Qualitative Research Process from Phenomenological, Ethnographic, and Action Research Perspectives

Class 4

Judith Anne Shaw, Ph.D., R.N.

October 7, 2009

Overview of Class 4

Foundations of Qualitative Research

Purpose and meaning of a study design

Selecting an appropriate design

Using Phenomenological Approach

Using Ethnographic Approach

Foundations of Qualitative Research

Scientists felt:

an inability to quantitatively measure certain phenomena

a dissatisfaction with quantitative measurement results of some phenomena

a desire to grasp the lived experience of another

Philosophical Underpinnings Qualitative Research

Counter movement to Positivist paradigm (based on 19th Century thought)

Interpretive Perspective

Critical/Feminist Perspective

Philosophical Underpinnings Qualitative Research

1. Interpretive Perspective

Interpretive Perspective

Philosophers, such as,

Max Weber

Researcher

Determine the interpretations

individuals

put on their actions

and

the actions and reactions of others

InterpretiveAssumptions

Multiple realities

Reality based on perception

Meaning content bound

Critical Perspective

Theorists, such as,

Karl Marx

Kurt Lewin

Critical Perspective

Habermas (1971) described critical theory as a way to develop knowledge that is free, undistorted, and unconstrained.

Unfreezing law-like structures and to encourage self reflections for those whom the laws are about .

ResearcherUnderstand:

how people communicate how people develop symbolic meaning

(Habermas, 1971)Try to

uncover constraints that limit full participation by all members in society

Empower those who are part of the process to act on their own behalf to solve real world problems

Critical Perspective Assumptions

Different groups attempting to enhance their own interests at the expense of less powerful groups

Obligation to act as advocates working for change in society

Work towards true egalitarian society

Understanding the Philosophic Position

It is essential

to understanding the

philosophic assumptions

that are the foundation

of the method

Lack of understanding

the philosophic underpinnings of the chosen method

has the potential of leading

to sloppy science

Understanding the Philosophic Position

SimultaneityParadigm

Simultaneity Paradigm

mutual process- human and environment

open participation with the universe greater than the sum of the parts gained insights into human living

Ask

Why conduct a qualitative study?

Qualitative Research

An inquiry process

CHALLENGECompare

Qualitative

And

Quantitative

Research

Purpose and Meaning Study Design

The design is: the ‘Blueprint’ of a study

a guide to answer questions or test hypothesis

the critical link between the researcher’s framework and questions with the resultant data.

REMEMBER

The research process is built from the research question

Characteristics: QualitativeResearch Designs

Multiple realities

Discovery- lead choice of techniques)

Committed to participants’ view point

Characteristics: QualitativeResearch Designs

Do not disturb the natural context

Researcher as instrument, part of the research study

Narrative style written report including participants’ comments

Qualitative Research Designs

Selection of a sample of participants (such as purposive/theoretical)

Research setting

Designing a Qualitative Study

Possible Data Collection Methods(decisions about and actual collection)

Participation in the setting

Direct observation

In-Depth Interviewing

Document Review

Designing a Qualitative Study

Ethical consideration

Data Analysis

Describe the strategies used to analyze the data

Issues of Trustworthiness Credibility Dependability Transferability Confirmability

Findings

Present within a context

Report of the findings provide the essence of the experience

Prepared by the stakeholders (Action Research)

Findings

Researcher’s conceptualizations are true to the data

Stakeholders construct new knowledge A new way to deal with a practical problem

Placed within the context of what is already known about the phenomenon

Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations

Conclusions:

Provide the reader with a context in which to use the findings

Reflect the study findings

Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations

Implications:

Make specific the significance of the study to nursing

Conclusions, Implications, and Recommendations

Recommendations:

Offer recommendation for future study

Provide direction for long-term implementation of change

Examples

Qualitative Research Designs

Phenomenological Design

to describe an experience lived by the person

to discover the meaning of a particular experience for participants

Phenomenological Design

Addresses questions, such as:

What is the experience of living with chronic airway disease?

