Q1 - Motivation

• Definition: needs and wants that energize and direct behavior

Q2 - Motivation - Perspectives

• Instincts

• Drive-reduction theory

• Optimal arousal

• Maslow’s hierarchy

Instincts

• A complex, unlearned rigid pattern of behavior shared throughout a species

• Rooting, sucking, grasping

• Do we have an instinct to mate?

• Do we have instincts to eat?

• Freud on instincts

• Ordinary usage of instinct

Q3 - Drive-reduction

• Physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates us to satisfy the need

• Need -----> drive ---> behavior• Steady state - homeostasis• Different from instincts?• Drives push - incentives pull• With both a need and an incentive, drive is strong• Incentives can be negative or positive

Optimal arousal

• Are we satisfied with homeostasis?• If your physiological needs are met, how do

you feel?• Imagine you are in solitary confinement in

prison. All your physiological needs are met. Are you happy? Satisfied?

• How many of your behaviors today were concerned with meeting physiological needs?

Types of motivations

• Q4 - Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations

• Primary and secondary motivations

Maslow’s hierarchy

• Biological - safety - social - self-esteem - self-actualization

• Does this hierarchy always hold true?• In life-satisfaction surveys, what matters

most in poor countries? In wealthy countries? In individualistic countries? In collectivistic countries?

• What is strongest motivation?

Motivations

Hunger, sex, affiliation, achievement,

Q5 - Biology

• Empty stomach – contractions• Hypothalamus monitors blood sugar• Lateral hypothalamus increases hunger• Ventro-medial hypothalamus decreases hunger• Set point - predisposition to maintain a particular

body weight - below it energy falls as we try to gain weight and vice versa

• Basal metabolic rate - can vary as well

Q6 – Soc/Cult factors in hunger

• When to eat - do different cultures eat differently?

• What to eat - culturally determined?

• Sweet and salty seem to be universal. Why?

• Why we like certain foods…

Eating disorders

• Anorexia nervosa

• Bulimia

• See handout

Q7 - Sex Research

• Kinsey - interviews

• Masters and Johnson - measurements / film

• First to study sexual responses scientifically

• What counts as “normal” sexuality?

M&J human sexual response

• Excitement - genital engorgement, lubrication, breasts enlarge, general arousal

• Plateau - arousal continues, semen from penis, clitoris retracts, orgasm imminent

• Orgasm - muscle contractions throughout body, arousal peaks, aids in conception

• Resolution - engorgement ends, arousal reduces, men enter refractory phase

Q8 - Influences on sexual motivation

• Biology – Sexual maturity– Hormones

• Psychology– Stimulation– Fantasies

Influences

• Social - cultural– Values - family and society– Religious / personal values– Cultural expectations

Q9 -Sexual orientation

• What counts as orientation? Activity or fantasy? Plasticity of attraction

• Do heterosexuals ever have homosexual experience or fantasies?

• Are any people really bisexual?

• What % of people are homosexual? Asexual?

Q10 -What causes sexual orientation?

• Environment? Relationship with parents, site of sexual maturity

• Biology? Hypothalamus size? Prenatal hormones in 2nd to 5th month? Genes? Fraternal birth order affected by prenatal environment?

• Social / cultural causes? In culture? Raised by gays? Recruited?

• Evolutionary considerations

• How have we decorated ourselves over the centuries?

• How do we emphasize certain features?

Affiliation, Achievement

Q11 - Affiliation - evolutionary perspective

• In what ways does being part of a group facilitate the likelihood that we will survive and reproduce?

• Is the need to belong genetic or conditioned?

Q12 Scales of affiliation

• Social comparison

• Positive stimulation

• Emotional support

• Attention

Social comparison

• We associate with similar people

• We emulate, admire, imitate people higher in social status than us

• Do we ever imitate those of lower status?

Positive stimulation

• We get positive feedback from friends

• They support our efforts to succeed

• They join in our activities

• They confirm our choices

Emotional support

• Benefits of the emotional support and bonds of friends and loved ones

• Longer, healthier lived

• Stress and emotional support

• Why do we celebrate birthdays?

Q13 Achievement

• Is need for achievement a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior?

• The psychological need to succeed at work, in school, in other areas of life

Intrinsic and extrinsic

• Intrinsic motivations are those that drive us to perform behavior for its own sake

• Extrinsic motivations are those that we perform in the hopes of receiving rewards or avoiding punishment

Goals Q14

• Mastery goals - desire to master new information or skills - usually intrinsic

• Performance-approach goals - desire to succeed in order to gain approval or other benefits

• Performance-avoidance goals - desire to succeed to avoid unpleasant consequences of failure

Church’s research

• In a moderately challenging college course, who made the highest grades and who enjoyed the class most?– Students with high mastery and low perf-

approach goals– Students with low mastery and high perf-

avoidance goals– Students with high performance-approach goals

Achievement vs affiliation

• Are the two mutually exclusive?

• Can you achieve and maintain strong social bonds?

Stress Q15

• Stressor

• Stress reaction

• Stress – a process of relating to env.

• Emotional response

• Physical response– Epinephrine and norepinephrine– glucocorticoids

Selye’s GAS Q16

• General adaptation syndrome

• Alarm

• Resistance

• Exhaustion

• Catastrophies, Life events, daily stress

Effects and coping

• Physiological effects– Heart – type A and B personality– Immune responses– Cancer

• Coping Q20– Perceived control– Explanatory style – optimist / pessimist– Social support – exercise - biofeedback

Emotions The Basic 10 (or 12 or so)

• Joy, excitement, surprise, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, contempt, shame, guilt, pride, love, envy

• Q17 All have some element of – Physiological arousal– Expressive behavior (verbal, non-verbal)– Conscious experience (cognitive)

Which comes first?

• Arousal first?• You’re in a small boat on the ocean. In the

distance a huge storm is developing. You begin to tremble. You feel afraid. Your emotion follows the arousal

• Q18 That’s the James-Lange theory• (William James and Carl Lange)• Sensation ANS amygdala

Phooey

• How can the sailor tell if he’s afraid or excited or in love? The arousal state is all the same

• The sensation must be routed simultaneously to both cerebral cortex and to ANS -- arousal and emotion occur simultaneously

• Cannon-Baird theory (Cannon was Wm. James’s son-in-law)

More phooey

• They’re both wrong and right

• Like JL, arousal precedes emotion

• Like CB, arousals are all the same

• How to tell the difference?

• Arousal + cognitive label = emotion

• This is the Schachter-Singer Two factor theory (it rhymes)

One more interesting theory

• Solomon opponent-process theory

• Where have you heard that term before?

• A) every state of feeling is followed by a contrasting state of similar intensity

• B) any feeling experienced many times loses some of its intensity

Arousal and performance

• Q19 See pg. 517

• Performance peak at high arousal for easy tasks; lower arousal for harder tasks

• Better learned – go for high arousal!

• Didn’t study? Try to relax