1
Quaternary Reactivation of North Almora
Thrust in Central Kumaun: Implication to
Neotectonic Rejuvenation,
Lesser Himalaya, Uttarakhand
Thesis Submitted to
Kumaun University, Nainital
for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in
Geology
Supervisor Submitted by
Dr. P. D. Pant Girish Chandra Kothyari
Reader SRF- CSIR
Department of Geology No. 9.428(61)2K6-EMR-1
Kumaun University, Nainital, Uttaranchal
2007
2
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGYKUMAUN UNIVERSITY, NAINITAL-263 002
UTTARANCHAL, INDIA
Dr. P. D. Pant Reader
Dated: -06-2007
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. Girish Chandra Kothyari has carried out the
present research work for the award of Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
(Ph.D.) in Geology on the topic “Quaternary Reactivation of North
Almora Thrust in Central Kumaun: Implication to Neotectonic
Rejuvenation, Lesser Himalaya, Uttaranchal” under my supervision,
in the Department of Geology, Kumaun University, Nainital. This work
embodies the original work of the candidate, based on the field and
laboratory investigations carried out by him.
The candidate has put in more than 200 days attendance in the
Department of Geology and pursued a course of research for the period
specified by the ordinance of the Kumaun University related to the Degree
of Philosophy.
Dr. P.D. Pant Forwarded by
(Thesis Supervisor) (Head, Department of Geology)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----- Ph: (Off.): 05942 – 232697, 235114 Fax: 05942 – 232697 (Res.): 237225 E-mail: [email protected]
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTACKNOWLEDGEMENTACKNOWLEDGEMENTACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This thesis is the outcome of my four year research work under the guidance of Dr. P. D.
Pant, Reader in the Department of Geology, Kumaun University Nainital. I express my deep
sense of gratitude and thanks to my Supervisor, Dr. P.D. Pant, Reader, Department of Geology,
Kumaun University, for his constant inspiration, support and able guidance to complete this
work. His indefatigable attitude helped greatly to complete the extensive field work in all the
areas. My heartfelt thanks are due to him for encouraging me not only for the research work but
also to appear for the various exams. The Senior Research Fellowship of CSIR was an outcome of
that encouragement. His un-interfering and understanding attitude helped me to complete this
task successfully for which I will ever remain indebted to him.
I express my sincere thanks and regards to Prof. Charu C. Pant, Prof. and Head,
Department of Geology for providing all the necessary facility during the long tenure of research.
With a great sense of regard I acknowledge help and suggestions provided by my respected
teachers Prof. O.P Goel, Prof. A.K. Sharma, Prof. Santosh Kumar, Dr. G. K. Sharma, Dr. B.S.
Kotlia, Dr. R.N. Pandey, Dr. Rajeev Upadhyaya, Dr. Pradeep Goswami, and Dr. S.N. Lal,
throughout the research period.
The help by Council of Scientific and Industrial Research in the form of Senior Research
Fellowship (No.9/428 (61) 2K6 – EMR- I dated 14-6-2003) is gratefully acknowledged.
My heartiest thanks are due to Dr. L. S. Chmyal, Dr. Rohtas Kumar, Dr. U. K. Shukla,
Dr. S.S. Bhakuni, Dr, Khyingshing Luirei for guiding me throughout my Ph.D., their visions,
restless spirits during the Quaternary sedimentation, Neotectonics and Morphotectonics data
generation and the way to explain this intricate subject not only added a chapter in my thesis
4
I express my sincere thanks to Dr. H. B. Srivastava, Banaras Hindu Universit, Dr,
Javeed Malik, and Dr. Rajeev Sinha, I I T Kannpur, Dr. Malay Mukul, C-CMMAC Bangalore,
Dr. A. K. Dubey, Dr. S. S. Bhakuni, Dr. G. Perumal and Dr. P. Srivastava, Wadia Institure of
Himalayan Geology and Dr. D.C Srivastava IIT Roorkee for giving me basics Knowledge of
Structural and Quaternary tectonics during various SERC school training programs sponsored by
Department of Science and Technology New Delhi.
I am very grateful to my colleagues Dr. Suman Joshi, Dr. Karan Pal Singh Rawat, Dr.
Moulishree Joshi, Dr. Indu Pant, Dr. Birendra Pratap Singh, Dr. Brijesh Singh, Dr. Abhishek
Pandey, Dr. Vikolino Rino, Dr. Thepfuvilie Pieru, Dr. Prabha Joshi, Ms. Jyoti Bora, Ms. Manju
Pandey, Hem Ch. Upreti, Vivekanand Pathak, Gopal Singh Dharamwal, Vikas Bisht, Ms. Nidhi
Arya, Ms. Archana Bohra, Ms. Vandana Mewari, Rakesh Dumka, Ms. Manjari Pathak, Kumar
Abhishek, Pradeep Rawat, Ms. Ritu Chauhan, Ms. Sita Bohra, Ajay Shankar Pandey, Vikas
Singh Chauhan, Sefali pandey, Lalit Joshi, Lucky, Raju, Dippu and Charu for their help and
encouragement throughout the Ph.D.
I express my gratitude towards all the staff members, M. S Bisht, Mr. R. C. Upadhyaya,
Mr. V. Joshi Mr. B,. S. Dhaila, and Mr. Gopal Kapil, Mr. C. S. Dhaila, Mr. Bishan Singh, Mr. J.
S. Bisht, Mr. Ganga Dutta. K.D. Mathela for there at various stages is gratefully acknowledged.
This is my great privilege to thanks Mr. Atul Patidal, Research scholar M. S. University
Baroda for providing STRM data during my research work.
Last but not the least, I am highly grateful to my Parents and my Brother, Sister and
Bhabhi Ji, for their moral support, affection constant encouragements and inspiration all through
out this work, and my Niece Mona, and Nephew Monty for keeping me in high sprit.
GIRISH CHANDRA KOTHYARI
5
CONTENTS
Chapters Page No.
Chapter I: Introduction 1-10
1.1: Introduction 1
1.2: Nature of Problem 3
1.3: Status of Research 6
1.4: Scientific Benefits 8
1.5: Location and Approach 8
1.6: Objectives 9
1.7: Methodology 9
1.8: Work Plan 10
Chapter II: Lithostratigraphy and Tectonic Setup 11-26
2.1: Introduction 11
2.2: Damtha Group 12
2.3: Tejam Group 14
2.4: Almora Group 14
2.5: Lithostratigraphy of the Area 17
2.6: Regional Tectonics and Tectonic Setting of 22
6
North Almora Thrust (zone)
Chapter III: Morphotectonics and Morphometric 27-53
Analysis
3.1: Introduction 27
3.2: Tectonic Geomorphology 28
3.3: Morphometric Analysis 37
3.4: Sinuosity Index 43
Chapter IV: Quaternary Sedimentation: 54-74
4.1: Introduction 54
4.2: Pancheshwar-Seri Section 55
4.3: Seraghat-Seri Section 58
4.4: Seraghat-Dwarahat Section 60
4.5: Dwarahat-Panduwakhal Section 66
4.6: Facies Description and Interpretation 68
4.7: Depositional Environment and Tectonics 73
Chapter V: Tectonic Geomorphology and 75-91
Neotectonics
7
5.1: Introduction 75
5.2: Pancheshwar-Seri Section 77
5.3: Seraghat-Seri Section 80
5.4: Seraghat-Dwarahat Section 82
5.5: Dwarahat-Panduwakhal Section 87
5.6: Rejuvination of North Almora Thrust 89
Chapter VI: Seismotectonics and Sediment 92-105
Deformation
6.1: Introduction 92
6.2: Seismotectonics of Central Himalaya 93
6.3: Major Seismic Events 94
6.4: Sediment Deformation 96
6.5: Interpretation
102
Chapter VII: Discussion and Conclusion 106-121
References 122-
137
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List of Figures
Fig.1.1: Location and approach map of the study area
Fig.1.2: Regional geology and tectonic setup of Himalaya (after Godin, 2003).
Fig.1.3. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Central Kumaun Lesser
Himalaya reflecting actual topographical features of the area of present investigation showing major tectonic
features.
Fig.1.4: Image map of Kumaun Lesser Himalaya showing trace of
North Almora Thrust (NAT) and South Almora Thrust (SAT) and associated transverse faults.
Fig.2.1: (a) Lithological map of the Kumaun Lesser Himalaya
showing position of major thrusts/faults, (b) cross section of Kumaun Himalaya showing major tectonic planes that
define the boundaries of its lithotectonic terrain (after Valdiya, 2001).
Fig.2.2: Topographic map of Central Kumaun Himalaya Showing
dismemberment and dislocation of the late Quaternary geomorphic features and demarcation of the North Almora
Thrust (NAT) and South Almora Thrust (SAT) and associated transverse faults.
Fig.2.3: (a) Regional geological map of the central Kumaun Himalaya, showing extension of Almora Nappe and trace of
NAT, SAT, RT and MBT (after Valdiya, 1980), (b) Reactivation of the Almora Thrust and the subsidiary
thrusts and faults attributed to the compression experienced by Almora Nappe due to the under thrusting of
the Indian plate beneath the Himalaya (after Valdiya, 2001).
9
Fig.2.4: Lithostratigraphic column of the (a) Rautgara Formation,
and (b) Almora Group (after Valdiya, 1980).
Fig.2.5: Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Central Kumaun showing subdivisions of the study area (a) Pancheshwar-
Seri section, (b) Seri-Seraghat section, (c) Seraghat-Dwarahat section and (d) Dwarahat-Panduwakhal section.
Fig.2.6a: Detailed geological map of Pancheshwar-Seri area,
showing lithological subdivisions and the stereo plots are showing geometrical relationship of So of Rautgara Fm. S1 of
Saryu Fm. and lineation.
Fig.2.6b: Cross section of the Saryu river valley observes formation
of gorge at the crossing of the valley by active North Almora Thrust at Ghat (after Valdiya and Kotlia, 2001).
Fig.2.7a: Map showing detail geological features of the Seri-
Seraghat area. Stereo plots are drown for So of Rautgara Fm., S1 of Saryu Fm., and stretching lineations.
Fig.2.7b: Geological cross section across NAT zone near, Seraghat
area showing trace of NAT and SRF.
Fig.2.8: Geological map of the Seraghat-Dwarahat area. The equal area projections show ‘So’ of Rautgara Formation, S1 of
Saryu Formation and lineations.
Fig. 2.9: Geological cross section of litho-units as observed along (a) Kosi and (b) Gagas valleys, in Someshwar and Binta respectively.
Fig.2.10: Geological map of Dwarahat-Chaukhutia-Panduwakhal
area showing various lithounits. Equal area projections show geometrical relationship of ‘So’ of Rautgara Fm., S1 of Saryu
Fm., and lineation.
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Fig.2.11: Geological cross section of Dwarahat-Tragtal area (after
Prakash et al., 1978) showing distribution of various litho units.
Fig.3.1: Lineament map showing trace of major faults/ thrusts,
while rose diagrams show orientation of lineaments of the Pancheshwar-Ghat area.
Fig.3.2: Lineament map of the Ghat-Seri section showing
thrust/faults, and rose diagram of principal lineaments.
Fig.3.3: Lineament map showing major faults/thrusts and rose diagram of principal lineaments, in Basoli-Seraghat area.
Fig. 3.4: Sketch map showing major lineament/faults and thrust located in the Seraghat-Dwarahat area. The rose diagram is
showing orientation of lineaments in the area. Fig. 3.5: Sketch map showing major fault/ thrust and lineament in
the Ramganga river system in Dwarahat-Panduwakhal
area. Rose diagram indicates general orientation of the lineaments.
Fig.3.6: Drainage map and rose diagrams of the Pancheshwar-Ghat
section are showing orientation of 1st, 2nd and 3rd order of stream.
Fig. 3.7: Drainage map and rose diagram of the Seri-Ghat section
shows orientation of 1st, 2nd and 3rd order streams direction.
Fig. 3.8: Map showing drainage patteern of Seraghat-Seri section reflecting orientation of different order of drainage basin.
Fig. 3.9: Drainage pattern of the Seraghat-Dwarahat area showing
orientation of 1st, 2nd and 3rd order of drainage system.
Fig. 3.10: Map showing drainage pattern of the Ramganga valley in Dwarahat-Chaukhutia-Panduwakhal area. Rose diagram
11
show orientation of 1st, 2nd and 3rd order of drainage
basins.
Fig. 3.11: Longitudinal valley profiles of Saryu, Jaigan, Kosi, Gagas and Ramganga rivers, reflecting shape of the river valley
and positions of Knick points. Fig. 3.12: Three dimensional valley profile of major river systems in
Kumaun Himalaya showing position of Knick points,
marked by stars.
Fig. 3.13: Longitudinal valley profiles along the lower catchment of Saryu river between (a) Pancheshwar-Seri, (b) Seri-
Seraghat showing knick points close to NAT, the bottom
profile (c) drown along Jaigan river, shows location of the knick points and values of gradient index.
Fig. 3.14: Longitudinal valley profiles of (a) Kosi, (b) Gagas and (c)
Ramganga rivers in the Someshwar-Binta, Panduwakhal-Chaukhutia and Dwarahat-Chaukhutia sections, showing
position of knick points and values of Gradient Index (GI).
Fig. 3.15: Sinuosity character of Saryu river in the section between (a) Pancheshwar-Seri (b) Seri-Seraghat reflects segment
wise distribution of river profile.
Fig. 3.16: Sinuosity character of (a) Gagas, (b) Kosi and (c) Jaigan rivers shows segment wise rivers profiles.
Fig. 3.17a: Ramganga River system showing sinuosity characters of
the (b) Panduwakhal-Chaukhutia-Masi area and (c)
Dwarahat-Chaukhutia-Masi segments.
Fig. 4.1: Lithologs of Quaternary sediments along Saryu River at (a) Pancheshwar, and (b) Rari, shows deposition of various units
during recent time.
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Fig. 4.2: Litho-column of the terraces showing deposition of fluvial
sediments at (a) Nali, and (b) Ara section in the Saryu valley.
Fig. 4.3: Lithologs of fluvio-lacustrine sediments prepared at (a)
Lodh, (b) Paner gaon (c) Sakuni and (d) Bhandrigaon, show deposition of various sedimentary facies in recent time.
Fig. 4.4: Litholog of Quaternary sediments observed at (a) Rampur,
(b) Chhitleshwar, and (c) Tragtal area in the upper catchment of Ramganga valley.
Fig. 5.1: Contour map of Central Kumaun, showing development of
tectonically induced rugged topography and position of NAT
and transverse tear faults across the Lesser Himalayan domain.
Fig. 5.2: Digital Elevation Model of Pancheshwar-Seri section
showing development of geomorphic features and trace of North Almora Thrust (NAT).
Fig. 5.3: Five levels of fluvial terraces around Pancheshwar showing
deposition of 72m thick sedimentary succession in recent time.
Fig. 5.4: Field photographs showing (a) straight course of Saryu
River between Chamgad-Pancheshwar, (b) three level of strath terraces at Nisaila with incision and entrenchment of
river valley, (c) series of old landslide with mass-movement taking place on the upthrown block of NAT ( half arrow indicating mass movement direction) as seen near Nisaila.
Fig. 5.5: Towards the upthrown block side of NAT (a) 30m fall is
seen in Simila (b) straight course of Saryu River at Ghat and (c) Formation of gorge in thrust zone at and around Ghat
area.
Fig. 5.6: cross section of the Saryu river valley observed formation of gorge at the (a) crossing of the valley by the active
13
North Almora thrust (after Valdiya and Kotliya 2001); (b)
dismemberment of the talus fan and formation of three level of terraces with elevation difference 11, 12, 25m on
the southern slope of Thalkedar range due to the movement of NAT and associated faults at Panthyura.
Fig. 5.7: (a) Truncation of the landslide debris cone at Batori, (b)
terraces position at Dabula are attributed to 40m uplift of terraces as demonstrated with (c) cross section at Batori-
Dabula near Rameshwar.
Fig. 5.8: Photograph showing (a) straight course of river along the Panar fault, (b) which gets vertical wall as it approaches
the NAT and supports vertical uplift around this area as
shown by incision of river.
Fig. 5.9: Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of Seraghat-Seri section reflecting topographic features along the NAT, and fault zone of Saryu River Fault (SRF).
Fig. 5.10: (a) Broad open valley and large scale meandering of the Saryu River near Nali, abruptly changes to (b) straight
course particularly between Naichan to Seri section.
Fig. 5.11: Geomorphological map of the Basoli-Seraghat section reflecting different tectonically induces landforms and
recent fluvial deposits.
Fig. 5.12: Photographs showing (a) development of five levels of terraces around Nali near Seraghat and, (b) valley cross section of Nali showing development of unpaired fluvial
terraces. The upliftment around this area has resulted vertical movement of Nali terraces by 44m.
Fig. 5.13: Photographs explaining (a) triangular cones and facets
(Tf, Tc) and abandoned channels (Ac) near Nali and (b) tilting of gravely horizon (Gr) by 110 towards north,
(marked by dotted line) (Arrow indicates mass movement direction).
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Fig. 5.14: Development of (a) three levels of river terraces and levee flood plain deposit at the base of terraces (T1) at
Ara; showing (b) alternate bands of silty and silt mudstone at the top and gravely horizon (Gr) towards the base.
Fig. 5.15: Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of Seraghat- Dwarahat
section showing actual topographical feature and trace of NAT in the area.
Fig. 5.16: Field photographs showing (a) deposition of huge
colluvium towards the upthrown block side of NAT near Girigad at Kaphligair; (b) this movement along NAT has
caused shifting of Jaigan River channel towards
southwestwards by 120m.
Fig. 5.17: Uplift along NAT zone in and around Kaphaligair is marked by development of (a) four levels of fluvial terraces and (b) shifting of Jaigan river channel by ~120m as shown in the cross section of terraces.
