Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research

Rhiannon PrinceRhiannon Prince

Karen MatsonKaren Matson

Laura FlamanLaura Flaman

ArticleArticle

Qualitative Validation of a Model For Qualitative Validation of a Model For Coping With Acute Stress in SportsCoping With Acute Stress in Sports

Journal of Sport Behaviour; Sept 2001, Journal of Sport Behaviour; Sept 2001, Vol. 24 Issue 3, p223Vol. 24 Issue 3, p223

Authors & AffiliationsAuthors & Affiliations

Mark Anshel, Ph.D., Mark Anshel, Ph.D., Orlando,FLOrlando,FL

LGE LGE Performance Performance SystemsSystems

Information gathered Information gathered from Illawarra from Illawarra Steelers’s Rugby Steelers’s Rugby League Organization.League Organization.

Qualitative researchQualitative research

• In simple terms, qualitative research In simple terms, qualitative research is social or behavioral science is social or behavioral science research without the numbersresearch without the numbers

• A form of non-experimental researchA form of non-experimental research

• It examines behavior in natural It examines behavior in natural social, cultural and political contextssocial, cultural and political contexts

Qualitative Research Qualitative Research SourcesSources• DocumentationDocumentation

• Archival recordsArchival records

• Physical artifactsPhysical artifacts

• Direct observationDirect observation

• Participant observationParticipant observation

• Focus groups Focus groups

• Case studiesCase studies

• And our favorite form And our favorite form of research source….of research source….

Interviews!Interviews!

• A very powerful toolA very powerful tool• When designed correctly, an interview When designed correctly, an interview

should allow full exploration of the subject should allow full exploration of the subject at handat hand

• Interviews useInterviews use•Open ended questionsOpen ended questions•Mirror questionsMirror questions•Hypothetical questionsHypothetical questions•Summary questionsSummary questionsBut not leading questions…they’re bad.But not leading questions…they’re bad.

The StudyThe Study

• The primary purpose of this study was to The primary purpose of this study was to see how the current model for coping with see how the current model for coping with stress related to sport competitionstress related to sport competition

• Structured personal interviews were Structured personal interviews were conducted with 28 Australian Rugby conducted with 28 Australian Rugby League players from New South Wales League players from New South Wales Australia following two highly intense Australia following two highly intense stressful events they had experienced stressful events they had experienced during a previous match.during a previous match.

The ModelThe Model

• The model consists of:The model consists of:

• 1. Perceiving a stimulus or 1. Perceiving a stimulus or experiencing an eventexperiencing an event

• 2. Appraising that event as stressful2. Appraising that event as stressful

• 3. Using either approach or avoidance 3. Using either approach or avoidance coping strategies (cognitive or coping strategies (cognitive or behavioral)behavioral)

• 4. Enacting post-coping activity4. Enacting post-coping activity

The StudyThe Study

• The results, using deductive content The results, using deductive content analysis at each stage of the model analysis at each stage of the model confirmed the the use of harm/less, confirmed the the use of harm/less, threat and challenge appraisals, threat and challenge appraisals, approach and avoidance coping approach and avoidance coping strategies and three categories of strategies and three categories of post-coping activity.post-coping activity.

• Huh???Huh???

Perceived StressPerceived Stress

• The coping process begins with the The coping process begins with the athletes perception of an event or athletes perception of an event or detection of a stimulusdetection of a stimulus

• The experience is not considered The experience is not considered stressful until the athlete interprets stressful until the athlete interprets the experience or stimulus as the experience or stimulus as stressful…a process called stressful…a process called cognitive cognitive appraisalappraisal

Cognitive AppraisalCognitive Appraisal

• Consists of evaluating perceived stimuli Consists of evaluating perceived stimuli and determining if they are stressful, with and determining if they are stressful, with implications for further coping effortsimplications for further coping efforts

• Athletes make stressful appraisals if they Athletes make stressful appraisals if they determine that a situation was unpleasant, determine that a situation was unpleasant, a stimulus or event has threatened their a stimulus or event has threatened their well being or is taxing on his or hers well being or is taxing on his or hers personal resourcespersonal resources

• Athletes can perceive stressful events as Athletes can perceive stressful events as harmful, threatening or challengingharmful, threatening or challenging

Harm/ Loss AppraisalHarm/ Loss Appraisal

• Reflects the Reflects the amount of stress or amount of stress or damage that has damage that has already occurredalready occurred

• Examples: Examples: • Being injuredBeing injured

• Feeling painFeeling pain

• Success of an Success of an opponent opponent

• Being reprimandedBeing reprimanded

Threat AppraisalThreat Appraisal

• Consist of expectations for future harmConsist of expectations for future harm• Occur when an athlete senses threat Occur when an athlete senses threat

or danger in which they are worried or danger in which they are worried about how the situation would turn outabout how the situation would turn out

• Can be irrational and based on Can be irrational and based on athletes thoughts of worst case athletes thoughts of worst case scenarios, or a reflection of low scenarios, or a reflection of low confidenceconfidence

• ““What if my opponent scores?”What if my opponent scores?”

