solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a
problem and must add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.
Explain clearly the various techniques of interpretation of data.
TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION
The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rather it requires a great skill and
dexterity on the part of researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns through
practice and experience. The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from
experts for accomplishing the task of interpretation.
The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:
(i) Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he
has found and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the
underlying processes and must try to find out the thread of uniformity
that lies under the surface layer of his diversified research findings. In
fact, this is the technique of how generalization should be done and
concepts be formulated.
(ii) Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered
while interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to
be a key factor in understanding the problem under consideration.
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(iii) It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult
someone having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and
will not hesitate to point out omissions and errors in logical
argumentation. Such a consultation will result in correct interpretation
and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results.
(iv) Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after
considering all relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false
generalization. He must be in no hurry while interpreting results, for
quite often the conclusions, which appear to be all right at the beginning,
may not at all be accurate.
Explain the principles of report writing.
Explain the contents of research report.
LAYOUT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT
Anybody, who is reading the research report, must necessarily be conveyed enough
about the study so that he can place it in its general scientific context, judge the
adequacy of its methods and thus form an opinion of how seriously the findings are
to be taken. For this purpose there is the need of proper layout of the report. The
layout of the report means as to what the research report should contain.
A comprehensive layout of the research report should comprise
(A) preliminary pages;
(B) the main text; and
(C) the end matter.
Let us deal with them separately.
(A) Preliminary Pages
In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by
acknowledgements in the form of Preface or Foreword. Then there should be a
table of contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so that the decision-
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maker or anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate the required
information in the report.
(B) Main Text
The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all
details. Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the
main text and then follows the other details on pages numbered consecutively,
beginning with the second page. Each main section of the report should begin on a
new page.
The main text of the report should have the following sections:
(i) Introduction;
(ii) Statement of findings and recommendations;(iii) The results;
(iv) The implications drawn from the results; and
(v) The summary.
(i)Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to
the readers. It should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e.,
enough background should be given to make clear to the reader why the problem
was considered worth investigating. A brief summary of other relevant research
may also be stated so that the present study can be seen in that context. The
hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions of the major concepts employed in
the study should be explicitly stated in the introduction of the report.
The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained. The
scientific reader would like to know in detail about such thing: How was the study
carried out? What was its basic design? If the study was an experimental one, then
what were the experimental manipulations? If the data were collected by means of
questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what questions were asked (The
questionnaire or interview schedule is usually given in an appendix)? If
measurements were based on observation, then what instructions were given to the
observers? Regarding the sample used in the study the reader should be told: Who
were the subjects? How many were there?
How were they selected? All these questions are crucial for estimating the probable
limits of generalizability of the findings. The statistical analysis adopted must also
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(c)The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised
by the study along with suggestions for the kind of research that would
provide answers for them.
It is considered a good practice to finish the report with a short conclusionwhich summarises and recapitulates the main points of the study. The
conclusion drawn from the study should be clearly related to the hypotheses
that were stated in the introductory section. At the same time, a forecast of the
probable future of the subject and an indication of the kind of research which
needs to be done in that particular field is useful and desirable.
(v) Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very
brief summary, resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the majorfindings and the major conclusions drawn from the research results.
(C) End Matter
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical
data such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the
like ones. Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given. Index (an
alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along with the numbers of the
pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or discussed) should
invariably be given at the end of the report. The value of index lies in the fact that
it works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the report.