Fig. 5.18: The Simgad Fault is marked by (a) straight and wide
course of Sim Gad in Takula-Basoli area (b) development of
25m fault scarp shows deposition of multistoried Pleistocene fluvial terraces and (c) the valley cross
section reflecting vertical as well as lateral shifting of Simgad along the fault zone.
Fig. 5.19: Photograph showing development of three levels of terraces
at (a) Haroli; (b) these terraces are found at a level differences of 20m, 17m, 8m and laterally shifted by
~110m.
Fig. 5.20: (a) The movement along NAT has resulted in development of three levels of terraces at Kharak near
Someshwar along the newly constructed road cut, these terraces are vertically uplifted by ~30m, (b) Photograph
15
showing vertical as well as lateral shifting of fluvial
terraces, The Rasiyari terraces uplifted by 38m with respect to counter part.
Fig. 5.21: Photograph of (a) 90m thick fluvial terraces, reflecting (b)
total 25m bedrock incision and 60m upliftment of Shonkotli terraces near Someshwar.
Fig. 5.22: (a) Broad open valley of Sumari Gad along NAT got
sudden drop at Lodh where recent (b) faulting of gravelly horizon is seen, which has displaced the horizon ~ 2m (c)
along a reverse fault inclined by 450 towards northward.
Fig. 5.23: Broad open valley of Gagas river takes a right angle turn
(N-S) along (a) Gagas River Fault, showing development of (b) traingular cones and facets along the thrust/fault
zone, however (c) the river takes abrupt change with deep gorge as it flows across the Gagas Fault.
Fig. 5.24: Four levels of fluvial terraces are found on down thrown
block of Gagas River Fault at (a) Tambakhola 3km south of Bagwalipokhar, these terraces have been displaced by
the (b, c) normal fault at the base.
Fig. 5.25: The recent movement of fault along Gagas River has caused formation of sag pond at Bagwalipokhar that
resulted in deposition of (a) fluviolacustrine sediment and (b) huge landslide cone and broad open valley of Gagas
between Binta- Bagwalipokhar areas. Fig. 5.26: Panoramic view of Bijaipur area showing (a) formation of
tectonic flat and depression formed due to movement along active NAT (b) conjugate faulting has observed
along newly constructed road section marked by rectangle, movement around these faults has caused
development of (c) graben structure. Graphical representation of (d) graben, arrow indicates direction of
movement which, suggests Dwarahat and its environ is strongly influence by extensional tectonic movement.
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Fig. 5.27: Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of Dwarahat-Panduwakhal area showing trace of the Ramganga Fault and NAT
including physiographic development.
Fig. 5.28: (a) Broad open valley of the Ramchyar Gad showing deposition of fluvial terraces towards Chaukhutia. The valley becomes nerrow and devoid of terraces towards Panduwakhal, (b) lacustrine flat of Tragtal and (c)
different sedimentary horizons of lacustrine deposits are seen through trenching.
Fig. 5.29: Broad valley of Ramchyar gad showing three level of
fluvial terraces at (a) Rampur and vicinity with (b)
multistoried fluvial sequence at the base showing alternate bends of matrix supported massive gravel
(Gmg) and clay (Fr), showing shifting of of river channel. Fig. 6.1: Seismic zonation map (1803-2000) of Uttaranchal showing
major Seismic events and elevation zones (after Valdiya,
1994).
Fig. 6.2: Tectonic map of Kumaun Himalaya (Eastern Uttarakhand) showing epicentral location and micro-seismicity since
1999-2004 (Paul et al., 2004).
Fig.6.3: Tectonic map of Kumaun Himalaya showing hypocentral seismic contouring and epicentral location, reflecting
maximum seismic activity is concentrated along and North of the North Almora Thrust and south of Main Central Thrust (after Paul et al., 2004).
Fig. 6.4: Convolute folding (cf) within the silty horizon is associated
with sediment faulting at Rasiyari valley.
Fig. 6.5: Soft sediment deformation structures showing complex convolute folding, viscoplastic nature of liquid. These
structures are also associated with flame and sedimentary faulting found within fluviolacustrine
17
deposits at Bagwalpokhar.
Fig. 6.6: Quaternary sediment deformation structures showing
development of open fold within fluvial sediment at Rasiyari gaon near someshwar.
Fig. 6.7: Irregular convolute folds (Rf) are found within the resent
sedimentary deposit of Rasiyari section, these folds are also associated with sediment faulting and Ball and Pillow
structures (Bp).
Fig. 6.8: Ball and Pillow (Bp) structures are observed within sandy horizon at the base of Bhandarigaon near Bagwalipokhar.
These structures are also associated with convolute
folding.
Fig. 6.9: Pinching and swelling structures are also observed within silt
and gravelly horizon at Rasiyari near Someshwar, the upper part of this horizon is marked by irregular
convolute folding and micro-faulting. Fig. 6.10: Gravity faulting within gravelly horizon, observed at Lodh,
the fault plane inclined by 550 towards west near Someshwar.
Fig. 6.11: Tilting of gravelly horizon by 200 towards SE direction as
observed on opposite block of Rasiyari gaon.
List of Tables
Table II.1: Tectono-stratigraphic succession of the litho-units
observed in the study area along North Almora Thrust (NAT) zone (after Valdiya 1980).
Table III.1: Sinuosity character of lower catchment of Saryu River
18
between Pancheswar-Seri area.
Table III.2: Sinuosity characters of Saryu valley between Seraghat- Basoli area.
Table III.3: Sinuosity character of Jaigan gad in Jhiroli-Seraghat area.
Table III.4: Sinuosity character of River Kosi in Someshwar area. Table III.5: Sinuosity character of the River Gagas in Binta-
Bagwalipokhar area. Table III.6: Sinuosity character of Upper Ramganga catchment
between Dwarahat-Panduwakhal area. Table IV.1: Major lithofacies, their character and interpretation
(After Miall, 1996) in Pandheshwar-Seri area. Table IV.2: Lithofacies, their character and interpretation (after
Miall, 76), for the Seraghat-Seri area.
Table IV.3: Major lithofacies, their character and Interpretation (after Miall, 1976) for the Seraghat-Dwarahat area.
Table IV.4: Major lithofacies of Ramganga valley, their character and interpretation (after Miall, 1976) for the Dwarahat- Panduwakhal area
Table VI.1: Summary of soft sediment deformational structures found in the North Almora Shear Zone (NASZ) at various
sections.
19
Chapter: I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Himalayan arc is the product of inter continental collision of the Indian
and Eurasian plates onset at ~ 55Ma (Gansser, 1964; Molnar and
Tapponnier, 1975; Nakata, 1972; 1986; Valdiya 1980; Nakata et al.,
1984; Srikantia and Bhargava 1998; Thakur 1993, 2004; Jain et al.,
2002, 2005). The northward convergence of India has resulted in crustal
shortening of the northern margin of the Indian continent, accommodated
by south verging thrust (Valdiya, 1998, 2001; Joshi et al., 2001; Thakur,
2004; and Jain, et al., 2005). The major thrust system, namely Himalayan
Frontal Thrust (HFT), Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), Main Central Thrust
(MCT), reflect ascending ages and shallowing depth suggest southward
migration of the main deformation front (Valdiya, 1998, 2001, 2003,
2005; Thakur, 2004,).
The sedimentaries of the Lesser Himalaya in Kumaun are separated
by two major tectonic trends, the Ramgarh Thrust (RT) and North Almora
Thrust (NAT) (Mishra and Sharma, 1967; and Prakash, et al., 1978;
Valdiya, 1976, 1980; Agarwal 1994; Kumar, 2005). Valdiya (1980) and
Shrikantia (1988) believed that a thick zone of mylonitic rock is found
along Ramgarh Thrust (RT) and another thin zone of mylonite is found
along North Almora thrust (NAT).
20
The study area is an integral part of Lesser Himalaya extending
from Pancheshwar to Gairsen along the North Almora thrust (NAT) in
Central Kumaun (Fig. 1.1). The North Almora Thrust extends
northwestwards laterally joining the Srinagar Thrust (ST) that limits the
Chandpur against the sedimentaries of Inner Lesser Himalaya in Garhwal
(Ghosh, 1993; Ghosh, et al., 1974; Kumar, et al., 1974; Mehdi, et al.,
1972). Prakash, et al., (1978) doubts on the existence of North Almora
Thrust and propose the North Almora Thrust to be a high angle reverse
fault dipping southwards.
Progressive convergence of the Indian plate has time and again
been reflected in the recurrent fault behaviour, i.e., neotectonic, tectonic
rejuvenation in Quaternary period. To decipher youngest tectono-seismic
activities the Quaternary deposits are the important repositories. The
21
Quaternary system is a younger chronostratigraphic unit of International
Geological Time Scale (IGTS). The 18th International Geological Congress
(IGC) clears that the Quaternary system is underlain by Neogen system
and the base is defined by Palio-Pleistocene boundary (King and Oakley,
1949). Quaternary system is defined as a sub system of Neogene (Pillans
and Naish, 2004). The base of Quaternary is extended to 2.6 Ma, during
this time earth climate has been changed due to bipolar glaciations and
appearance of Homo species (Pillans and Naish, 2004). Desnoyers (1929)
first use the term Quaternary applied to Tertiary rocks exposed in Paris.
Author Aguirre and Pasini (1985) believe that Quaternary started from
Pliocene and Pleistocene boundary. This argument is supported by Gibbard
(2004), who suggested the Quaternary and Pleistocene is a momentous
period for global glaciation phase. On the basis of marine clay stone beds
at in the Varica section the estimate age of Quaternary has been
calculated as 1.64 Ma (Aguirre and Pasini, 1985, and Bassett, 1985), and
again astronomically calibrated age on the basis of Geomagnetic Polarity
Time Scale, in the Mediterranean basin for the base of Quaternary is
defined as 1.81 Ma (Glass, et al., 1967; Aguirre and Pasini, 1985; Hilgen,
1991; Lourens and Hilgen, 1997; Lourens, et al., 1996; Steininger et al.,
1997). The recent hypothesis suggested that the short duration of
Quaternary is 1.8 Ma and the long duration of Quaternary is 2.6
(Whitfield, 2004). The composite epoch removed as a chronostratigraphic
unit in Geological time Scale (GTS) and defined as a younger then
Pliocene (Ogg, 2004 and Pillian and Naish, 2004).
1.2 NATURE OF PROBLEM
22
The central segment of Himalaya, i.e. Kumaun Himalaya delimited
by the intracontinental boundary thrust in the north and south, displays
terrane rejuvenation (Valdiya, 1964, 1976, 1980, 2001, 2003; Thakur,
2004; Pant, et al., 1992, 2007). Seismotectonically, this is one of the
active segments of the Himalayan arc (Valdiya, 1993, 2001, 2003, 2005;
Valdiya and Pant, 1986; Valdiya and Kotlia, 2001 and Valdiya et al., 1992,
1984, 1996; Paul and Pant, 2003; Paul et al., 2004; Pant et al., 1992,
2004, 2007; Kothyari and Pant, 2004; Kotlia and Rawat, 2004; Luirei et
al., 2006).
In the central sector of Himalaya, neotectonic rejuvenation, tectonic
movements along the boundary thrusts and transverse faults have
produced a number of young landforms, thus, suggests recent tectonic
23
events (Greisbach, 1891; Valdiya, 2001, 2003, 2005; Valdiya and Kotlia,
2001; Kothyari and Pant, 2004; Pant et al., 2004. 2007;). Quaternary
studies in the Kumaun Himalaya have shown the thrust zones (THF, MBT,
MCT, HFF including the Almora thrusts) and quite a few transverse faults
are very active (Fig. 1.2). (Nakata, 1972, 1976b, 1986; Nakata, et al.,
1976a, 1984; Nakata et al., 1984; Seeber and Gornitz, 1983; Rajal et al,
1986; Omura, 1989; Valdiya, 1986, 1989, 1992, 1993, 1994, 2003, 2005;
Valdiya and Kotlia, 2001; Valdiya et al., 1984, 1992, 1996; Pant et al.,
1992; Saijo et al., 1992; Singhvi et al., 1994, Tandon and Joshi, 1991;
Godin, 2003; and Yin, 2006).
The continuing movements along these significant regional
geofractures in the locked portion of accreting wedge would consequence
in earthquakes and attendant landslides (Khattri and Tyagi, 1983; Valdiya,
1980, 1989; Pant, et al., 1992). These incidents would endanger safety of
dams, bridges, buildings, public utility structure, road and canal. It is
therefore necessary that active faults, i.e. the active part of regional
nature be identified. The Geomorphic and field observations will focus not
only the neotectonic behaviour of the proposed thrust and fault zones but
also bring out Quaternary reactivation in light of the tectonic evolution of
the region (Valdiya, 2003, 2005, Valdiya and Kotlia, 2001; Kothyari and
Pant, 2004; Pant et al., 2004; Luirei et al., 2006).
In the Central Himalaya, the North Almora Thrust (NAT) is
considered to be tectonically active (Khattri and Tyagi, 1983; Khattri et
al., 1978; Jhonson, 1986; Bilham and Gaur, 2000; Bilham et al., 1998;
Paul and Pant, 2003). Recent movements along the boundary thrust of
the Almora Nappe and transverse faults have reshaped the old mature
24
terrane of the Lesser Himalaya (Valdiya et al., 1984, 1992, 1996 Valdiya
and Kotlia, 2001 and Wobus, 2004). The North Almora Thrusts (NAT) and
criss-crossing transverse faults have shown relatively faster rate of uplift
and subsidence as evident from geomorphic development such as fault
scarp, offsetting of streams, sag ponds, tilting of terraces, incised
meandering, landslides and series of waterfalls. The neotectonic
investigations of the North Almora thrust (NAT) would put light on tectonic
rejuvenation during the Quaternary Era. Thus, neotectonic studies would
not only help in understanding the present tectonic set up of the region,
but also bring out the evolution of the North Almora Thrust (NAT) and
Transverse Tear Faults (TTF) in central Himalayan domain.
The proposed study would help in understanding neotectonics of
(NAT) in Central Kumaun Lesser Himalaya since the Quaternary period,
which would be carried out to identify tectonically active segments of the
North Almora Thrust and TTF. Geomorphological investigation would help
in better understanding of the origin and development of the landforms
and their changes as recorded on the surface during different tectonic
phases.
Neotectonic activities have been observed with the help of Digital
Elevation Modelling (DEM) and geomorphic features, in the regions
between Pancheshwar and Panduwakhal (Kali valley and Saryu valley and
Ramganga valley), Central Kumaun Lesser Himalaya (Fig. 1.3). The
geomorphic and the structural attributes show tectonic movements along
the North Almora Thrust (NAT) and Saryu River Fault (Valdiya and Kotlia,
2001; Kothyari and Pant, 2004; Pant et al., 2004 and 2007). This has
resulted in the development of tectonic landforms such as unpaired
25
terraces, fault terraces, and triangular facets and cones. This movement
along the NAT may have also been responsible for the development of
NNW-SSE trending tear faults (Valdiya, 1976, 1980).
1.3 STATUS OF RESEARCH
1.3.1 International status:
Neotectonic studies form the core research area to deduce
Neogene-Quaternary tectonism in response to geodynamics and
seismotectonism. Significant are the works of Dubois et al. (2002);
Montgomery and Brandon (2002) and Steamberk et al. (2003) for
analogue modelling of fault reactivation, tectonic inversion and active
tectonic structures (Mukhopadhyay and Mishra, 1999, 2004; Fellen, et al.,
2002; Miller, etal., 2002; Mishra and Mukhopadhyay, 2002; Ouchi, 2004).
Wakabayashi and Sawyer (2001); Wheeler and Crone (2001); Kennett et
al. (1985); Karrow and White (2002); Miller et al. (2002) and Martin et al.
(2003) have taken up neotectonic studies in different faults zones
traversing the American continent. Giano et al. (2000); Karrow and White
(2002) and Cloelingh et al., (2006) have produced excellent information
regarding neotectonic histories of Ontario region. These employed Carbon
dating methods to infer chronology of active faults. The study of
Quaternary movement along Nishi-Tsugaru and Central Tohoku, in Japan
has been done by Nakata (1976) and Nakata, (1976b). Munt, et al.,
(2001); Atamaoui and Hollnack (2003); Munt, and Ana, (2003); Runge
(2003) and Yin (2006) have carried out extensive neotectonic and
geodetic studies along the Kenya Rift zone and western part of Africa–
Eurasia and Indian-Eurasion plate boundary.
26
Huzita et al., (1973); Nakata, (1976); Nakata et al., (1976); Oike
and Huzita, (1988); Lin et al., (2002), Maruyama and Lin, (2000); Fu et
al., (2003); Ree et al., (2003) Slingerland and Smith, (2004) and
Whipple, (2004) have taken up in depth investigations of neotectonics and
Quaternary folding using Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL, TL)
dating techniques to study Quaternary reactivation in Southern Korea,
China and Japan. Lamarche and Lebrun (2002) have carried out extensive
study in the Alpine Fault of New Zealand. On the basis of above
observation it can be assumed that the the study of active tectonic is
carried out globally and significant to understand the tectonic setup of the
earth.
1.3.2 National status:
Strike-slip movements with attendant mylonitization is a
characteristic feature of the neotectonically active North Almora Thrust
(NAT) (Valdiya, 1980, 1988, 1998). Recent tectonic movements along the
boundary thrusts particularly the North Almora Thrusts (NAT) in central
Kumaun have rejuvenated the once mature terrain (Ahemad, 1975;
Banerajee and Bisaria, 1975; Valdiya, 1976, 1993, 2001, 2003; Valdiya et
al., 1992, 1996; Pant, et. al., 1992, 2004, 2007; Kothyari and Pant, 2004;
Luirei et al., 2006). The development of immature landforms marks
vertical as well as horizontal movements (Valdiya and Kotlia, 2001;
Valdiya et al. 1986, 1992; Luirei et al., 2006).