Challenge AppraisalsChallenge Appraisals

• Reflect the view that the person will benefit Reflect the view that the person will benefit from overcoming the stressful experiencefrom overcoming the stressful experience

• An important component is the anticipation or An important component is the anticipation or prediction that unpleasant events are inherent prediction that unpleasant events are inherent in sport an must be overcome in order to in sport an must be overcome in order to achieve a desirable outcome.achieve a desirable outcome.

• Form a mindset that reflects confidence in Form a mindset that reflects confidence in one’s skills to analyze and handle the situationone’s skills to analyze and handle the situation

CopingCoping

• Typically defined as the person’s conscious Typically defined as the person’s conscious attempt to reduce or manage the demands attempt to reduce or manage the demands of a stressful situation, or expanding the of a stressful situation, or expanding the person’s resources to deal with itperson’s resources to deal with it

• A conscious process in sportA conscious process in sport

• So…angry outbursts, profanity, not attending So…angry outbursts, profanity, not attending to stimuli (opponents comments etc) and to stimuli (opponents comments etc) and other impulsive, unplanned reactions to other impulsive, unplanned reactions to stress are not considered copingstress are not considered coping

Approach CopingApproach Coping

• Reflect the intensified intake and processing of Reflect the intensified intake and processing of unpleasant informationunpleasant information

• The main objectives are to improve one’s The main objectives are to improve one’s understanding or control the situation, or to understanding or control the situation, or to improve one’s personal resources in dealing improve one’s personal resources in dealing with itwith it

• This can occur through thoughts (This can occur through thoughts (approach-approach-cognitive copingcognitive coping) such as planning or analyzing) such as planning or analyzing

• Can also occur by actions (Can also occur by actions (approach-behavioral approach-behavioral copingcoping) such as asking for info or confrontation) such as asking for info or confrontation

Avoidance CopingAvoidance Coping

• Reflects the conscious attempt at Reflects the conscious attempt at physically or mentally turning away physically or mentally turning away from the stressful sourcefrom the stressful source

• This allows the competitor to maintain This allows the competitor to maintain attentional focus on the next task at attentional focus on the next task at handhand

• Two kinds: Avoidance-cognitive and Two kinds: Avoidance-cognitive and avoidance-behavioral coping strategiesavoidance-behavioral coping strategies

Avoidance-Cognitive Avoidance-Cognitive

• Psychological distancingPsychological distancing

• DiscountingDiscounting

• Self-depreciating humorSelf-depreciating humor

• Reinterpreting the stressorReinterpreting the stressor

• RationalizationRationalization

• These are particularity useful when These are particularity useful when dealing with a “difficult” person (i.e. the dealing with a “difficult” person (i.e. the ref)ref)

Avoidance-BehavioralAvoidance-Behavioral

• Actions that physically remove the Actions that physically remove the athlete from the stress sourceathlete from the stress source

•Engaging in exerciseEngaging in exercise

•Social engineering (avoiding a person or Social engineering (avoiding a person or situation)situation)

•Quickly moving on to the next taskQuickly moving on to the next task

• Maladaptive strategies include drug Maladaptive strategies include drug or alcohol abuse and overeatingor alcohol abuse and overeating

Post Coping ActivityPost Coping Activity

• Remaining on taskRemaining on task

• Reappraising the situationReappraising the situation

• Examining the effectiveness of the Examining the effectiveness of the coping strategycoping strategy

• Disengaging from further sport Disengaging from further sport participation (going off task either participation (going off task either physically or mentally)physically or mentally)

Post Coping ActivityPost Coping Activity

• Coping does not assume effectiveness Coping does not assume effectiveness in reducing perceived stressin reducing perceived stress

• Coping should not be confuse with Coping should not be confuse with outcomeoutcome

• The athlete may use coping strategies The athlete may use coping strategies that are ineffective, inefficient or that are ineffective, inefficient or inappropriate (maladaptive)inappropriate (maladaptive)

Main FindingsMain Findings

• Data was analyzed Data was analyzed using deductive using deductive content analysis content analysis (DCA)(DCA)– DCA: consists of DCA: consists of

assigning the athletes’ assigning the athletes’ statements into statements into predetermined predetermined categories, dimensions categories, dimensions and interrelationships and interrelationships based on theoretical or based on theoretical or conceptual groundsconceptual grounds