Philosophical Underpinnings Guiding

Phenomenological Design

Existentialism- how one views the world, the personal ‘here and now’

The nature of being- here and now

Lifeworld and intersubjectivity

Lifeworld

The world of lived experiences

Intersubjectivity

How subjective awareness and understanding

can be shared in a common world.

Philosophers

Kant- distinction between phenomenon/noumenon

(what appears to us in perception/the thing in itself)

Hegel- phenomena provide a basisfor a universal science ofbeing

Philosophers

Husserl [father of phenomenology] in describing the essence of the

phenomenon the essence of the lived experience is revealed

“what was observed was not the only reality”

Philosophers

Kierkegaard existentialism

Heidegger concern about one’s own being-in-

the-world

Phenomenology

Both

a philosophy

and

a method

FOCUSPhenomenological

Investigation

To describe the meaning of the lived experience from the perspective of the individual

Research Question

Broad question

Allows the participants to provide the answers

Researcher

As instrument

*Bracketing one’s perspective about the phenomenon (*no bracketing with hermeneutic phenomenology)

Sampling

Purposive

have experienced the phenomenon of interest

willing and able to talk about their experience

Sample Size

Based on saturation of data

[descriptions becoming repetitive with no new or

different ideas or interpretations emerging]

Data Collection

Variety of techniques may be used

in-depth interviews

written descriptions of specific experiences

participant observation (various stages)

diaries

DATA ANALYSIS

Data Collection and Analysis simultaneously

DATA ANALYSIS

Several Methods

Vancouver School of Phenomenology

1. Collect participants’ description of the lived experience

2. Read and reread participants’ description of phenomenon

3. Extract significant phrases and statements from transcripts

Vancouver School of Phenomenology

4. Formulate meaning if significant phrases; cluster into themes

5. From themes identify essential structure of the phenomenon

Vancouver School of Phenomenology

6. Integrate data into a meaningful and exhaustive description of phenomenon

7. Verification of essential structure of phenomenon with participants

AIM

All the possible descriptions

and understandings

of the experience are uncovered Not concerned with frequency or

prevalence of a theme

Literature Review

Place study findings

within the context

of what is known about the phenomenon

Writing Phenomenological Findings

The essential structure or essence of the experience “be seen” through language

The unifying meaning of the experience that is recognized by participants

Ethnographic Design

To describe a culture of a particular group of people

Oldest qualitative research method in use today (originated mid-1880’s)

Developed by Anthropologists

Cultural Context

To observe the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of another group of people

To grasp the individual’s point of view, his relation to life, to realize his vision of life

Ethnography

Learning from people,

to be taught by them

Ethnography

Both

a process and

an outcome

of research

RESEACHER

become a student

begin with a conscious attitude of almost complete ignorance

Researcher

As instrument

To develop a ‘thick description’

(Geertz, 2007)

THICK DESCRIPTION

To make explicit the detailed patterns of

culture and social relationships within the

context

Ethnographic Design

Addresses questions, such as:

What is the meaning of being ill?

What is the meaning of

FOUR ETHNOGRAPHIC Schools Of Thought

Classical

Systematic

Interpretative (or Hermeneutic)

Critical

Classical Ethnography

Description of behavior

Demonstrates why and under what circumstances behavior took place

Description of everything about the culture

Systematic Ethnography

Define the structure of the culture

Example: Work conducted by Spradley

Interpretative (or Hermeneutic)Ethnography

Discover the meaning of observed social interaction

Study culture through inferences and implications found in behavior

Critical Ethnography

Researchers and members together create a cultural scheme (through communicative practice

and reflection, researchers and participants discern an absolute truth of the culture]

SamplingPurposive

Work with

‘key informants’

representative of the group under study

‘Good Informant’