1.3.3 Current status:
The proposed study would help in understanding geometry of the
27
North Almora Thrust (NAT) traversing in the Central Himalaya (Lesser
Himalaya) in context to the regional tectonic set up. Investigations using
field and remote sensing technique would be carried out to identify
tectonically active faults and thrusts in central Kumaun (Fig. 1.3 and 1.4).
Geomorphological investigations would help in understanding the origin
and development of the landforms and their imposed changes during
different tectonic phases. In-depth study of palaeolake sediments and
paleoseismicity would help in chronological placement of these events.
1.4 SCIENTIFIC BENEFITS
The proposed study would help in understanding Quaternary
reactivation of the North Almora Thrust (NAT) and Transverse Tear faults
(TTF) in central Kumaun (Lesser Himalaya). Geomorphological
investigations would help in understanding origin and development of the
landforms during different tectonic phases.
1.5 LOCATION AND APPROACH
The study area is bounded by the Latitude 29025’- 30015’ N and
Longitude 790 15’-80015’ E lies in the Central sector of the Kumaun
Himalaya, Uttarakhand which, constitutes a part of the Lesser Himalayan
terrane (Fig.1.1). Area of present investigation falls in the Survey of India
Topo Sheets No. 63C/3, 63C/2, 53O/14, 53O/13, 53O/12, 53O/10, 53O/9,
53O/6 and 53O/5 covering an area of about ~200 sq km in the zone of
North Almora Thrust. The area is approachable through Kathgodam-
Almora-Pithoragath and Kathgodam-Ranikhet-Gairsen state highways,
extends from Kali valley in the east to Ramganga valley in the west. The
28
nearest railway station is Kathgodam is almost ~150 km from the study
area is well connected by the metalled road.
1.6 OBJECTIVES
The main aim of the proposed research proposal was to deduce the
neotectonic activity and tectonic rejuvination along the North Almora
Thrust (NAT) and subsidiary faults/thrusts in Kumaun Lesser Himalaya.
The main objectives of the proposed study involved are:
� Detailed investigation and documentation of the North Almora
Thrust zone with regards to its attitude to various lithounits and
other structures, tendency of movement and its impact on
landforms as seen on the surface features using remote sensing,
DEM and field techniques.
� Analysis of geomorphic development, particularly modifications,
deformation and displacement of landforms using geological and
remote sensing and DEM tools in belts or areas of identified
active faults to document neotectonism of the region.
� In-depth investigation of palaeolake tectonic and seismities if any
to established geo-chronology of tectonic event.
1.7 METHODOLOGY
The proposed objectives would be achieved as follows:
� Delineation, demarcation and documentation of thrust and other
major litho units and their relation to major and minor structures.
Identification of the potential areas using satellite images,
29
toposheets and previous documentation.
� Comprehensive mapping and precise delineation of neotectonically
active segments of fault and thrust zones including documentation
of morphotectonic and pertinent landforms.
� Synthesis of geomorphologic and sedimentologic data generated
using GIS tool. Morphometric analysis using SOI toposheets and
Digital Elevation Models (DEM).
1.8 WORK PLAN
The area of present research will lies in the central part of Kumaun
Lesser Himalaya enclosed by Latitude 29025’- 30015’ N and longitude 790
15’-80015’ E. The present work was achieved in stages as follows.
First year: Reconnaissance surveys and preliminary investigation in the
selected areas. This employed remote sensing tools and detailed field
study thereby identification and delineation of active segments of the
North Almora Thrust (NAT).
Second Year: Comprehensive mapping, logging and demarcation of
landforms boundaries in singled out active zones and sample collection for
dating. In addition to, collection of geomorphological and geological data
to carried out study of active tectonic.
Third Year: Morphometric analysis of the terrain, synthesis and
evaluation of data gathered or generated in field and laboratory using
Digital Elevation Modeling (DEM) and GIS tools. Preparation of the precise
report for compilation of written work and submission of final thesis to
Kumaun University
30
Chapter: II
LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY
AND TECTONIC SETUP
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The tectono-stratigraphy of the Kumaun Lesser Himalaya has been
characterized by ‘Piggy Back’ and Duplex structures (Gansser, 1964;
Saklani and Buhuguna, 1983; Johnson, 1986; Valdiya, 1998, 2001). The
Kumaun Lesser Himalaya is marked by two major intra-crustal thrust
planes, MBT (Main Boundary Thrust) demarcating Lesser Himalaya to
Siwalik in the south and MCT (Main Central Thrust) towards the north at
the base of Great Himalaya (Gansser, 1964; Mishra and Shrma, 1972;
Chamyal and Vashi, 1989; Thakur 1993; Valdiya, 1980, 2001; Hodges
2000; Jain et al., 2002, 2005) (Fig. 2.1a, b).
KUMAUN
F
F
F
F
F F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
FFF
F
Main Central Thrust
MALARIMunsiari Thrust
Trans-Himadri F
GARBYANG
DHARCHULA
PITHORAGARH
Kali RNAINITAL
KAPKOT
Kosi R
Ramganga R
Himalayan Frontal Thrust
F
MBT
SHRINAGAR
AlaknandaDEHRADUN
MBT
CHAKRATA
UTTARKASHI
Tons
Yamuna
Bhagirathi
BADARINATH
Dhauli
CHAMOLI
Gori R
50 km
Terrane-bounding thrust
Tear fault
F
F GARHWAL
150003000m
MCT
Root Sirdang
N65 E
Chhiplakot Klippe
N35 E
Jouljibi
Askot Nappe
N15W
Berinag ThrustWadda
Pancheshwar
Almora Nappe
N N35E N15ETanakpur
1500
1500
0 10km
South Almora ThrustNorth Almora Thrust
SAT
SAT NAT
NAT
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.1 (a) Lithotectonic map of the Kumaun Lesser Himalaya showing position of major thrust/faults (b) cross section of Kumaun Himalaya showing major tectonic plane that define the boundaries of its lithotectonic terrain(after Valdiya, 2001).
MBT
79 79.2 79.4 79.6 79.8 80 80.2
29
29.2
29.4
29.6
29.8
30
F
FF
F
F
FF
F
F
F
F
F
FF
F
F
F
F
F
FF
F
Garampani
Almora
Ranikhet
NAT
SAT
NAT
SAT
Devidhura
Masi
Rameshwar
Pancheshwar
Basolikhan
Seraghat
Bageshwar
Chaukuthia
Panduwakhal
Dwarahat
Someshwar
Tragtal
Gangolihat
Pithoragarh
Nathuwakhan
20030040050060070080090010001100120013001400150016001700180019002000210022002300240025002600270028002900
Fig. 2.2: Topographic map of Central Kumaun Himalaya showing dismemberment and dislocation of the late Quaternary geomorphic features and demarkation of North Almora Thrust (NAT) and South Almora Thrust (SAT) and associate transverse faults.
Scale
The Main Boundary Thrusts (MBT), Main Central Thrust (MCT) and
31
associated thrusts and transverse tear faults are of active nature, which is
manifested in the form of dip-slip, oblique-slip and strike-slip movement
resulting in the dismemberment and dislocation of the late Quaternary
geomorphic features (Valdiya, 1988, 1986, 1992, 1993, 2003; Valdiya and
Kotlia, 2001; Valdiya, et al, 1984, 1992; Kothyari and Pant 2004; Joshi et
al., 2007; Pant et al., 2007; and Rawat and Kothyari, 2007) (Fig. 2.2).
SATPULI
GAIRSEN
DANG
MUSAGAR
CHAUKHUTIA
DWARAHAT
SOMESHWAR
JHIRAULI SERAGHAT PITHORAGARH
NEPALKAKRIGHAT
PANCHESHWAR
CHAMPAWATRANIKHET
ALMORA
BHIMTAL
DEVIDHURA
NAINITAL
SALTMAHADEV
PUNIAGIRI
NAT
NAT
Fig. 2.3 : (a) Regional Geological map of the Central Kumaun Himalaya, showing extension of Almora Nappe and trace of NAT, SAT, RT and MBT (after Valdiya, 1980), (b) Reactivation of the Almora Thrusts and the subsidiary thrusts and faults is attributed to the compression experienced by the Almora Nappe due to the under thrusting of the Indian plate beneath the Himalaya (after Valdiya, 2001).
0
Almora Hawalbagh Binsor
0
m 3000
0
10 km
3000m
0
Compression, Neotectonics
ThrustRiver gradient
Hawalbagh
(b)
(a)
The base of Almora Neppe demarcates tectonic base of Lesser
Himalayan allockthonous unit characterized by two regional thrust systems
(Heim and Gansser, 1939 and Valdiya, 1980) (Table 2.1). These thrusts
are namely the North Almora Thrust (NAT) and South Almora Thrust (SAT)
(Fig. 2.1). The area of present research work stretches east from
Panduwakhal to Pancheswar. The NAT zone comprises mainly two
lithounits, viz. Saryu porphyry and phyllonite followed by garnetiferous
mica schist alternating with high grade micaceous quartzites of the Saryu
Formation of the Almora Group and slates and quartzites of Rautgara
Formation (Heim and Gansser, 1939; Gansser, 1964; Prakash, et al., 1978
and Valdiya, 1980) (Fig. 2.3a&b).
32
Table 2.1 Tectono-stratigraphic succession of litho-units observed in the study area along North Almora Thrust (NAT) zone (after Valdiya
1980)
Tejam Group Deoban Formation
Damtha Group Rautgara Formation
NORTH ALMORA THRUST (NAT)
Gumalikhet Formation
Champawat Granodiorite
Almora Group
Saryu Formation,
2.2 DAMTHA GROUP
The term Damtha Group has been named after the village Damtha,
which lies within 30038’ N Latitude and 78003’ E Longitude on the bank of
river Yamuna (Auden, 1935 and Valdiya, 1980). According to Valdiya
(1980), the Damtha Group comprises Chakrata and overlying Rautgara
formations (Fig. 2.4a). In the North Almora Thrust zone only rocks
belonging to Rautgara Formation are exposed.
2.2.1 Rautgara Formation:
The Rautgara Formation exposed in the northern part of the NAT
zone has been named after the Rautgara village enclosed within 29028’ N
Latitude and 80014’ E Longitude. Valdiya (1962, 1965) has described the
quartzite as lower unit of Rautgara Formation, which is exposed all along
33
the ‘Saryu Valley’ underlain by the Gangolihat Dolomite (Fig. 2.4a). The
upper limit of the Rautgara Formation is defined by transition of slate into
limestone and dolomite of the Deoban Formation (Valdiya 1980). However,
the lower limit of Rautgara Formation is marked by presence of lenticular
conglomeratic horizon of Chakrata Formation (Valdiya, 1980) (Fig. 2.4a).
The lithological component of Rautgara Formation in the above
section comprises deeply oxidized, olivegreen and purple slates, meta-
subgraywackes showing diminutive flute casts, load casts, sub-litharenite,
showing cross bedding and ripple marks with occasional stratigraphic
lenses of boulder–conglomerates, suggests that the Rautgara is a shallow
water flyschoid formation representing upper part of the deeper water
turbidite flysch of the Chakrata Formation (Fig. 2.4a). The extensive and
almost ubiquitous occurrence of basic volcanics and intrusives affected by
metamorphism is a characteristic feature of the Rautgara lithounit.
Three important sections of Rautgara Formation have been recognized and
studied in detail in the area of present investigation. These are
Pancheshwar-Kuintar section in the Thuli Gad valley to the southeast of
Pithoragarh; the Rameshwar–Gangolihat road section in the Ramganga
valley, the Someshwar-Garnath section east of Someshwar, in the Kosi
Valley and Panduwakhal-Tragtal section in the upper Ramganga valley.
2.3 TEJAM GROUP
The Tejam Group is named after the village Tejam in the eastern
Ramganga valley, enclosed by 29057’ N Latitude and 80008’ E Longitude.
The occurrence of carbonaceous slates and marble within the Gangolihat
dolomite and conspicuous development of stromatolitic dolomite within the
34
Mandhali Formation poses difficulty of subdivision of this Group. However
Valdiya (1980) subdivided the unit in to Deoban and Mandhali formations
(Fig. 2.4a).
2.3.1 Deoban Formation:
The Deoban Formation is named after the mountain north of
Chakrata in the northwestern (30045’ N Latitude and 77054’ E Longitude)
of Kumaun Himalaya (Valdiya, 1980 and Oldham, 1883). The succession of
Deoban Formation, as exposed in the study area is marked by stromatolite
bearing cherty dolomite and dolomitic limestone bands (Fig. 2.4b). The
blue limestone and grey slate occur as intercalation and overlies with
Rautgara Formation (Valdiya 1962 and 1980) as a conformable contact.
2.4 ALMORA GROUP
The Almora Group of the rocks have been originally referred to as
the “Crystalline zone of Almora” by Heim and Gansser (1939) and
commonly known as “Almora Crystallines”. This vast over thrust
succession (Nappe) of a variety of schists, micaceous quartzite and
gneisses belons to the lower amphibolite facies of regional metamorphism
and with concordantly emplaced plutonic bodies of granodiorites and
granites has been renamed as the Almora Group and Ramgarh Group
(Valdiya, 1980) respectively, upper and lower unit of the Almora Nappe.
The lower limit of Almora Group is the Saryu Formation, defined by
the Almora Thrusts (Fig. 2.4b). The northern boundary of the Almora is
demarcated by the North Almora Thrust (NAT) whereas, South Almora
35
Thrust (SAT) delineats the southern end (Valdiya, 1980). The Ramgarh
Group of rocks lying at the base of Almora Nappe is demarcated by
Ramgarh Thrust (RT) towards south. The North Almora Thrust (NAT) and
Ramgarh Thrust are the sharpest and most dramatic tectonic lines in
Kumaun Lesser Himalaya (Valdiya, 1980) (Figs. 2.1 and 2.3)). These two
tectonic lines separate the underlying autochthonous sedimentaries of
Outer and Inner Lesser Himalaya from the overlying metamorphic and
granitic rocks (Mishra and Sherma, 1972; Valdiya, 1980; Agrawal, 1994).
The Almora Group builds the upper part of the Dudatoli–Ranikhat–
Champawat range and divisible into three units.
2.4.1 Saryu Formation:
The Saryu Formation derives it name after the river Saryu, along
which most of the sections are exposed for about ten kilometers from
Pancheshwar to Bhanisiachhana (Valdiya, 1980). Saryu Formation
comprises chlorite sericite schist, often with mylonite phyllonitic bands at
the base. This is followed by garnetiferous muscovite schist alternating
with micaceous quartzites (Valdiya, 1980). The lower part of the Saryu
Formation comprises garnetiferous mica schist, micaceous quartzites, and
augengneiss with feldspathic schist (Valdiya, 1980). Towards the upper
part chain of lenticular bodies or sills of porphyritic granite grading
marginally into augen gneiss is observed. In the northern flank bands of
strongly mylonitized quartz porphyry and ultramylonite within the chloritic
phyllonite observed in the basal part of the Ghat section at the confluence
of Saryu Panar River and around Pancheshwar section along the Kali River
(Valdiya, 1980; Valdiya and Kotlia, 2001). The bands of mylonitized quartz
porphyry are persistent in the Saryu valley, Kanarichhina area. It
36
reappears and becomes consistent from Dwarahat-Panduwakhal-Gairsen
through Chhakuthia, in the NE of Dudhatoli (Valdiya, 1976, 1980 and
Prakash et al., 1978).
2.4.2 Champawat Granodiorite:
The Saryu Formation is succeeded by the batholithic body emplaced
in the upper part (Kharkawal, 1971 and Valdiya, 1980) (Fig. 2.4b). The
huge pile of Champawat granodiorite is traceable from the Kali valley to
Mornaula through Dhunghat and Devidhura. The northwestern extension of
the Champawat granodiorite in the Devidhura and Mornaura belt has been
documented by Misra and Sharma (1967). The Champawat granodiorite is
correlated to the lenticular body of granite, which is marginally gneissose,
has been called Champawat granitoid (Fig. 2.4b) (Heim and Gansser,
1939; Gansser, 1964; Powar, 1970 and Valdiya, 1980).
2.4.3 Gumalikhet Formation:
The uppermost lithounit of Almora Group consisting of schistose
phyllite, carbonaceous/graphitic schist alternating with fine grained
micaceous often garnetiferous metagraywakes has been named
Gumalikhet Formation, after the village Gumalikhet, enclosed by 29024’ N
Latitude and 80013’ E Longitude in the Kali valley, south of Pancheshwar
(Fig. 2.3) (Valdiya, 1980). At and around the Kalmatia North of Almora the
Graywacke is converted in to biotite rich semi-schist (Valdiya, 1980).
2.5 LITHOSTRATIGRAPH OF THE STUDY AREA
37
The present work has been carried out in the North Almora Thrust
zone of Kumaun Lesser Himalaya, enclosed by 29026’708” to 29058’45” N
Latitude and 80014’517 to 79019’57” E Longitude. Streatching west from
Kali valley to Ramganga valley, the area is predominentaly characterized
by Saryu Formation of Almora Group and Rautgara Formation of Damtha
Group. The study area is well distinguished by sharp tectonic line
separating the autochthonous sedimentaries from the metamorphic and
granitic rocks of Almora Nappe (Fig. 2.3a). The mylonitization of granitic
rocks and augen gneiss and persistent bands of chlorite sericite and
phyllonite mark the boundary of the thrust zone in the study area. In the
study area, the rock units exposed are strongly mylonitized quartz-
porphyry and ultramylonite including chlorite sericite schist and phyllonite
at the base. Higher up, garnetiferous muscovite schist alternates with
micaceous quartzites. These litho-units run persistently in the area
between Pancheshwar-Seraghat-Someshwar and Dwarahat-Gairsen
through Chaukhutia and Panduwakhal.
A
B
CD
Pancheshwar
Seri
Seri
Serachat
Serachat
Dwarahat
Panduwakhal
Dwarahat
Ramganga R.
Gagas R.Kosi R.
Jaigan R.
Saryu R.
Saryu R.
Kali R.
Ramganga R.