Main FindingsMain Findings

• First step in analysis: determine acute First step in analysis: determine acute sources of stresssources of stress

• Primary sources of acute stress:Primary sources of acute stress:- making a physical error (32%)- making a physical error (32%)- a cheating opponent/physical - a cheating opponent/physical abuse (21%)abuse (21%)

• Least stressful situation was receiving Least stressful situation was receiving negative feedback from the coach (3%)negative feedback from the coach (3%)

Main FindingsMain Findings

StressorsStressors Percent of Percent of Total Total ObservationObservationss

Making a physical errorMaking a physical error 32%32%Opponent cheating (physical abuse)Opponent cheating (physical abuse) 21%21%Referee’s decisionReferee’s decision 16%16%Experiencing painExperiencing pain 14%14%Opponent’s performance successOpponent’s performance success 12%12%Negative feedback from coachNegative feedback from coach 3%3%

Six Categories of Acute Stress (Stressors)

Main FindingsMain Findings

- Extensive use of threat appraisals - Extensive use of threat appraisals (48%)(48%)

• E.g. Concern that the other team may be betterE.g. Concern that the other team may be better

- Harm/Loss appraisals (34%)- Harm/Loss appraisals (34%)• E.g. Fear of injury after experiencing hard contact of E.g. Fear of injury after experiencing hard contact of

painpain

- Challenge appraisals (18%)- Challenge appraisals (18%)• E.g. Wanting to make others proudE.g. Wanting to make others proud

Data suggests that the athletes responded to Data suggests that the athletes responded to stressful situations with heightened anxietystressful situations with heightened anxiety

Second Step: Content Analysis of Stress Appraisals

Main FindingsMain Findings

• Used to determine the extent to which athletes used various coping Used to determine the extent to which athletes used various coping strategiesstrategies

- Selected Approach-Cognitive Coping Strategies (37%)- Selected Approach-Cognitive Coping Strategies (37%) E.g. I kept on thinking about the stressor OR I tried E.g. I kept on thinking about the stressor OR I tried

to analyze what went wrongto analyze what went wrong- Selected Approach-Behavioral Coping Strategies (18%)- Selected Approach-Behavioral Coping Strategies (18%) E.g. I played harder OR I spoke to my teammates E.g. I played harder OR I spoke to my teammates

about itabout it- Selected Avoidance-Cognitive Coping Strategies (12%)- Selected Avoidance-Cognitive Coping Strategies (12%) E.g. The coach is always that way OR I thought the E.g. The coach is always that way OR I thought the

other team had a lucky breakother team had a lucky break- Selected Avoidance-Behavioral Coping Strategies(14%)- Selected Avoidance-Behavioral Coping Strategies(14%) E.g. I just kept on going on task OR I walked away E.g. I just kept on going on task OR I walked away

from my opponentfrom my opponent

Third Step: Content Analysis of Coping Strategies

Main Findings Main Findings

• Asking the athletes to report on their thoughts Asking the athletes to report on their thoughts and actions after they implemented the coping and actions after they implemented the coping strategystrategy

- Did not cope/went off task (18%)- Did not cope/went off task (18%) E.g. I wanted to quit the teamE.g. I wanted to quit the team

- Remained on task (55%)- Remained on task (55%) E.g. I pretended that nothing happenedE.g. I pretended that nothing happened- Assessed coping efficiency/effectiveness - Assessed coping efficiency/effectiveness

(16%)(16%) E.g. I just felt betterE.g. I just felt better- Cognitive Reappraisal (28%)- Cognitive Reappraisal (28%) E.g. It’s still early in the matchE.g. It’s still early in the match

Fourth Step: Content Analysis of Post-Coping

Activity

Main FindingsMain Findings• Coping is a conscious rather than an Coping is a conscious rather than an

automatic processautomatic process• Stages of coping, as depicted by these Stages of coping, as depicted by these

athletes, lends credence to the ability to athletes, lends credence to the ability to identify a framework for further study of identify a framework for further study of coping in sportcoping in sport

• The qualitative procedures used in this The qualitative procedures used in this study supports contention that structured study supports contention that structured personal interviews and deductive content personal interviews and deductive content analyses form an effective approach to analyses form an effective approach to identifying a process or series of thoughts identifying a process or series of thoughts and actions that occur in field settingsand actions that occur in field settings

Main FindingsMain Findings

• Has direct implications for assisting athletes Has direct implications for assisting athletes to improve their coping skills prior to and to improve their coping skills prior to and during the gameduring the game