1. Thoroughly enculturated

2. Current involvement

3. Nonanalytic

4. Adequate time

Sample Size

Based on saturation of data

-rich, full and complete

description

Entering the Field

Naturalistic setting for data collection

Gatekeeper to the field

Prolonged time in the field

Data Collection

Varied techniques may be used

٠participant observations٠interviews٠focus groups٠histories٠films٠photographs

Kinds of Data

Words

Actions

Artifacts

Ethnographic Interview

A particular kind of speech event

Ethnographic Interview Greeting Avoid repetition Asking questions Expressing interest Expressing ignorance Taking turns talking Abbreviations Pausing Leave taking- verbal ritual that says, “The end”

Kinds of Questions

Researcher asks the Informant:

-grand tour questions-descriptive questions-structural questions-contrast questions

Ethnographic Record

Field notes

Journaling

Debriefing

Data Analysis

Question-Discovery

Data Analysis

Data Collection and Analysis

Cyclical: back and forth

Collecting data

Recording data

Analyzing data

Return to field to collect more data

Emic/Etic Perspectives

Emic perspective informant’s perspective of

reality

Etic perspective researcher’s perspective of the studied setting/actions

Data Analysis

Emic and Etic

Perspectives

Compare

Explore

AIM

Identifying cultural patterns in the data

Four Levels of Analysis

1. Domain Analysis

2. Taxonomic Analysis

3. Componential Analysis

4. Theme Analysis

Level OneDomain Analysis

Discovering the meaning of a select social situation by determining the

parts or element of cultural meaning and how they are

organized* Stream of behavior carried out by

people in a particular situation

Cultural Scene

Culture under study

-a category of meaning that contains smaller categories of

meaning

Kinds of Domains

Kinds of ------ X is a kind of Y Parts of a ----- X is a part of Y Results of ---- X is a result of Y Reasons for---- X is a reason for Y Stages in ---- X is a stage in Y Ways to get --- X is a way to get Y Places to find ---- X is a place to Y Uses of ---- X is a use of Y

Level TwoTaxonomic Analysis

Builds upon

first level of analysis

(more in-depth)

Level TwoTaxonomic Analysis

Determining

how the domain is organized

Level TwoTaxonomic Analysis

Relationships among the observations

within the domain

are sought

Level TwoTaxonomic Analysis

In-depth analysis of the domains

-set of categories

Ask structured questions

Structured Questions

Ready to:

- test the domain and

- discover additional included terms

Structured Questions

1. Verification questions

2. Cover term questions

3. Included term questions

4. Substitution frame questions

5. Card sorting questions

Structured Questions

You mentioned that -you- use different ways to ---

What are some of these?

Can you think of other ways -you- use to ---?

Level ThreeComponential Analysis

Identify the component parts or units of meaning for each domain

*search for attributes

To ask questions of the data for the identification of dimensions of contrast

Level ThreeComponential Analysis

Contrasts among the cultural categories in the domains

Contrasting Questions

1. Do you see any difference between --- and ---?

2. What are the differences between --- and ---?

Componential Analysis

Add all identified contrasts to the components of meaning for

any contrast set

Literature Review

Conducted during cyclical data collection-analysis steps

Level FourTheme Analysis

Conceptual themes that members of a society use to

connect domains

Level FourTheme Analysis

Examination of Data

recurrent patterns that apply to numerous situations

recur in two or more domains

Writing Ethnographic Findings

Translate the meaning of a culture so well that someone

unfamiliar will grasp the meanings.

Issues of Trustworthiness Credibility:

confidence in the truth of data

prolonged involvement with participants (such as, interview time)

persistent observation triangulation peer debriefing member checks

Issues of Trustworthiness Transferability:

how can findings be transferred from a

representative sample of a population to another person or group

rich description of the social process stating the characteristics and setting

of participants decision trail

Issues of Trustworthiness

Dependability: the stability and the trackability of

changes in the data over time and conditions

reliant on credibility

Issues of Trustworthiness

Dependability:

inquiry audit trail (such as, good documentation) is important; the trail outlines the data collection and analysis and the decisions made throughout the research process

stepwise replication external checks on the procedures

Issues of Trustworthiness

Confirmability:

objectivity of the data

the data are linked to their source for the reader to establish that the conclusions and interpretations arise directly from the data

inquiry audit trail