Masi
Someshwar
Basoli khan
Bagwalipokhar
Fig. 2.5: Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of Central Kumaun Lesser Himalaya showing subdivisions of the study area (A) Pancheshwar -Seri section (B) Seri-Seraghat section (C) Seraghat -Dwarahat section and (D) Dwarahat -Panduwakhal section.
For the further detailed and precise investigation, the study area
along the North Almora Thrust has been subdivided into four sub sections,
(a) Pancheshwar-Seri Section, (b) Seri-Seraghat section, (c) Seraghat-
38
Dwarahat section and (d) Dwarahat-Panduwakhal section respectively east
to west (Fig. 2.5).
2.5.1 Pancheshwar-Seri section:
The Pancheshwar-Seri section constitutes the eastern most segment
of the NAT in the Kumaun Lesser Himalaya (Figs. 2.5 and 2.6a). The
tectonic line transitory through the area gives rise to imbricating pile of
highly sheared, shattered rocks along the NAT zone (Fig. 2.6 a). The area
is characterized dominantly by bands of strongly mylonitized quartz
porphyry and ultramylonite within the chloritic phyllponite, garnitiferous
muscovite schist, alternating with micaceous quartzites (Fig. 2.6 b).
The stereo plot of Rautgara Formation reflects that the rock unit got
folded asymmetrically and the axis of the fold is roughly oriented towards
NE and inclined by 100. The S planes of Saryu and Rautgara formations
were plotted separately on equal area lower hemisphere. The northern
limb of the Almora Nappe is thinner and steeply inclined by 450-700
towards SSW-SW (Fig. 2.6a). The grater thickness of the southern limb is
due to the occurrence of intrusive rock body which assumes batholithic
dimension in southeastern limit of Kumaun. However the density plots of
Saryu Formation reflects sub horizontal folding of rock units (Fig. 2.6a).
39
The original bedding So around Pancheshwar-Seri area is separated
by lithological variation, particularly in metasedimentaries. In general the
So trend NW-SE and NNW-SSE and are inclined by an average 40-700
towards SW and quite few are NE direction (Fig. 2.6a).
The equal area projection of stretching lineation is interpreted and
suggested that the axis of lineations are close to the β point. These are
definite evidences of extinction along the dip direction of rock units of
Saryu and Rautgara formations.
2.5.2 Seraghat-Seri section:
The Seraghat-Seri section, enclosed by 29018’40”-29040’ N Latitude
and 80001’60”-79045’ E Longitude along the Saryu valley, is marked by
the NNW-SSE trending Saryu River Fault (SRF) (Pant et al., 2007) (Fig.
2.7a). This steeply hading Saryu River Fault (SRF), cuts across the North
Almora Thrust between Naichan and Seri, bounding the allochthonous
Almora crystallines (Fig. 2.7a). The Precambrian rocks observed along the
‘SRF’ comprise two lithounits, i.e. mylonitized quartz porphyry of the
Saryu Formation and metasedimentaries of the Rautgara, Deoban and
Berinag formations (Fig. 2.7b).
40
The density stereo plot of rock of the Rautgara Formation also
suggests that the So planes are folded and the axial plane is oriented
towards NW-SE inclined in NE (Fig. 2.7a). The fold axis close to the axial
plane and the fold is inclined towards ESE direction by 200.
The equal area projection of S1 of the Saryu Formation suggests
that the rock units got folded tight to isoclinally and the fold axis varies NE
to NNE (Fig. 2.7a).
The density plot of stretching lineation on the lower hemisphere
suggests that the lineations are also folded isoclinally along a fold and is
inclined towards SE direction (Fig. 2.7a).
2.5.3 Seraghat-Dwarahat section:
The area stretching west from Seraghat to Dwarahat, bounded by
29040’-29040’22 N Latitude and 79014’31”-79045’ E Longitude, falls in
41
upper catchment of Saryu, Kosi and Gagas valleys. The area reveals old
and mature topography in central Kumaun Himalaya (Fig. 2.8).The area is
traversed by number of regional thrusts and faults such as Simgad Fault,
Rasiyai Fault, and Gagas Fault etc. The area of present investigation is
divided in to two major lithounits, the crystallines of Almora Group and
metasedimentaries of Rautgara Formation (Fig. 2.8). The geological cross
section reflects nature of bedding plane ‘So’ of Rautgara and S1 planes of
Saryu formations around the Kosi and Gagas valleys are folded (Fig.
2.9a,b). The folded units of Rautgara and Saryu formations are
manifested by pre or post shearzone structures.
The original bedding surfaces are defined by ‘So’ around the
Seraghat-Dwarahat section. The ‘So’ of Rautagara Formation are striking
in general NW-SE and NNW-SSE direction (Fig. 2.8). However, quite few
‘So’ surfaces are striking towards NE-SW. The variation of trends of ‘So’
around this particular area is directly controlled by regional folding of the
area. The contour density plot of bedding plane (So) of Rautgara
Formation reflects the axial plane of the fold is oriented towards NNW-SSE
direction and the ‘β’ point of the fold is nearly subhorizontal (Fig. 2.8).
The density plot of Saryu Formation reflects the foliation plans are folded
tightly to isoclinally with ENE and WSW direction (Figs. 2.9a&b). The
plunge of the fold inclined subhorizontally to 20-300 in NE direction. The
42
contoured equal area plot of the stretching lineations suggests distribution
of lineation due to a post deformation (Fig. 2.9a). The lineations are
inclined towards southward. The southward dip direction of stretching
lineations probably formed due to the southward movement of NAT (Fig.
2.8).
Fig. 2.9: Geological cross section of lithounits as boserved along (a) Kosi and (b) Gagas valley in Someshwar and Binta respectively.
SSW
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
NNE
MALESOMESHWARMALLA KHOLA
NAT
Kosi R.
0 1 2 km
NNW
1400
1500
1600
1700
1400
1500
1600
SSW
SARNA TOLA
Gagas R.
BANKHOLA
BINTA
Jantarigad
NAT
POKNARI
Milligad
0 1 2 km
(a)
(b)
2.5.4 Dwarahat-Panduwakhal section:
Dwarahat-Panduwakhal section (Chaukhutia region) is the western
most segment of NAT taken up for the present investigation. This section
has been enclosed by 79014’31”–79024’79” E Longitude and 29058’45”-
29040’22” N Latitude falling in upper catchments of Ramganga River (Fig.
2.10).
The E-W trend of North Almora Thrust (NAT) is noticed in the area
east of Dwarahat, where it takes a synclinal swing towards NNW-SSE;
however in the area between Dwarahat it resumes WNW-ESE trend (Fig.
2.10). Apart from other tectonic units of the Kumaun Lesser Himalaya, the
Saryu Formation of Almora Group, the carbonates of the Deoban
Formation of the Tejam Group and the quartzites and slates of the
43
Rautgara Formation are important litho units of the investigated area
(Fig.2.10) (Gansser, 1964, Valdiya, 1980).
The rock units of the area are folded in nature and striking NW-SE
and NNW-SSE direction and sometime the strike direction is oriented
towards NE-SW (Fig. 2.11)
The stereographic projections of ‘So’ and lineations of Saryu and
Rautgara formations on lower hemisphere suggest folded nature of rocks
and the fold is orientation towards southwestward (Fig. 2.11). The density
contoured stereo plots of So planes of Rautgara and Saryu formations
reflect the ‘So’ surfaces are folded isoclinally with NNW and few are SSW
axis. The plunge of the fold varying between subhorizontally about 20-300
in NE direction and the axial plane of the fold is oriented towards SW to
WSW direction (Fig. 2.10). The contoured equal area plot for the
stretching lineation suggests redistribution of lineation due to a post
deformation (Fig. 2.10). The stereo plot of lineation suggests post
lineation folding reflects these fold were developed during the formation of
North Almora Shear Zone (Fig. 2.10).
44
2.6: REGIONAL TECTONICS AND TECTONIC SETTING OF
NORTH ALMORA THRUST (NAT) ZONE
The shear zone rocks of the North Almora Thrust have been
characterized by voluminous body of strongly deformed granite mylonite
and gneisses of Saryu Formation and quartzarenite and slates of the
Rautgara Formation. In other word, the North Almora shear zone is an
integral part of Kumaun Lesser Himalaya extending west from Kali valley
to Ramganga valley. Tectonically the area is bounded by highly deformed
mylonitized rocks of Saryu Formation towards south and sedimentaries of
Rautgara and Deoban formations in the north. The North Almora Thrust is
the northern flank of synclinally folded Almroa Nappe (Heim and Gansser,
1939 and Valdiya 1980). However Mehdi, et al. (1972) believed that the
SAT is an intra-formational dislocation plane and can not be taken as a
folded trace of North Almora Thrust. The rock units along North Almora
Thrust zone seems to be uprooted and far travelled thrust sheet or
thrusted southward upon the Proterozoic rocks of Lesser Himalaya (Heim
and Gansser, 1939; Gansser, 1964; Valdiya, 1980, 1998, 2001). These
rocks are reconstructed by the decreaseing temperature and pressure.
However, the other rock types garnetiferous mica-schist, quartzite,
phyllites, granite-gneiss and thin bends of basic rocks with well developed
planer and linear fabrics are also present in the thrust zone.
The nappe hypothesis for the Almora crystalline was first put by
Heim and Gansser (1939), Gansser (1964) and Valdiya (1980). According
to these workers, the most of these crystallines lies at the base of Great
Himalaya, which initially formed a continuous part of the central
crystallines and gradually shifted southwards along the thrusts sheet
45
(MCT) ultimately resting over the Lesser Himalaya sedimentaries (Fig.
2.1b).
The tectonic model proposed by Heim and Gansser, (1939) and
Valdiya, (1980) suggests that the Almora crystalline zone is one of the
largest nappe of the Lesser Himalaya. The model represents large thrust
sheet which had covered once the Lesser Himalaya, that is tectonically
bounded by both side of sedimentaries are known as Ramgath Thrust (RT)
in the south and North Almora Thrust (NAT) in the north (Agrawal, 1994;
Valdiya, 1980, 1998, 2001). As we all know the Indian subcontinent is
moving continuousy towards north (Fig. 2.2b), it may evolve as a part of
the huge mass of older crystallines i.e. central crystallines. Due to this
continuous compressional tectonic force, a number of thrust sheets have
evolved, indicates the possibility of branching up numerous duplex
structures, and may reflect continuous tectonic transport. These thrust
system were earlier developed along a major ductile shear zone, i.e. Main
Central Thrust (MCT) (Valdiya, et al., 1992).
Consequently during continuous convergence of two continental
plates, a huge pile of crystalline rocks moved southward along the MCT,
which is overthrusted on the, Lesser Himalayan sediments (Figs. 2.1a and
2.2b). In a later phase of evolution, one of the Nappe limb was inclined
southward direction due to progressive deformation. This southward
dipping was possibly due to the process of folding of thrust sheet (Fig.
2.2b) and was perhaps also responsible for the development of North
Almora Thrust (NAT). The synclinal nature of Almora Nappe is a result of
the large scale regional folding. The back thrusting give way to southern
dipping North Almora Thrust (NAT), which has been further rotated
46
towards westward due to western syntexial band (Fig. 2.2b). In this
process the North Almora Thrust (NAT) got reactivated in later stages and
numerous NNW-SSE and NW-SE trending transverse tear fault have
developed, those have been further reactivated during Quaternary
(Valdiya, 1993, 2001).
2.6.1 North Almora Thrust (NAT):
The North Almora Thrust, in general has its NNW-ESE trace from
Pancheshwar in Kali valley to the Yamuna valley in the west (Heim and
Gansser, 1939; Gansser, 1964; Valdiya 1980) (Fig. 2.1a). While
carryingout the field studies along the North Almora Thrust (NAT) zone
from Kali valley to Ramganga Valley, I have observed the moderately-
steeply dipping (400-800) tectonic plane of the North Almora thrust (NAT).
In between Pancheshwar-Panar (Kakarighat) the NAT is trending generally
E-W direction. Conscuently along the Seraghat-Basoli area, the NAT show
NNW-SSE tectonic trend. In the area between Dwarahat-Seraghat, it
resume WNW-ESE trend, whereas between Dwarahat-Panduwakhal again
the trend of NAT is noticed as NNW-SSE direction (Fig. 2.1a and 2.3). The
trace of the North Almora Thrust (NAT) has been observed near
Dwarahat, Chhakuthia and Panduwakhal considered being the northern
flank of Almora Thrusts (Prakash et al., 1978; Kumar, and Agrawal, 1975;
Pant et al., 2007).
Three major transverse faults have been observed across the North
Almora Thrust (NAT), i.e. E-W trending Haldughat Fault (HF), and NNW-
SSE trending Saryu River Fault (SRF) and Ramganga Fault (RF) (Valdiya,
1976; Kothyari and Pant, 2004 and Pant et al., 2007).
47
2.6.2 Saryu River Fault (SRF):
The Saryu River Fault (SRF) is a later tectonic event of the North
Almora Thrust (NAT) zone. The trace of Saryu River Fault is observed in
the Saryu and Manogad valleys, in between the Naichan and Basoli (Fig.
2.7a). The strike slip movement along the fault has resulted in the
straightening of the of the river course from NW-SE to almost N-S trend
(Pant et al., 2007). This steeply hading fault (SRF) coincides with the
North Almora Thrust, bounding the allochthonous Almora crystallines (Fig.
2.3). The geomorphic features observed along the fault zone suggest the
SRF is neotectonically very active.
2.6.3 Ramganga Fault:
The Ramganga Fault is having one of the best evidence of
reactivation of North Almora Thrust. The straight course of the Ramchyar
and Kutrar gads reflects right lateral strike-slip movement along the
Ramganga Fault oriented towards NNW-SSE. The evidence of strike slip
movement of Ramganga Fault is deflection of the river at Bhatkot, and
northwesterly movement of the left block of Ramganga (Kothyari and
Pant, 2004) (Fig. 2.11). The movement along this fault has brought on the
underlying sedimentaries and the mylonitzation of the quartz porphyry of
the over thrust sheet (Valdiya, 1976). The abrupt northwesterly deflection
of the southwest flow of the Ramganga at Chaukhutia before resuming the
48
original direction at Bhatkot, may be reflected to the northwesterly
movement of the southwesterly block of upper Ramganga Fault.
49
Chapter- III
MORPHOTECTONICS AND
MORPHOMETRIC ANALYSIS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The subject morpho-tectonics deals with the geomorphic and
structural manifestation and regional tectonic pattern of an area
(Jamieson, 2004; Jain and Sinha, 2005). Geomorphic evidences of active
tectonics from Siwalik hills of Nepal have been reported in detailed by
Nakata (1972), Determination of the pattern and rate of deformation is
demonstrated by a detailed morphometric analysis (Pinter and Keller,
1995; Keller and Pinter, 1996 and Delcaillau, 2001). Morphotectonics has
been considered as a tool to determine the intensity of tectonic activity in
the tectonically active areas (Wells, et al., 1988; Rhea, 1993;
Krzyszkowaski and Stachura, 1998; Merritts and Vincent, 1989; DerBeek
et al., 2000; Lagarde et al., 2000; Raj et al., 2003; Jamieson, et al., 2004
and Slingerland and Smith, 2004). The architectural setting of a drainage
system, its changing channel patterns and sinuosity can be deciphered by
a detailed morphological and morphometric analysis of the drainage basin
and lineaments (Burnett and Schumm, 1983; Stock and Montgomery,
1999; Ouchi, 1985, 2004 and Mayer, et al., 2003).
A detailed morphometric analysis of the various landforms has been
therefore undertaken to understand the role of tectonics in sculpturing the
face of the study area. It mainly involves lineament analysis, sinuosity,
longitudinal valley profiles etc (Kirby and Whiple, 2001 and Kirby et al.,
50
2003). Valley profiles marked by knick points have been considered for
understanding the high uplift rate and the tectonic activity (Montgomery
and Faufoula-Georgiue, 1993; Wohl, et al., 1994; Sklar and Dietrich,
1998; Whipple and Tucker, 1999; Kelin and Whiple, 2004 and Whipple,
2004).
3.2 TECTONIC GEOMORPHOLOGY
The landforms and drainage pattern in and around North Almora
Thrust zone have developed during the reactivation of major thrust/fault
system in Quaternary time. The lineament and drainage analyses have
helped in determining the role of active tectonics in shaping the landforms
(Fig. 2.5). Topographical sheets and landsat imageries of 1:50,000 and 1:
25,000 have been used for measuring lineaments and drainage pattern.
The statistical measurements of lineaments/drainage and rosett models
were, made using corel 11-12, Rock-Works 2006 and surfer 8 computer
programs. The lineament maps and drainage maps are overlaped on
geological map of the each section of the study area. Detailed explanation
of the geological maps has already been discussed in second chapter.
3.2.1 Lineaments study:
3.2.1.1 Pancheshwar-Ghat Section:- The tectonic geomorphology of
the Pancheswar-Ghat area is characterized by two dominant trends of
lineaments i.e. NNE-SSW and NNW-SSE (Fig 3.1). The river Saryu follows
almost a NNW-SSE trend, which is subparallel to NAT. Fluvial terraces,
deep cut ‘V’ shaped valley, deep gorge, enterenched meandering,
triangular cones and facets and colluvial fans characterize the section. The
51
principal lineaments of the section show a NNW-SSE trend (Fig 3.1).
The tectonic trend around Pancheshwar, which is NW-SE and NNW
–SSE, controls the NNW-SSE flowing Kheti Gad and other tributaries
pointing towards active tectonics. The major lineament along the Pirnali
gad shows a NNE-SSW trend. The lineaments trending NE-SW and NW-SE
have controlled the courses of the rivers like Amer and Gherla gad. The
river Saryu follows E-W trend of NAT (Fig. 3.1).
The topographical evidence of neotectonic activity along the Amer
gad is marked by a deep gorge and straight valley; hence the tectonic
activity of the Amer Gad is controlled by NE-SW trending lineament. The
dominance of NNW-SSE trend in the geomorphic setup is attributable to
the presence of tectonic activity along the North Almora Thrust (NAT).