• Threat appraisals can also be advantageous Threat appraisals can also be advantageous for alerting athletes about potential for alerting athletes about potential problems and improving vigilance in either problems and improving vigilance in either preventing the problem or quickly dealing preventing the problem or quickly dealing with itwith it

• Identifying athletes’ coping styles (usual Identifying athletes’ coping styles (usual pattern of coping – depicted as approach pattern of coping – depicted as approach and avoidance) improves the predictability and avoidance) improves the predictability of an athletes use of particular coping of an athletes use of particular coping strategiesstrategies

CritiqueCritique

Threats to External ValidityThreats to External Validity

• Reactive ArrangementsReactive Arrangements

The athletes know about the The athletes know about the study, what is expected, may affect study, what is expected, may affect answers they giveanswers they give

• Experimenter EffectsExperimenter Effects

Answers given may be effected Answers given may be effected by the presence of the interviewer by the presence of the interviewer and his grad studentsand his grad students

Threats to Internal ValidityThreats to Internal Validity

• Maturation EffectMaturation Effect

The study lasted for over 2 years, The study lasted for over 2 years, natural development may have occurred natural development may have occurred in an athletes coping strategiesin an athletes coping strategies

• HistoryHistory

Changes may have occurred during Changes may have occurred during study due to an athletes outside study due to an athletes outside influences influences

Weaknesses of the study:Weaknesses of the study:

• Social Desirability Social Desirability OutcomesOutcomes

• Self Report Self Report methodsmethods

• Interviewer BiasInterviewer Bias

• Lack of Lack of GeneralizabilityGeneralizability

Social DesirabilitySocial Desirability

• Athletes wanted to provide what they Athletes wanted to provide what they think is the proper responsethink is the proper response

• Didn’t want to get in trouble from Didn’t want to get in trouble from their coaches or other team their coaches or other team personnel for answering a certain personnel for answering a certain wayway

• Didn’t want to give the interviewer Didn’t want to give the interviewer the “wrong” responsethe “wrong” response

Self Report MethodsSelf Report Methods

• Purely based on Purely based on perceptionsperceptions

• Subjected to Subjected to personal biasespersonal biases

• May give May give misinterpretations misinterpretations when trying to when trying to remember specific remember specific eventsevents

Interviewer BiasInterviewer Bias

• Same team psychologist for over two Same team psychologist for over two yearsyears

• Interviewers questions may have been Interviewers questions may have been leading in order to guide the athlete to a leading in order to guide the athlete to a desired responsedesired response

• Predetermined categories for the Predetermined categories for the answers may lead to biases while answers may lead to biases while assigning the answers to the different assigning the answers to the different categoriescategories

Lack of GeneralizabilityLack of Generalizability

• Information taken from one team in Information taken from one team in the Australian Rugby Leaguethe Australian Rugby League

• Small sample size (n=28)Small sample size (n=28)

• No random assignmentNo random assignment

• Cultural and situational factors may Cultural and situational factors may have influenced responseshave influenced responses

Future Research Future Research SuggestionsSuggestions

Make the study more Make the study more generalizable:generalizable:

• Include players from different teams Include players from different teams within the leaguewithin the league

• Larger sample sizeLarger sample size

• Random assignment of teams Random assignment of teams involvedinvolved

• Account for situational and cultural Account for situational and cultural factors that may affect results factors that may affect results

Control for biasesControl for biases

• Different Different formatting for formatting for gathering datagathering data

• Different methods Different methods for reporting ideas for reporting ideas and stress and stress responsesresponses

Why Use Qualitative Why Use Qualitative Research?Research?• Information needed as a starting point to a Information needed as a starting point to a

topic that is fairly unknown or under topic that is fairly unknown or under researchedresearched

E.g. Acute stress within rugby or E.g. Acute stress within rugby or professional sportsprofessional sports

• Information gathered from many different Information gathered from many different factors: natural, social and culturalfactors: natural, social and cultural

E.g. How rugby players from different E.g. How rugby players from different leagues and teams react to similar leagues and teams react to similar stressful events stressful events

Why Use Qualitative Research? Why Use Qualitative Research? ...Continued...Continued

• In-depth ideas of why a person thinks a In-depth ideas of why a person thinks a certain waycertain way

E.g. Interviews with a player to E.g. Interviews with a player to determine why they responded the way determine why they responded the way they didthey did

• Gather a lot of information on a limited areaGather a lot of information on a limited area

E.g. Case study of 1 rugby teamE.g. Case study of 1 rugby team

THE ENDTHE END