3.2.1.2 Ghat-Seri Section: - The lineaments observed in the Ghat-Seri
area are influenced by NNE-SSW trending tectonic features. The
52
dominante lineament trend of the area is NNE- SSW (Fig. 3.2). The Panar
River is influenced by the ENE-WSW tectonic trend, whereas the
Ramganga River has a control of NNE-SSW trending lineaments.
These lineaments contribute to the tectonic activity around the area and
give an idea about present day tectonic setup between Ghat and Seri. The
straight course of Panar river almost ENE-WSW, ‘V’ shaped valley and the
deep gorges point to neotectonic activity in the area. The Mano and
Baskoti gads show controls of NNW-SSE and NE-SW trending lineaments
indicating two different episodes of tectonic activity. These lineaments
along with NAT seem to be tectonically active.
3.2.1.3 Seraghat-Basoli Section:-The area stretching south from
Seraghat to Basoli through Naichan is influenced by Saryu River Fault a
part of North Almora Thrust (NAT) (Fig. 3.3). The area is characterized by
NNW-SSE flowing drainage system of river Saryu. The Rose diagram of
the principal lineaments indicats, dominate NNE-SSW and NNW-SSE trend
53
direction (Fig. 3.3). The movement along NNE-SSE and NNW-SSE
trending lineaments has resulted development of numerous tectonic
landforms.
The topographic control of Seraghat and it’s environ is influence by
multiple events of tectonic activity. The topographic evidences of the area
are marked by radial type of drainage pattern, controlled by NNW-SSE
and NNE-SSW trending lineaments (Fig. 3.3). Godigad and related
tributaries of Saryu River are strongly influence by NNE-SSW trending
lineament. The movement along NNW-SSE trending lineament has
resulted tilting of fluvial material as observed near Jateswar. It can be
attributed to the presence of neotectonic activity along the Saryu River
54
Fault (SRF) (Fig. 3.3). The Saryu River Fault (SRF) has dissected the
North Almora Thrust (NAT) particularly between Seri and Naichan,
showing prominent NNW-SSE trending lineament (Fig. 3.3) (Pant et al.,
2007).
The Nargul, Alaknanda, Banyar, Gali and Mano gads are major
tributaries of Saryu River, dominated by NNW-SSE and NNE-SSW trending
lineaments. In the upthrown block the Alaknanda gad is dominated by
NNW-SSE trending lineament, whereas the Nargulgad is controlled by
conspicuous NNE-SSW trending lineaments. The Banyargad flows almost
NNE SSW direction except for a few places where it changed its course
and suddenly takes NW-SE turn almost sub parallel to SRF (Fig. 2.5 and
3.3). The lineament along the Galligad is controlled by NNW-SSE tectonic
trend. All these major tributaries are marked by vertical uplift and
entrenchment of valley profile. The movement along the NNW-SSE
trending lineament has resulted southeastward shifting of river channel by
150m. The Manogad is one of the familiar tributaries of Saryu River
flowing almost northward along the NW-SE trending lineament. The
straight course of river Saryu between Naichan and Seri is characterized
by NW-SE trending SRF.
3.2.1.4 Seraghat-Dwarahat Section: - The Seraghat-Dwarahat
segment on the NAT zone in Central Kumaun Himalaya is dominated by
NNE-SSW and a quite few NNW-SSE trending lineaments (Fig. 3.4). The
Jaigangad is one of the major tributaries of Saryu River. The straight
course of Jaigan gad is controlled by WNW-ESE trending lineament. These
lineaments area subparallel to the NAT. The movement along these
lineaments has resulted straight, narrow course with deep gorges of
55
Jaigan River having a lot of entrench meandering loops, as seen in
Kanarichhina area.
The lineament found along the Kosi River and its tributaries, in and
around Someshwar show majority of WNW-ESE trend direction. These
lineaments are probably controlled by WNW-ESE trending North Almora
Thrust. The movement along this lineament has resulted in the widening
of river Kosi and Sumari Gad. Sim Gad a major tributary of river Kosi is
dominantly controlled by NNW-SSE tectonic trend (Fig. 3.4). The
prominent tectonic activity has caused broad open straight course in
upper catchment and deep gorge and entrench meandering in the lower
part.
The river Gagas and its tributaries mostly follow the NNW-SSE
trend (Fig. 3.4). The river Gagas, which flows across the North Almora
Thrust in Binta-Bagwalipokhar area, has been influenced by the NNW-SSE
lineament. The tectonic movement along this lineament has resulted in
the numerous mass movements and development of wide river valleys,
offsetting of rock horizon, development of fluviolaustrian deposits at
56
Bagwalipokhar. The effect of this movement is not only seen in hard rocks
but the Quaternary fluvial sediment is also displaced. The displaced fluvial
terraces suggest that the lineament passing through Seraghat-Dwarahat
is still active in the recent time.
3.2.1.5: Dwarahat-Chhaukhutia-Panduwakhal Section: - Tectonically
the area between Dwarahat-Panduwakhal through Chhaukhutia in Central
Kumaun is controlled by numerous structural discontinuities/lineaments
with general ENE-WSW and NNW-SSE trend. The presence of these
lineaments has resulted development of numerous tectonically induced
landforms. The study area is marked by two dominant lineament systems
NNW-SSE and ENE-WSW (Fig. 3.5). The NNW-SSE lineament trend follows
the North Almora Thrust and associated parasitic transverse faults
(Ramganga Fault, Trag Fault).
The river Ramganga and its major tributaries mostly follow the ENE to
NNW trend; align to the trend of North Almora Thrust (Fig. 3.5). The river
Ramganga has not only changed its course time to time but has got also
deep cut entrenched in the vicinity of Chhaukhutia due to the movement
57
along these lineaments. This change is attributed to NNW-SSE and ENE-
WSW trend direction. The movement along the NNW-SSE trending
lineament has caused blocked of Trag gad and resulted formation of
temporary lake (Fig. 3.5). The Trag gad is tectonically controlled by NNE-
SSW trending lineament.
The Ramchyar gadhera and Kuthilar gad, and Trag gad are the
major tributaries of Ramganga river with a dominant NNW_SSE trending
lineament. The straight course of Ramchyar and Kuthilar gad reflects
strong control of NNW-SSE lineaments, which is to be a trend of
Ramganga fault (Fig. 3.5).
The NW-SE lineament passing from Udhikhan controls the river
domain and show prominent tectonic control. The straight course of the
Ramchyar gadhera and Kuthilar gad tributaries of Ramganga River also
tectonically controlled by NNW-SSE lineaments (Fig. 3.5). The NNW-SSE
trending North Almora Thrust and associated NWN-ESE and ENE-WSW
lineaments, indicate different event of tectonic activity along the area of
present investigation.
Thus the linements trend of the study area, i.e. NAT zone is
dominated by NW-SE and NE-SW trends which may be a result of N- S
compressional tectonics.
3.2.2 Drainge analysis:
The area of proposed research work is drained by the Kali, Saryu,
Kosi, and Ramganga rivers in Central Kumaun. The drainage network of
the area in general is characterized by the dendritic and ractingular
58
drainage system. In few cases such as tributaries of Saryu river, the
Jaigan gad shows trailis nature. The detailed study of drainage analysis
has been done using 1st, 2nd and 3rd orders of drainage system. The
statistical analyses for the orientation of drainage pattern have been using
Rose 3, Corel 12 and Rock-Work 2006 computer programs. Detailed
section wise discriprion has been given below.
3.2.2.1: Drainage pattern of Pancheshwar-Ghat Section:-The
eastern limit of NAT zone in Kumaun Himalaya is marked by
Pancheshwar-Ghat section along the Saryu valley, which covers a total
area of 11 km. The altitude ranges from 429-440 amsl.
There is correspondence between the orientation of the streams and
lineaments. The NNE-SSW and NNW-SSE trending lineaments have played
a major role in shaping drainage. The orientation of 1st order streams is
NNE-NNW. The vector mean of the first order drainage is in NNW-SSE
direction (Fig. 3.6). The 2nd order drainage system in left block of river
basin is oriented towards NE-SW to NW-SE, but the right block shows
dominent NNW-SSE trend (Fig.3.6). However the 3rd order drainage
59
shows a NNE-SSW trend. Hence the statistical analysis of the different
order of the drainage system reveal that the NNW- SSE and NNE- SSW
trending lineaments
3.2.2.2 Drainage pattern of Ghat-Seri Section:- The elevations of
Ghat-Seri area in central Kumaun Himalaya ranges from 550-540 amsl
and laterally extended about 11.7 km. (Fig. 3.7).
The drainage basins in this sector comprises three orders, the 1st order of
streams trend dominantly in NE-SW and the density of the drainage being
more in the northern block. The 2nd order streams are generally oriented
in NNE to SSW with the mean vector direction of the drainage system
being towards NE-SW in the southern bank and NW-SE in the northeren
bank (Fig.3.7). The 3rd order streams are mostly oriented towards NNE-
SSW and NNW-SSE and the vector mean direction is towards the NNE-
SSW.
3.2.2.3 Drainage pattern of Seri-Seraghat Section:- The drainage
pattern present in the Seraghat-Seri-Basoli section is governed by the
right block of the River Saryu along the SRF. The 1st and 2nd order of
60
drainage systems are mostly dominated by NNE-SSW trend and quite a
few are oriented NNW-SSE (Fig.3.8).
However the 3rd order of drainage pattern shows NNE-SSW and NNW-SSE
dominated lineaments and the vector mean direction shows NNW-SSE
trend. The NNW-SSE orientation of drainage pattern is influence of NNW-
SSE trending Saryu River Fault (SRF). The topographical features show
that the drainage pattern around Seraghat-Seri-Basoli is strongly
controlled by multiple event of tectonic activity. During the first phase of
tectonic activity the NNW-SSE trending drainage were formed, and in the
later phase of tectonic movement NE-SW trending drainage were evolved
(Fig. 3.8). The drainage frequency and entrenchment is more dominent in
the right block with respect to the left block. It is assumed that the
entrenchment and high drainage frequence is due to vertical upliftment of
right block along Saryu River. The vertical upliftment of this block is most
probably reactivation of SRF.
61
3.2.2.4 Drainage pattern of Seraghat-Dwarahat Section:- The
drainage pattern in Seraghat-Dwarahat area shows a dominant tectonic
control. The area has been characterized by five order of drainage system,
which is dendritic in nature.
The stream orientation of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd order of drainage systems are
dominantly trending NE-SW to NNE-SSW and quite a few are in NE-SW to
NNW-SSE direction (Fig.3.9). The statistical value of vector magnitude
and constancy ratio of the drainage system is calculated using
computerized program. The topographical features (deflection of drainage
etc.) of the drainage system around the area show two phases of tectonic
activity have been taking place. In the area between Seraghat and
Dwarahat the course of Jaigan, Kosi and Gagas and its tributaries mark a
strong control of NNW-SSE and NNE-SSW trending lineament (Fig. 3.9).
The major tributaries of these river systems like Sim, Jainal, Milli, Jaigan,
Sumari and Jantari gads show control of WNW-ESE trending lineament.
Stream like Gagas and Sim Gad are flowing almost parallel the NNW-SSE
tectonic trend of Takula Fault and Gagas River Fault (Fig. 3.9). In other
62
hand Jaigan Gad is flowing ESE direction, strongly controlled by NNW-SSE
as well as WNW-ESE tectonic trends of NAT and Takula Fault.
Consequently the drainage density and orientation of the river system of
the area are indicative of recent movement along the major thrusts and
faults. The supportive evidences of the movement along the thrusts/faults
have already discussed in the next chapter.
3.2.2.5 Drainage Pattern of Dwarahat-Panduwakhal Section:- The
area of present investigation, between Dwarahat-Panduwakhal sector is
characterized by rectangular drainage pattern, in general dominated by
ENE-WSW and NNW- SSE trend. The rose diagrams of orientation of the
drainage network, give an idea about the different phase of tectonic event
that have been taking place around the area (Fig. 3.10).
The 1st and 2nd order of drainage systems around the area are controlled
by NE-SW, NNE-SSW trending lineaments, whereas few are showing
NWN-SES to NNE-SSE trend direction, indicating tectonic quiescence. But
63
dramatic change has occurred in 3rd order of drainage system, which is
showing prominent NNW-SSE tectonic trend and at few places it shows E-
W trend (Fig.3.10). The drainage system around the area is controlled by
the presence of North Almora Thrust (NAT) and a number of subsidiary
faults (Fig. 3.5). These fault/thrust systems are controlling the river
domain and drainage system around the area. The geomorphic and
topographical indicators of this tectonic activity around the area are, wide
and straight river channel, abrupt changing of the course of river
Ramganga along the NNW-SSE and ENE-WSW trending lineaments,
deposition of wide fluvial terraces, meandering nature of river, and
formation of temporary lake along Trag gad (Plate. 3.5). The drainage
pattern of Ramchyar Gadhera, Kuthilar Gad, shows dominant NNW_SSE
trend direction, suggested these drainage are controlled by NW-SE
tectonic lineament (Fig. 3.10).
In general the drainage pattern seems to be controlled by linement
pattern of the NAT zone. The 1st, 2nd and 3rd order drainage pattern are in
general controlled by WNW-ESE and NE-SW tectonic trends of lineaments,
however the 4th or higher order of streams are diminated by trend of NAT.
3.3 MORPHOMETRIC ANALYSIS
The morphometric analysis of the river system is an integrated
multidisciplinary approach, combining active tectonism and neotectonism.
Morphological analysis has been found useful in determination of
landscape evolution (Wells et al., 1988; Merritts and Vincent, 1989; Rhea,
1993; Krzyszkowski and Stachura, 1998; Lagarde et al., 2000; Jain and
Sinha, 2005). Morphometric parameters taken for the present study are
64
such as longitudinal valley profile, Gradient Index, Pseudo-Hypsometric
Integral, Sinuosity etc.
3.3.1 Methodology
Morphometric analysis is used as a tool for understanding the
evolution of tectonic and non-tectonic landforms, nature of deformation,
upliftment, valley degradation (Muller, 1968; Raj, et al., 2003; Rhea,
1993).The tools have been used to build up an idea about active tectonics
around the area are, Longitudinal valley profile, Gradient Index (GI),
Pseudo-Hypsometric Integral (PHI), Channel Index (CI), Valley Index (VI),
Hydraulic Sinuosity Index (HIS), Topographic Sinuosity Index (TSI) and
Standered Sinuosity Index (SSI). The appropriate data regarding
morphometric analysis has been generated using survey of India
Toposheet No. 63C/1 and 2, 53 O/14, 12, 10, 9, 6, 5 scaled 1:50, 000.
The longitudinal valley profiles reflect river response to active
tectonism. The value of Gradient Index (GI) and Pseudo-Hypsometric
Integral are measured with the help of valley profiles. The GI which
suggests differential upliftment around the area is calculated by
measuring the elevation change over a normalized distance using the
formula given by Rhea (1993).
h1 – h2
Gradient Index (GI) = __________
In l2 – l1
Where, h is elevation and l is the distance
The Pseudo-Hypsometric Integral (PHI) reflects the overall shape of the
valley, and is obtained from the longitudinal valley profile which is
65
calculated by numerical means, using the formula after (Rhea 1993).
Ap
Pseudo-Hypsometric Integral (PHI) = ____ X 100
Ar
Where, ‘Ap’ is the area under the long profile and ‘Ar’ is the area
of rectangle defined by height and the length of the river.
The other morphometric parameters pertain to sinuosity characters of a
river and changes in channel pattern; straight and braided (Burnett and
Schumn, 1983 and Ouchi 1985). The sinuosity characters are described as
Hydraulic Sinuosity Index (HIS), Topographic Sinuosity Index (TSI),
Standard Sinuosity Index (SSI), Channel Index (CI) and Valley Index (VI).
These indices for the river valleys along the North Almora Thrust (NAT)
have been calculated using formula of Muller (1968). According to him the
sinuosity character of the river are described as Hydraulic Sinuosity Index
(HIS) and Topographic Sinuosity Index (TSI)
The Hydraulic Sinuosity Index suggests that the hydraulic character
of the river is calculated by numerical mean using the formula (Muller,
1968).
CI - VI
Hydraulic Sinuosity Index (HIS) = _________X100
CI -1
Where, ‘CI’ is Channel Index, and ‘VI’ is the Valley Index
The Channel Index (CI) is an index of total sinuosity, both hydraulic and
topographic. However the Valley Index (VI) is obtained from the length of
a line which is everywhere midway between the base of the valley wall. It
will be equal to CL wherever the valley wall descends directly to the water
66
edge and less then the CL wherever a flood plain has developed. The
value of Channel Index (CI) should be calculated using the formula.
CL (Channel Length)
Channel Index (CI) = ___________________________
AL (Air Length or Straight Length)
However, the value of the Valley Index (VI) is calculated with the
help of following formula.
VL (Valley Length)
Valley Index (VI) = ___________________
Al (Air Length)
Topographic Sinuosity Index (TSI) is suggestive of topographic and
tectonic controls. If the value of TSI is higher it may reflects dominant role
of topography in response to tectonics. The TSI value is calculated with
the help of the formula.
VI - 1
Topographic Sinuosity Index (TSI) = ________ X 100
CI – 1
Standard Sinuosity Index (SSI) is indicative of the topographic
response to the river/stream flow, the Low SSI value is reflected by
mature and middle stage of the river. The data of Standard Sinuosity
Index (SSI) is obtained using the formula (Muller, 1968).
CI
Standard Sinuosity Index (SSI) = _____
VI
67
The entire area of present investigation has been divided in to four
sections for the study of morphometric analysis, which are as follow.
3.3.2 Longitudinal Valley profile:
The longitudinal valley profiles have been constructed with the help
of the Toposheet to the scale of 1:50,000 (Fig. 3.11and 3.12).
The steep slopes along the profiles suggest rejuvenation of river
pattern and vertical uplift along the valley (Fig. 3.11 and 3.12) in the
recent times. The knick points along the valley profiles of Saryu, Jaigan,
Kosi Gagas and Ramganga reflect differential uplift (Fig. 3.12). The knick
points observed along these valleys give an idea about the rate of uplift
and changes along the river with respect to the reference points and
reconstruction of the river system during the Quaternary time (Fig. 3.11
and 3,12).
3.3.3 Gradient Index (GI):
The longitudinal valley profiles have been used for obtaining the
values of the Gradient Index (GI) and Pseudo-Hypsometric Integral (PHI).
The Gradient Index (GI) was calculated using the formula proposed by
68
(Rhea, 1993; Brice, 1962). If the value of Gradient Index is more than 50,
it means the area is controlled by tectonic activity and has been
rejuvenated in the recent times.
The lower catchment of Saryu River between Pancheshwar-Seri
shows values of ‘GI’ 89 and 52.39 respectively, at the Rameshwar-
Kharkoli. However around Kharkoli and Baskot values of ‘GI’ is 85 and
25.39 (Fig. 3.13a). The high values of ‘GI’ around this area suggest that
the area has been uplifted in recent times.
In the upper catchments the higher value (146.99) of ‘GI’ is
observed in between Ara-Rintoli and Naichan-Nali segment shows value
(75.01) of ‘GI’ (Fig. 3.13b). These values are suggestive of rejuvenation
of NAT and associated transverse fault (SRF) in the recent time.
The Jaigan, Kosi and Gagas river catchments are most active
segments of Kumaun Lesser Himalaya. The higher value of ‘GI’ along
knick points, as observed along the profile of Jaigan, Kosi and Gagas,
shows rapid upliftment around Seraghat-Dwarahat section. The higher
69
values of ‘GI’ obtain along Jaigan gad (968, 179, 821, 2905) (Fig. 3.13c),
Kosi River (105.20) and along Gagas River (302.88, 670.50, 162.29,
1581.02, 77.54) (Fig. 3.14a and b). However 758, 565, 183.1, 116.01,
94.50, 96.57 values of ‘GI’ are obtained from the Ramganga River from
the both site (Fig. 3.14c).
The very higher values of ‘GI’ for Saryu, Jaigan, Kosi, Gagas and
Ramganga rivers may be due to the on going uplift (movement) along
NAT zone and other associated transverse fault. The recent tectonic
movement along these areas have resulted formation of numerous
geomorphic markers related to active tectonics. On the basis the values of
gradient index obtained from the study area it may be assumed that the
area is tectonically rejuvenating and has been uplifted in the recent time.
3.3.4 Pseudo-hypsometric Integral (PHI):
Overall shape of the valley is determined by Pseudo-hypsometric
Integral (PHI), calculated using the formula of Rhea, (1993). The high
value of PHI indicates that the area is neotectonically very active and it
has been uplifted in the recent times. Between the Pancheshwar and Seri,
the value of PHI is 50% and towards Seri and Seraghat it is 50.58%.
However, the value of Jaigan, Kosi and Gagas is 50% and 43.9%
respectively (Fig. 3.13a, b & c and 3.14a &b).
The River response to active tectonism of Ramganga valley system
is 50% from both sides, which is in the higher side, indicates the area is
rejuvenated in the Quaternary time (Fig. 3.14c). The abrupt breaks in the
profiles shows entrenched meandering of the river and narrow gorges
70
along the valley profile. This indicates that the area is neotectonically
active.
3.4 SINUOSITY INDEX
The Hydraulic, Topographic and Standard Sinuosity Index (HSI, TSI
and SSI) are most characteristic tools for determining response of river
system to tectonically rejuvenated areas (Brice, 1962; Muller, 1968;
Rhea, 1993 and Raj, et al., 2003). The Sinuosity of a river is characterized
by Hydraulic (HSI), Topographic (TSI), and Standered Sinuosity Indices
(SSI). According to TSI, HSI and SSI one can determine the nature of
river, response to active tectonism. For this study certain bends have
been selected from the knick points of Saryu, jaigan, Kosi Gagas and
Ramganga rivers. If the value of the Standered Sinuosity Index (SSI) is
1.0 it means that the valley is straight and if it is just above unity (1.3)
then the valley is sinuous and if more than (1.3), it reflects the
meandering nature of the river.
3.4.1 Sinuosity characters of Pancheshwar-Seri Section:
The value of HSI is very low in few places along the bends (F-G),
(M-N), (Y-Z) and (Za –Zb) (Fig. 3.15a), reflects these bends are
topographically controlled. The value of HSI vary from place to place,
however very higher values (›100) of HSI are found along the bends (A-
B), (C-D), (D-E), (E-F), (I-J), (P-Q) and (W-X) (Fig. 3.15a). Lower values
of HSI (‹100) is observed along the bends (B-C), (G-H), (H-I), (J-k), (K-
L), (L-M), (N-O), (O-P), (Q-R), (T-U), (X-Y) and (Z-Za) respectively
(Table. III.1). It can be assumed that the medium to high values of HSI
71
are indicating the river have wide channel and lofty flood plains. The
widening and straightening of the river channel probably due to
movement along thrust /faults, suggest the area is neotectonically very
active. In many places the HIS values are zero along the bends (U-V), (V-
W) and (Zb-Zb), suggests shifting of river channel due to vertical
upliftment along these bends.
In addition to this the HSI values are further supported by higher
TSI value (Table. III.1) indicates dominant role of active tectonism along
Saryu valley. Higher TSI values (≥ 100) are observed along the bends (F-
G), (M-N), (U-V), (V-W), (Y-Z) and (Zb-Zb) respectively (Fig. 3.15a). The
movement along these bands has resulted incision of the river from
narrowing to deepening. The value of TSI is abnormal along the bends (B-
C), (G-H), (K-L), (L-M), (N-O), (O-P), (Q-R), (R-S), (T-U), (W-X), (X-Y)
and (X-Y) (Table. III.1), these values are indicative of gorges and
entrenched meandering, reflects tectonic control in the uplifted areas (Fig.
3.15a).
The TSI and HSI values are supported by Standard Sinuosity Index
(SSI) value. The SSI value is more then (1.3) along the bands (A-B), (B-
72
C), (C-D), (D-E), (H-I), (I-J), (J-K), (P-Q), (Q-R), (S-T), (T-U) and (V-W)
(Table. III.1), the high values are indicative intrenchment and meandering
nature of the river. The SSI value is medium (1.0 and 1.3) along the
segments (E-F), (F-G), (G-H), (K-L), (L-M), (M-N), (N-O), (R-S), (X-Y),
(Y-Z) and (Za-Zb), it reflects the valley is sinuous. However the value
(1.0) is indicative of straight course of the river. Hence the high and low
value of the SSI may reflect the area is tectonically very active.
3.4.2 Sinuosity characters of Seraghat-Seri Section:
Along the Seraghat-Seri section the HSI values are comparatively
low in few places, which show a strong topographic control.
The lower values (≤50) are obtained near the (A-B), (L-M), (N-O), (U-V),
and (V-W) (Table. 3.2) and along the bends (E-F), (G-H), (K-L), (S-T)
(Fig. 3.15b) the value of HSI is medium to high (50-100) along the (C-D),
(F-G), (H-I), (I-J), (J-K), (O-P), (Q-R), (R-S) (Table. III.2), are reflected
by straight and wide valley of Saryu, which is controlled by Saryu River
Fault (SRF).
Table III.1: Sinuosity character of lower catchment of Saryu River
between Pancheshwar-Seri area. No. Band AL(KM) CL(km) VL(Km) CI VI HSI TSI SSI
1 A-B .3 .35 .3 1.16 1 100 0 1.16
2 B-C .2 .25 .225 1.25 1.125 50 50 1.11
3 C-D .3 .35 .3 1.16 1 100 0 1.16
4 D-E .35 .4 .35 1.14 1 100 0 1.14
5 E-F .5 .55 .5 1.1 1 100 0 1.1
6 F-G .35 .45 .425 1.28 1.21 25 75 1.05
7 G-H 1.2 1.3 1.25 1.08 1.04 50 50 1.03
8 H-I .25 .5 .425 2 1.7 30 70 1.17
73
9 I-J .4 .45 .4 1.125 1 100 0 1.125
10 J-K .25 .4 .325 1.6 1.3 50 50 1.23
11 K-L .65 .7 .675 1.07 1.03 57.14 42.85 1.03
12 L-M .5 .55 .525 1.1 1.05 50 50 1.04
13 M-N .4 .55 .525 1.375 1.312 16.8 83.2 1.04
14 N-O .65 .7 .675 1.07 1.03 57.14 42.85 1.03
15 O-P .5 .65 .55 1.3 1.1 66.6 33.3 11.8
16 P-Q .45 .5 .45 1.11 1 100 0 1.11
17 Q-R .4 .5 .45 1.25 1.125 50 50 1.11
18 R-S .3 .45 .375 1.5 1.25 50 50 1.2
19 S-T .4 .55 .4 1.375 1 100 0 1.375
20 T-U .35 .6 .45 1.71 1.28 60.56 39.43 1.33
21 U-V .35 .5 .5 1.42 1.42 0 100 1
22 V-W .5 .55 .55 1.1 1.1 0 100 1
23 W-X .45 .65 .475 1.44 1.05 88.63 11.36 1.37
24 X-Y .55 .6 .575 1.09 1.04 55.5 44.4 1.04
25 Y-Z .35 .5 .475 1.42 1.35 16.6 83.3 1.05
26 Z- Za .45 .5 .475 1.11 1.05 54.5 45.4 1.05
27 Za-Zb 1.3 1.4 1.375 1.07 1.05 28.5 71.4 1.01
28 Zb- Zb .85 .95 .95 1.11 1.11 0 100 1
Average .4821 .5857 .5339 1.2683 1.1329 55.57 44.37 1.08
In and around few places the HSI shows very high values (>100),
which reflects topographic and structural control. The value of HSI is these
segments are (0).
The TSI values are inversely proportional to the HSI, which
indicates that the area is rejuvenated and active in the recent time (Table.
III.2). The values of TSI is irregular (abnormal) near the bends (C-D), (E-
F), (H-I), (I-J), (J-K), (P-Q), (Q-R), (R-S), (U-V) (Table. III.2) (Fig.
3.15b). These values are reflected by the moderate to high sinuous
environment of river. Number of meandering loops and gorges are found
in the area. It is assumed that the area was manifested due to the
reactivation of North Almora Thrust and Saryu River Fault. These
74
evidences of the reactivation of NAT and SRF are further supported by the
value of standard Sinuosity Index (SSI). Along the Saryu River where the
SSI value is more then 1.3 near the bends (A-B), (B-C), (C-D), (D-E), (F-
G), (H-I), (I-J), (J-K), (O-P), (P-Q), (Q-R), (S-T), (T-U) and (W-X) reflects
meandering nature of the river. The SSI value is (1.0-1.3) along the
bends (E-F), (G-H), (K-L), (L-M), (M-N), (R-S) and (X-Y) suggesting
sinuous nature of river. However the SSI value is (0-1.0) along the (E-F),
(R-S), (U-V) and (V-W) bends, reflects straight course of the river (Fig.
3.15b).
3.4.3 Sinuosity Characters of Seraghat-Dwarahat section:
The Jaigan, Kosi and Gagas rivers are major river system of the
Seraghat-Dwarahat segment of the area in Central Kumaun.
The HSI values are comparatively very low (0.0) in few places along the
Gagas and Kosi River, which shows strong topographical control. Along
the Kosi river, the lower values are obtained near the bands (B-C), (C-D),
(F-G), (G-H), (H-I), (J-K), (K-L), (L-M), (M-N), (N-O), (P-Q), (T-U), (X-Y),
and along (A-B) in Jaigan valley, whereas along the Gagas river (D-E), (G-
75
H), (H-I), (K-L), and (L-M) bends show lower values of HSI (Table. III.3,
III.4 and III.5) (Fig. 3.16a, b and c).
Table III.2: Sinuosity characters of Saryu valley between Seraghat-Bsoli
area.
No. Band AL(KM) CL(km) VL(Km) CI VI HSI TSI SSI 1
A 2.5
.4
.375
1.6
1.5
16.6
83.3
1.06
2
A-B
.35
.4
.4
1.14
1.14
0
100
1
3
B-C
.4
.45
.425
1.125
1.062
50.4
49.6
1.05
4
C-D
.3
.35
.3
1.16
1
100
0
1.16
5
D-E
.3
.35
.325
1.16
1.08
50
50
1.07
6
E-F
.15
.3
.25
2
1.66
34
66
1.20
7
F-G
.9
.95
.9
1.05
1
100
0
1.05
8
G-H
.3
.45
.4
1.5
1.33
34
66
1.12
9
H-I
.7
.75
.725
1.07
1.03
57.14
42.85
1.03
10
I-J
.45
.5
.475
1.11
1.05
54.5
45.4
1.05
11
J-K
.3
.35
.3
1.16
1
100
0
1.16
12
K-L
.25
.45
.4
1.8
1.6
25
75
1.125
13
L-M
.45
.5
.5
1.11
1.11
0
100
1
14
M-N
.7
.8
.775
1.14
1.10
28.5
71.4
1.03
15
N-O
1.3
1.4
1.4
1.07
1.07
0
100
1
16
O-P
.45
.5
.475
1.11
1.05
54.5
45.4
1.05
17
P-Q
2.65
2.8
2.75
1.05
1.03
40
60
1.01
18
Q-R
.25
.3
2.75
1.2
1.1
50.
50
1.09
19
R-S
.55
.6
.55
1.09
1
100
0
1.09
20
S-T
.55
.8
.8
1.45
1.45
0
100
1
21
T-U
.4
.55
.525
1.375
1.312
16.8
83.2
1.04
22
U-V
1.05
1.2
1.175
1.14
1.11
21.4
78.5
1.02
Average
.5909
.6886
0.6568
1.255
1.172
42.40
57.575
1.063
Very high value (>100) of HSI are obtained from all the bends
(Table. III.3) in the Jaigan valley, the higher value of HSI might be due to
rapid upliftment along the Jaigan valley. The Value (100) of HSI are
76
obtained along the bends (I-J) and (S-T) in the Kosi river, however the
Gagas river has show along the bends (A-B), (E-F) and (J-K) (Table.
III.4). These low and high values of HSI suggest that the river valleys
around this area are straight and wide and with well developed fluvial
geomorphic landforms. The very low value of HSI (10-40) along the bends
(A-B), (D-E), (E-F), (O-P), (V-W) in the Kosi (Table III.4) and bends (B-
C), (C-D), (F-G) and (I-J) (Table. III.5) in the Gagas river are generally
associated to NAT. This reflects the area has been tectonically rejuvenated
in the recent time.
The lower values of HSI are further supported by high TSI values
such as along the bands (A-B) in the Jaigan valley, (A-B), (D-E), (E-F),
(O-P) and (V-W) in the Kosi valley and along (B-C), (C-D), (F-G), (I-J) in
the Gagas valley (Table. III.3, III.4 and III.5). The anomalous (abnormal)
values of TSI are established along all over the Jaigan river and near the
bends (B-C), (C-D), (F-G), (G-H), (H-I), (K-L), (L-M), (M-N), (N-O), (P-
Q), (R-S), (T-U), (U-V), (W-X) and (X-Y) along the Kosi river (Table. III.3,
III.4) and along the bends (D-E), (G-H), (H-I), (J-K), (K-L) and (L-M)
(Table. III.5) along the Gagas river (Fig. 3.16a, b and c). These values
suggest the river is sinuous in nature. A large number of meandering
loops and gorges are observed along these rivers. It was reflected that the
area was influence by reactivation of regional thrusts and faults.
3.4.4 Sinuosity Characters of Dwarahat-Panduwakhal section:
The sinuous character of the Ramganga River system in the
Dwarahat-Chaukhutia-Panduwakhal area has been described by Hydraulic,
Topographic and Standard sinuosity Index (HSI & TSI). During the study
77
of Hydraulic Sinuosity Index (HSI) certain points of high values have been
found along the valley, which reflect that the river system is rejuvenated.
Table III.3: Sinosity character of Jaigan gad.
No. Band AL(KM) CL(km) VL(Km) CI VI HIS TSI SSI
1 A-B 1.125 .125 .137 0.111 0.122 1.237 98.762 0.909
2 B-C .625 .125 .812 0.2 1.3 137.5 -37.5 0.153
3 C-D .75 .156 .875 0.208 1.167 121.0 -21.08 0.178
4 D-E .25 .187 .875 0.748 3.5 1092. -992.06 0.213
5 E-F .875 .218 1.312 0.249 1.5 166.5 -66.57 0.166
6 F-G 1.18 .125 1.312 0.105 1.119 113.2 -13.29 0.093
7 G-H .75 .187 1 0.249 1.334 144.4 -44.47 0.186
8 H-I .437 .187 .75 0.427 1.716 224.9 -124.95 0.248
9 I-J .875 .125 1.062 0.142 1.218 125.4 -25.40 0.116
10 J-K .5 .125 .62 0.25 1.24 132 -32 0.201
11 K-L .687 .093 .937 0.135 1.364 142.0 -42.08 0.098
12 L-M .56 .125 1.063 0.223 1.898 215.5 -115.57 0.117
13 M-N .56 .156 .875 0.278 1.562 177.8 -77.83 0.177
14 N-O .687 .218 .75 0.317 1.092 113.4 -13.47 0.290
15 O-P .812 .156 1.125 0.192 1.385 147.6 -47.64 0.138
16 P-Q .812 .156 .937 0.192 1.154 119.0 -19.05 0.166
17 Q-R .5 .093 .812 0.186 1.624 176.6 -76.65 0.114
18 R-S .375 .156 .75 0.416 2 271.2 -171.2 0.208
19 S-U .562 .281 1.125 0.5 2.002 300.4 -200.4 0.249
20 U-V .937 .312 1.312 0.332 1.4 159.8 -59.88 0.237
21 V-W .62 .187 .687 0.301 1.108 115.4 -15.45 0.271
22 W-X .375 .125 .625 0.333 1.667 200 -100 0.199
23 X-V .812 .125 .875 0.153 1.078 109.2 -9.20 0.141
Average 0.681 0.162 0.896 0.271 1.45 195 -95.95 0.211
78
In between the Dwarahat-Chaukhutia the high values of HSI (100) are
found near the bends (A-B), (D-E), (E-F), (F-G) and (I-J) and in the
section Panduwakhal-Chaukhutia the value of HSI is obtained along the
bends (C-D), (F-G) and (I-J) sections (Table. III.6). Few bends along
these sections are marked by very low values (almost Zero); these values
suggest that the area is controlled by very active tectonism (Fig. 3.17).
The values of HSI are anomalous in few places (Table. III.6) which
indicates widening and straightening of river and mass movement towards
the valley side which may be due to sudden upliftment of the area
because of reactivation of related faults and thrusts.
Table. III.4: Sinuosity character of the river Kosi.
No. Band AL(KM) CL(km) VL(Km) CI VI HSI TSI SSI
1 A-B .4 .45 .45 1.125 1.125 0 100 1
2
B-C
.3
.425
.4
1.41
1.33
19.5
80.4
1.06
3
C-D
.5
.6
.575
1.2
1.15
25
75
1.04
4
D-E
.65
.7
.7
1.07
1.07
0
100
1
5
E-F
.7
.75
.75
1.07
1.07
0
100
1
6
F-G
.3
.4
.375
1.33
1.25
24.2
75.7
1.06
7
G-H
.35
.5
.475
1.42
1.35
16.6
83.3
1.05
8
H-I
.65
.775
.75
1.19
1.15
21.0
78.9
1.03
9
I-J
.3
.35
.3
1.16
1
100
0
1.16
10
J-K
.2
.35
.325
1.75
1.625
16.6
83.3
1.07
11
K-L
.3
.375
.35
1.25
1.16
36
64
1.07
12
L-M
.25
.3
.275
1.2
1.1
50
50
1.09
13
M-N
.3
.35
.325
1.16
1.08
50
50
1.07
14
N-O
.25
.3
.275
1.2
1.1
50
50
1.09
15
O-P
.25
.5
.5
2
2
0
100
1
16
P-Q
.6
.65
.625
1.08
1.04
50
50
1.03
17
Q-R
.25
.4
.375
1.6
1.5
16.6
83.3
1.06
18
R-S
.25
.4
.35
1.6
1.4
33.3
66.6
1.14
79
19
S-T
.4
.45
.4
1.125
1
100
0
1.125
20
T-U
.3
.4
.35
1.33
1.16
51.5
48.4
1.14
21
U-V
.2
.35
.325
1.75
1.625
16.6
83.3
1.07
22
V-W
.35
.4
.4
1.14
1.14
0
100
1
23
W-X
.3
.5
.475
1.66
1.58
12.1
87.8
1.05
24
X-Y
.65
.7
.675
1.07
1.03
57.1
42.8
1.03
Average
.375
.4731
.4518
1.3287
1.2514
31.08
68.86
1.05
The dominant role of active tectonism in shaping the Ramganga Valley is
further supported by higher and low values of Topographic Sinuosity
Index (TSI) (Table.III.6).
Table III.5: Sinuosity character of the river Gagas.
No. Band AL(KM) CL(km) VL(Km) CI VI HSI TSI SSI
1 A-B .25 .3 .25 1.2 1 100 0 1.2
2
B-C
.4
.45
.45
1.125
1.125
0
100
1
3
C-D
.2
.25
.25
1.25
1.25
0
100
1
4
D-E
.55
.625
.6
1.136
1.09
33.8
66.1
1.04
5
E-F
.5
.525
.5
1.05
1
100
0
1.05
6
F-G
.45
.55
.55
1.22
1.22
0
100
1
7
G-H
1
1.05
1.025
1.05
1.025
50
50
1.02
8
H-I
.35
.45
.425
1.08
1.21
25
75
1.05
9
I-J
.7
.75
.75
1.07
1.07
0
100
1
10
J-K
.55
.65
.575
1.18
1.04
77.7
22.2
1.13
11
K-L
.25
.35
.325
1.4
1.3
25
75
1.07
12
L-M
.45
.5
.475
1.11
1.05
54.5
45.4
1.05
Average
.4708
0.5375
.5145
1.1725
1.115
38.83
61.14
1.05
The general tendency of the river is calculated with the help of
Standard Sinuosity Index (SSI) using the Mueller (1968) formula.The SSI
values of the Ramganga river system have reflected strong hydraulic
80
control and gradient nature of the river (SSI). Low values of SSI are
reflecting narrow valley, however the values between (1.0-1.03)
suggested meandering nature of the river (Fig. 3.17). The higher value of
SSI such as 1.65 does not show any strong hydraulic factor of sinuosity
(Table. III.6).
Table. III.6: Sinuosity character of the Ramganga catchment between
(a) Dwarahat-Chaukhutia and (b) Panduwakhal to Chaukhutia.
(a) No. Band AL(km) CL(km) VL(Km) CI VI HSI TSI SSI
1
A-B
2.9
2.95
2.92
1.01
1
100
0
1.01
2
B-C
1.35
1.4
1.37
1.03
1.01
66.6
33.3
1.01
3
C-D
1.5
1.55
1.55
1.03
1.03
0
100
1
4
D-E
2.4
2.45
2.4
1.02
1
100
0
1.02
5
E-F
1.4
1.15
1.4
1.03
1
100
0
1.03
6
F-G
.9
.95
.9
1.05
1
100
0
1.05
7
G-H
1.1
1.12
1.12
1.01
1.01
0
100
1
8
H-I
1.95
2.1
2.1
1.07
1.07
0
100
1
9 I-J
1.3
1.45
1.3
1.11
1
100
0
1.11
Average
1.64
1.71
1.67
1.04
1.01
62.95
37.03
1.02
No. Band AL(km) CL(km) VL(Km) CI VI HSI TSI SSI
1
A-B
.4
.6
.525
1.5
1.31
38
62
1.14
2
B-C
.5
.65
.6
1.3
1.2
33.3
66.6
1.08
3
C-D
.8
.85
.825
1.7
1.03
95.77
4.28
1.65
4
D-E
.95
1.1
1
1.15
1.05
66.6
33.3
1.09
5
E-F
.75
1
.95
1.33
1.26
21.2
78.78
1.05
6
F-G
.9
.95
.9
1.05
1
100
0
1.05
7
G-H
1.1
1.12
1.12
1.01
1.01
0
100
1
8
H-I
1.95
2.1
2.1
1.07
1.07
0
100
1
9
I-J
1.3
1.45
1.3
1.11
1
100
0
1.11
Average
.9611
1.09
1.03
1.24
1.10
50.54
49.44
1.13
81
Chapter-IV
QUATERNARY SEDIMENTATION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The history of Quaternary tectonics and morphotectonics of the
Himalayan region is a result of the co-interaction between exceptionally
active and accelerating Cenozoic tectonism to left several massif during
the Quaternary period (Schroeder et al., 1989; Valdiya 1993, 2001). The
Quaternary period has witnessed disruption of widespread areas resulting
in the formation of broad open valleys and blockade of several drainaige
basins in the form of palaeolakes (Valdiya, 1993, 2001; Valdiya and
Kotlia, 2001). A number of sedimentary lake basins such as Peshawar
(Burbank, 1983; Yeast and Hussain, 1989), Ladakh (Kotlia et al., 1997,
Shukla et al., 2002), Kashmir (Agrawal et al., 1989, Bagati et al., 1996;
Burbank and Johnson, 1982), Kumaun (Kotlia et al., 1998, 2000 and
Valdiya and Kotlia, 2001) and Kathmandu (Dongol and Brookfield, 1994)
were evolved as a result of the continued tectonic activity during the Plio-
Pleistocene times. The fluvial terraces present along these features most
probably formed during the time of tectonic rejuvenation. The movement
has influenced depositional environment of late quaternary fluvial
terraces, lacustrine flats and colluvial cones (Valdiya, 1993, 1992, 2003;
Valdiya and Kotlia, 2001; Valdiya et al., 1984,).
In the present investigation four most significant sections along the
NAT zone are chosen for the study of Quaternary sedimentation pattern
between 29025’- 30015’ N and Longitude 790 15’-80015’ E Longitude
82
covering an area of about 200 km2. Segment one is defined by
Pancheshwar-Panar area along the Saryu River. After a precise field work
two major sites have been chosen i.e., 72m thick deposit at Pancheshwar
and ~64m thick fluvial deposits at Rari in this segment. Presence of 100m
thick sedimentary sequence at Nali and ~30 m thick terraces at Ara are
studied in second segment, i.e., Seri-Seraghat section. The Third segment
is marked by Seraghat-Dwarahat area characterizes ~78m thick deposit
at Girigad area in Jaigan valley, 45m thick sequence at Kande and Haroli
sites along the Simgad, 53m thick sequence at Nausera along the Kosi
Valley and 62m deposits at Lodh along Sumari Gad, 22 thick fluvial
deposits at Panergaon area, 12m deposit at Sakuni area, 41m thick
deposit at Bhandarigaon area and 53 m flivial terraces at Tambakhola
area along Gagas valley. The Dwarahat-Panduwakhal section is selected
as a fourth segment of study area. Three sites have been studied in detail
from this section i.e., 30 m thick fluvial deposits at Rampur, 35m
sequence at and around Chhitleshwar, and northeastern limit of this
segment marked by Trag tal area along the Trag Valley. The area is
characterized by 4.78 m thick lacustrine sediment which is overlain by
60m huge landslide deposit. The brief description of above four segments
has been given below.
4.2 PANCHESHWAR-SERI SECTION
The Pancheshwar-Seri section lies over northeastern part of
Kumaun Lesser Himalaya which is bounded by 29031’251”-29026’708” N
Latitude and 80004’625”-80014’517” E Longitude (Fig. 1.1). It comprises
highly deformed mylonitized granite gneiss of Saryu Formation, quartzite
and slate of Rautgara Formation and Dolomitic limestone of Deoban
83
Formation (Fig. 2.4). The area between Pancheswar to Panar and beyond
Seri, in the Central Kumaun along the Saryu River is tectonically very
active (Valdiya and Kotlia, 2001). Number of landslides occurred towards
its hill slope side, only at few places fluvial deposits have been
superlatively exposed such as five level of terrace development around
Pancheshwar and Ghat-Panar section (Fig. 5.3 and 4.1a). The sediment
depositional pattern suggests two phase of depositional environment.
4.2.1 Pancheshwar section: The Saryu-Kali confluence in the eastern
Kumaun Himalaya is defined by Pancheshwar Temple, which is situated at
20026’708” N Latitude and 80014’517” E Longitude. The basement rocks
exposed around the area are mylonitized granite gneiss trending NW-SE
direction, with dip of 700- 800 towards SW. The area is characterized by
development of five levels of fluvial terraces; the thickness of these
deposits from the base is 72m (Fig. 5.3). These terraces are considered to
be deposited during the reactivation of thrusts and associated faults of
NAT zone.
84
The base of this section is made up of 1 m thick clast supported
gravel (Gmg) consisting of an upward fining sequence. The sediment is
mainly composed of 40% quartzite, 30% granite gneiss, 20% slate and
10% of other rock fragment (Fig. 4.1a and 5.3). The clast supported
gravely horizon is overlain by 6m thick massive laminated sand (Sm)
and 5m thick matrix supported gravel (Gms) underlay the sandy horizon,
this is overlain by 17m thick clast supported gravel, which is underlain by
1m thick fine sand (Sf). Presence of 27m thick colluvial (Clu) material
lying over this horizon indicates first phase of sedimentary depositional
environment (Fig. 4.1a). The colluvial (Clu) material is overlain by 15m
sand, and 3.5m thick clast supported gravel (Gmg) present over this
horizon, indicating one more phase of depositional environment. In
addition to this the whole sequence is covered by huge landslide debris
(Clu) (Fig. 6.1a) (Table. 4.1). Frequent landslide and fluvial sediment
pattern has confirmed that these deposits were formed due to the
movement along the upthrown block side of NAT.
4.2.2 Rari section: The Rari village is present one kilometer away from
the Ghat Bridge, on the way to Pithoragarh–Almora road, along the Saryu
River (bounded by 290 31’ 120” N Latitude and 800 06’ 688” E Longitude).
The fluvial sequence of the Rari section are marked by formation of 62m
thick fluvial deposit, in general consists of an upward fining sequence (Fig.
4.1b). The fluvial sequence has reflected two events of sedimentation.
During the first phase 54 m thick fluvial sediment was deposited, which is
overlain by 3m thick consolidated breccia. This sequence is overlain by
thick landslide debris (Clu) with clayey matrix representing second phase
of deposition (Fig. 4.1b). The history of sedimentation around the Rari
may reflect the area is tectonically active.
85
Table IV.1: Major Lithofacies, their character and interpretation of
Pancheshwar-Seri area (After Miall, 1996). Lithofacies
Character
Depositional setting
Clase supported Gravel (Gmg)
Sand massive (Sm)
Matrix supported Gravel (Gms) Sand fine (Sf)
Colluvium (Clu) Breccia
Compact well sorted rounded to
well rounded grain Coarse grained massive sand Unconsolidated rounded to
Subrounded gravel with sandy matrix. About 1m. thick fine laminated sand
Unconsolidated, imbricated angular to sub rounded grain, reworked by river. Angular to sub angular fragment,
poorly sorted
Bradded channel deposit
Channel related sediment
Fluvial deposit Channel related sediment
Flood plain deposit High strength of debris flow
4.3 SERAGHAT-SERI SECTION
The Seraghat-Seri section (29018’40” to 29040’ N Latitude and
80001’60” to 79045’ E Longitude) along the course of Saryu River in
Central Kumaun Himalaya is characterized with magnificent fluvial
deposits. The fluvial deposits present around this section are strongly
influence by NNW-SSE trending transverse fault, i.e., Saryu River Fault
(SRF) passing from Naichaun to Jaigal and Rasun, through Rantoli to
Basoli (Valdiya, 1976, Pant et al., 2007). The highly sheared and crushed
rocks in the vicinity of the Saryu River Fault are comprised of the
Rautgara and Deoban formations and crystallines of Saryu Formation of
the Almora group. The 100m thick fluvial deposits have been documented
at and around Nali village in the northern block of Seraghat-Seri section
and 30m thick sedimentary sequence at Ara in the southern part (Fig.
4.2a&b).
86
4.3.1 Nali Section: The northern limit of Seraghat-Seri section along the
Saryu river is studied in detailed for sedimentation history in Seraghat-
Nali area. The area is characterized by broad open valley with large
meandering and lofty terraces. Five level of fluvial terraces have been
documented around this section particularly at Nali (Fig. 5.12). The overall
thickness of sedimentary sequence around this area is about 100m with
lack of sedimentary structures.
The top part of the terrace is mostly covered with landslide debris (Clu)
particularly T1. The average composition of the terrace is 70% Quartzite,
20% Quartz mica schist and 10% slate containing coarse sandy matrix
with rock fragment (Fig. 4.2a). The maximum grains are angular to
subangular in nature having 2 to .5 m in diameter. Presence of brecciated
material (Br) within the terrace T3 confirms that the area is influence by
tectonic rejuvination during the time of deposition. The terrace-T4 is
mainly made up of matrix (Gms) supported subangular to angular grains.
Whereas terrace T5 is made up of clast supported well rounded to sub
rounded gravels (Gcm) (Figs. 4.2a and 5.12). On the basis of above
observations it may be confirmed that the sedimentary sequence found
87
around Nali is strongly influence by movement along faults/thrust in the
Quaterary era (?).
Table IV.2: Lithofacies, their character and interpretation (after Miall,
1976) for the Seraghat-Seri area.
Lithofacies
Character
Depositional setting
Silty Mud (Fm)
Silt (Fsm)
Clast supported gravel (Gcm) Sand(Sm)
Laminated, compact siltymud containing little amount of charcoal and preservation of
plant. 0.15 m. thick laminated silt intermixed with clay
Compact Imbricated angular to sub angular grain Laminated poorly sorted sand alternate with silt
Levee flood plain
Levee flood plain
Braided Channel deposit Channel related sediment
4.3.2 Ara section: The fluvial sequence of Ara and adjacent areas were
formed under the prominent tectonic activity of the NNW-SSE trending
Saryu River Fault (SRF). The thickness of fluvial deposits around Ara
section is about 30m. In between this fluvial sequence 6 m. thick flood
levee deposit is also observed, which is underlain by braided channel
deposits including sand and gravel horizon (Gcm) (Fig. 5.14). Best
exposures have been observed at and around Ara, which consist of an
upwards-fining succession (Fig. 4.2b). These deposits have suggested
southeastward shifting of river Saryu. The 6 m thick levee deposits within
the Ara terraces are mainly made up of silt (Fsm), silty mud (Fm), sand
(Sm) and gravel (Gcm) horizons (Table. 4.2). The alternate bands of silt
and siltymud horizons show prominent laminated bands and cyclic
sedimentation (Fig. 4.2b). The silty mud sequence is characterized by the
excellent preservation of plant remains. This horizon is overlain and
88
underlain by brecciated material. Presence of breccia within this horizon
indicates tectonic quiescence during the Quaternary era.
4.4 SERAGHAT-DWARAHAT SECTION
The Seraghat-Dwarahat segment (29040’ to 29040’22” N Latitude
79014’31” to 79045’ E Longitude) of NAT zone comprises highly sheared
and shattered rocks. The rocks observed in this area are quartzite and
slate of the Rautgara Formation, dolomite of Deoban Formation and
crystallines of Saryu Formation of the Almora group (Valdiya, 1980).
The Jaigan gad in this area is flowing along the NAT in the form of gorge
and avoiding development of fluvial terraces except few places such as
Kaphligair-Kanarichhina and adjacent area. Fluvial deposits are preserved
at many places along the Gagas valley and upper catchments of Kosi
valley in and around Someshwar. Repetitive occurrence of faulting within
the Quaternary deposits (?) reflects multiple events of sedimentary as well
as tectonic rejuvination. The various section studied are described in detail
as under.
89
4.4.1 Girigad Section: The upper catchment of Jaigan Gad is defined by
Girigad in and around Kaphligair (29044’22” N Latitude and 79044’46” E
Longitude). The area is manifest by deposition of 78m thick fluvial
succession at Girigad vallage. The average composition of the fluvial
sequence is 60% granite gneisses of Saryu Formation and 30% quartzite
and 20% slate of Rautgara Formation (Fig. 5.17b). The fluvial material is
mostly clast rich subrounded to rounded gravels (Gcm), overlain by huge
clast supported subangular to angular gravels. This subangular to angular
nature of gravel suggests pseudoplastic debris flow during the time of
deposition. The elevation difference of these terraces is 29m, 18m, 12m
and 28m from the top. The large elevation difference of these terraces
suggests rapid rate of tectonic upliftment during the time of deposition.
4.4.2 Haroli section: The southern limit of Simgad in Takula-Basoli
section is defined by Haroli located at 29020’08”N Latitude and 79042”18”
E Longitude. The area is marked by thickly deposited three levels of fluvial
terraces. These terraces are located at an elevation of 1410, 1390 and
1373 msl, with elevation differences of 20m, 17m and 8m from the top
(Fig. 5.19). The average composition of these terraces is 70% schist and
gneiss of Saryu Formation, 30% slate and quartzite of Rautgata
Formation. The top of these terraces is made up of mainly clast supported
subangular to angular gravels, which is underlain by matrix supported
massive gravel (Gmg), having thicknes of ~17m. The basement terraces
are characterized by clast supported unsorted massive gravel (Gcm) with
an upward fining sequence (Fig. 5.19).
4.4.3 Kande section: The northern limit in Takula-Basoli section of
Simgad is defined by Kande, located 29044’16” N Latitude and 79041’26”
90
E Longitude near Takula. The terraces at Kande and adjacent area are
found at a height of 1475, 1460 and 1440 msl. These terraces are made
up of clast-matrix supported massive gravels (Fig. 5.18). The top part of
these terraces is overlain by subangular to angular gravels, which suggest
pseudoplastic flow. The counter part of Kande is marked by deposition of
24m thick multistoried fluvial sequence (Fig. 5.18). The alternate units of
clast supported gravel (Gcm) and silt (Fsm) suggests
backswamp/turbulent flow during time of depositional event.
4.4.4 Lodh Section: The northwestern limit of Sumarigad in Someshwar
area is defined by Lodh, which is enclosed by 29047’164” N Latitude and
79031’601” E Longitude. The Quaternary succession of Lodh is marked
with deposition of 62m thick fluvial sequence (Fig. 4.3a). The T1 terraces
is observed at an elevation of 1619 msl made up of clast rich subrounded
to rounded gravels (Gcm) composed of 60% quartzite, 20% quartz mica
schist, 10 % gneiss and 10% other rock fragments (Fig. 4.3a). The T1 is
underlain by massive gravel, composed of 50% quartzite, 20% quartz
mica schist, 10 % gneiss and 10% slate and 10% other rock fragments,
probably formed due to pseudo-plastic debris-flow. These terraces are
influence by tectonic activity in the present time, as the tectonic
movement around area has caused reverse faulting in the sediment. The
fluvial material has been displaced by 4m and the fault plane is inclined by
400 towards southwestward, reflecting episodic tectonic quiescence. This
may suggest that the area around Lodh and environ is still active (Fig.
5.22).
4.4.5 Panergaon section: The southwestern limit of Gagas valley in
central Kumaun Himalaya is marked by Panergaon, enclosed by
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29043’508” N Latitude and 79028’240” E Longitude. A 22m thick
sedimentary succession is documented in this section (Fig. 4.3b). At the
base ~1m thick clast supported massive gravely (Gmg) horizon is found
which, is indicating that this unit was formed due to pseudo-plastic debris
flow. This unit is composed of 20% quartzite and 10% slate of Rautgara
Formation, 10% gneiss, 60% schist of Saryu Formation consist of an
upward fining sequence. The basal unit is overlain by finely laminated .7m
silt overlain by .1m thick clast supported massive gavel, which is overlain
by .3m silty (Fsm) horizon. These deposits were most probably formed in
over bank depositional environment (Fig. 4.3b). However this is overlain
by .4m unconsolidated massive sand (Sm) with disperse gravels. This unit
is overlain by 1m matrix supported gravely (Gmg) horizon, containing
sandy matrix with subrounded to rounded gravels. The (Gmg) unit is
overlain by 0.9 m thick laminated silt unit, which is underlain by 1.3 m
thick matrix supported gravely horizon. This is overlain by ~ 1m thick
clast supported gravel, mostly made up of clast of schist, gneiss and
quartzite (Fig. 4.3b). The clast rich gravel unit is overlain by fine
laminated 1m thick sand and silt. Again the sand (sm) facies is overlain by
11.48 m laminated silt, within this unit alternate bands of matrix
supported gravel are found. However the top of Panergaon section
consists of 3 m thick cross bedded sand (Sp) (Fig. 4.3b).
4.4.6 Sakuni section: On the basis of field observations, 12m thick
sedimentary sequence is mapped in and around the Sakuni village
(29043’499” N Latitude and 79028’403” E Longitude) in Bagwalipokhar
area along Gagas valley (Fig. 4.3c and 5.25a). At Sakuni, the base
marked by 1.5m thick clast supported massive gravel (Gmg), which is
overlain by 3m thick laminated silt (Fsm). The silt unit is overlain by
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0.91m thick matrix supported gravelly (Gmg) unit and 0.95m silt deposits.
Scatter subrounded to rounded gravel are deposited within the silty
horizon (Fig. 4.3c). The silt unit is overlain by 0.6m clast supported
massive gravels (Gmg), which is itself overlain by 0.6m silt. Towards the
upper part of silt unit 1.5m thick matrix supported gravelly horizons are
persent, which is overlain by 0.40m sandy silt. The sand and silt unit is
overlain by 0.60m thick fine laminated sand (Sm) and towards the upper
part of this unit 1.5 m silty sand (Fl) is deposited. The top unit of Sakuni
section is marked by 1m thick laminated silt horizon (Fig. 4.3c). The facies
archetechure suggest the sedimentary sequence at ane around sakuni
area suggests strong control of Gagas Fault.
4.4.7 Bhandarigaon section: The Bhandarigaon section in the
Bagwalipokhar area marked by 41m thick sediment deposit (Fig. 4.3d) is
bounded by 29043’681” N Latitude and 79028’427” E Longitude. At the
Bhandarigaon section, base is characterized by 1.9m thick massive sand
(Sp) unit, which is overlain by 29m thick laminated silt. Towards the top
of this unit 0.3 m clast supported massive (Gcm) gravelly unit is present.
The clast supported massive gravelly unit is overlain by .36m fine
laminated sand (Sm). Towards the upper part of this unit small thinly
bedded laminated silt unit is present. These deposits most probably
formed under overbank environment. Massive cross bedded 0.33m sand
(Sm) unit is lying over the silt unit. The massive cross bedded sand unit is
overlain by 0.4m thick silty sand and 2.5m thick massive laminated silt
sequence. The 1.32m fine laminated silt (Fl) unit lying over sandy sily
unit. The (Fl) unit is overlain by 0.95m thick clast supported massive
gravel (Gcm) (Fig. 6.4d). The clast supported gravely horizon is overlain
with 0.56m sandy silt (Fl) and 1.95m laminated silt and underlain by
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0.29m silty sand. The top part of this section is made up of 1m fine
laminated silt and 1.70m thick massive cross bedded sand (Sp), suggests
the area is influence by active tectonics.
4.4.8 Tambakhola section: The Tambakhola (29042’19” N Latitude and
79028’36” E Longitude) section is marked by 53 m thick fluvial sequence
(Fig. 5.24). Four levels of fluvial terraces are well documented around this
section with elevation difference of 11, 10, 14 and 20m respectively from
the top (Fig. 5.24). These deposits are mainly made up of clast supported
gravels composed of 20% quartzite, 40% slate, 30% gneiss and 10%
schist. The T1, T2 and T3 are mainly made up of clast supported
subrounded to rounded gravels. The top terrace T4 is mostly covered with
unsorted subangular to angular clast supported material. At the base rock
garnet mica schist of Saryu Formation is present, which have got
displaced by normal faulting. The fault plane is inclined by 450 due NE.
The movement around this area has resulted ~19m vertical uplift of
Plistocene Tambakhola section (Fig. 4.19).
Table IV.3: Major lithofacies, their character and Interpretation (after Miall, 1976) of the Seraghat-Dwarahat area.
Lithofacies
Character
Depositional setting
Clast upported Gravel (Gcm) Matrix supported gravel
(Gmm) Silt (Fsm)
Sand (Sm) Cross bedded sand (Sp)
Colluvium (Clu)
Massive, unsorted, rounded to subrounded gravel. Unconsolided subangular to angular gravel
with sandy matrix. Finly laminated compact silty horizon.
Massive laminated sand with disperse gravel lack of sedimentary structures. Finly laminated planner cross bedded sandy horizon with disperses gravel.
Angular to Subangular unsorted and unconsolided material
Braded channel deposit Channel related sediment.
Flood plane deposit/ lacustrine
Channel related sediment Channel related sediment
Clast rich debris flow.
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4.5 DWARAHAT-PANDUWAKHAL SECTION
The northwestern limit of North Almora Thrust zone is defined by
Dwarahat-Panduwakhal section (29058’45”-29040’22” N Latitude and
79014’31”–79024’79” E Longitude) in Kumaun Lesser Himalaya. The area
is restricted by numerous transverse faults (NNW-SSE trending Ramganga
Fault and almost NW-SE trending Trag Fault) and North Almora Thrust
(NAT). The entire area comprises crystallines rocks of Almora Group,
Dolomitic limestone of Deoban Formation and quartzarenite and slate of
Rautgara Formation. The Quaternary fluvial deposits are well exposed
around Rampur and Chhitleswar and the fluviolacustrine deposit of Tragtal
area along the Trag gad (Figs. 5.28 and 5.29).
4.5.1 Rampur Section: The fluvial deposit around Rampur comprises
30m thick multistoried fluvial sequence. The Quaternary (?) sediments
around the Rampur and environ have been probably formed during the
time of reactivation of North Almora Thrust (NAT) and NNW-SSE trending
Ramganga Fault (Figs. 4.4a and 4.28). The base of Rampur section is
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defined by 11m thick multistoried fluvial sediments with an upward fining
sequence. The material is mainly made up of alternate bands of matrix
supported gravel (Gmg) and channel fill clay (Fr). These deposits are
reflecting first phase of sedimentary depositional environment, followed by
17 m thick matrix supported gravel lying over the horizon. The top part of
this horizon is intermixed with 2m thick brecciated material. Presence of
breccias within this horizon suggests second phase of depositional event
(Fig. 4.4a). However, 2 m thick silty horizon is well documented at
Bhanotiya. These deposits were formed under over-bank sedimentary
depositional environment. These deposits suggest shifting of river channel
about 100 m towards northwestward. This may confirm that the area got
uplifted by the influence of active tectonics.
4.5.2 Chhitleswar Section: The Chhitleswar Temple (29049’22” N
Latitude and 79024’79” E Longitude) is located 10 km southwest of
Chhaukhutia in Central Kumaun. 21m thick fluvial sediments have been
observed around the area mainly composed of clast supported gravel with
an upward fining sequence having sandy matrix (Fig. 4.4b). Massive
landslide (not measured) lyes over the fluvial horizon. Presence of
colluvial material at the top of this section reflects active nature of the
area.
Table IV.4: Major lithofacies of Ramganga valley, their character and
interpretation (after Miall, 1996) for Dwarahat-Panduwakhal area:
Lithofacies of
fluvial system
Lithofacies of
Trag tal section
Character
Depositional
setting
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Gravel
Clay
Sandy gravel
Breccia
Gravel
Silt Sand
Sandy Silt
Fine sand
Clast supported, showing upward fining sequence. Rounded to sub rounded, imbricated
with sandy matrix at the base of lake sediment. Reddish brown clay having small amount of charcoal.
.9 m. thick silty layer do not contain any structure. .7 m. thick laminated course sandy
layer. Matrix supported gravely horizon showing upward fining sequence. Fine grained 0.75m. thick laminated,
dark gray color altered with silt. Angular to sub rounded landslide material found at the top of the
sequence.
Cross bedded .7 m. thick sand layer.
Braided Channel Fluvial
Lacustrine
Lacustrine Braided Channel
fluvial flood plain
colluvial
Channel related
4.5.3 Tragtal Section: The Trag Tal section is characterized by the rocks
of Rautgara and Deoban formations. The rocks are highly fractured and
sheared due to the active North Almora thrust (NAT) and the active NW-
SE trending Trag Fault. The lake site is located at 29053’03” N Latitude
and 79025’28” E Longitude, formed due to reactivation of faults/thrust.
Deposition of 4.78 m thick lacustrine sediment has formed due to blocked
of Trag gad (Table. 4.4), composed of clay, silty clay, silt and sandy
horizon, having small scale cross bedding and beneath this deposit clast
supported gravelly horizon is present (not measured) (Fig. 4.4c). Hence,
formation of the Tragtal and deposition of lacustrine sediment (Fig. 5.29)
may reflect the Tragtal and it’s environ is controlled several tear faults i.e.
NNW-SSE trending Ramganga Fault and NW-SE trending Trag Fault.
4.6 FACIES DESCRIPTION AND INTERPRETATION
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Based on the field observations, vertical and lateral logging and
physical characters of the sedimentary sequences; following facies were
identified and interpretation has been done accordingly.
4.6.1 Clast supported massive gravel (Gcm): This facies is prominent
in all the section along the Saryu, Jaigan, Kosi, Gagas, and Ramganga
rivers, such as Pancheshwar, Rari, Ara, Girigad, Lodh, Panergaon, Sakuni
and Bhandarigaon, Chhitleshwar and Rampur sections. The thickness of
the Gcm unit varies from 5m to 1m. The gravel unit is tabular with
erosional or sharp bases with the underlying or overlying sediment units.
This comprises of rounded-subrounded dominantly class supported, lacks
primary sedimentary structures. The gravel size is ranging from 0.5m to
0.1m. The average clast size having composition of 60% schist, 10%
gneiss, 20% quartzite of Saryu Formation and 10% slate of Rautgara
Formation. Imbrications are poorly developed in general showing an
upward fining or coarsening sequence.
The clast supported massive gravel (Gcm) sequence is indicator of
pseudo-plastic debris flow/ turbidity flow, sedimentary depositional
environment (Horton and Schmitt, 1996; Miall, 1996; Shultz, 1984;
Waresback and Turbville, 1990). The clast supported massive gravel
reflects clast rich massive debris flow. This may suggest the gravels are
reworked by river.
4.6.2 Matrix supported gravel (Gmg): This facies, matrix supported
gravel is obsurved only in Pancheshwar, Nali, Panergaon, Sakuni,
Chhitleshwar and Rampur sections with 1m size range, which is mainly
made up of clasts of schist, gneiss, quartzite and slate, with silty matrix.
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It comprises rounded to subrounded gravels with upward fining sequence,
lacks of primary sedimentary structures in significant.
The above facies matrix supported gravel (Gmg) is with massive silt
and clast supported gravel in sharp contact. The facies (Gmg) may be
formed either under pseudo-plastic debris flow or low strength viscosity
environment (Miall, 1996, Shultz, 1984, Waresback and Turbville, 1990).
The gravel unit is tabular sharp bases with the underlying or overlying
sediment units. The matrix supported massive gravelly unit does not
contain any primary sedimentary structure.
4.6.3 Matrix supported massive gravel (Gmm): This facies is
dominated in Lodh, Panergaon and Sakuni sections. The thickness of Gmm
unit varies from 28m to .3m in nature. The gravel unit is tabular sharp
bases with the underlying or overlying sediment units. The matrix
supported massive gravelly unit comprises subrounded to rounded
gravels, dominated by silty matrix does not contains any primary
sedimentary structures. This mainly composed of schist, gneiss, and
quartzite of Saryu Formation, showing upword fining sequence.
The matrix supported massive gravel (Gmm) is interpreted as
plastic debris flow or high strength viscous debris flow environment (Miall,
1996). This unit thickness varies from 28m to 0.3m, may be reworked
product of stream/river action (Cavinato et al., 2002).
4.6.4 Clast supported breccia: The top part of Lodh section is
characterized by this facies. The thickness of this facies is ranging
between 5m to 20m in nature. This facies is marked by highly unsorted
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angular to subangular gravely horizon. The size of gravel varies from 1m
to few centimeters in diameter, showing lack of sedimentary structure.
This facies is considered as a product of colluvial process (Shukla et
al., 2002). The facies is influenced either due to tectonic activity or
occasional torrential rain fall. The angular to subangular upgraded nature
of the sediment reflects its transport from adjacent mountain slope and
associated debris flow (Nemec and Kazanci, 1999).
4.6.5 Massive sand (Sm):
This unit comprises coarse grained sand, lack of any sedimentary
structure. The massive sand (Sm) unit is also prominent in all sections of
Bagwalipokhar and Pancheshwar. This unit is varies from 5m to .5m in
nature. In general the (Sm) unit shows upword fining or coarsening
sequence with respect to underlying and overlying units.
The facies massive sand is mainly associated with subaerial
hyperconcentrated flow. This may be formed due to turbulent suspension
giving insufficient time and sediment gravity flow (Miall, 1996, Lowe, 1982
and Smith, 1986). This facies may be formed either due to rapid
deposition over the clast supported massive gravel (Fsm) and laminated
massive clay (Sm) along with shaking of ground.
4.6.6 Planner cross bedded sand (Sp): The planer cross bedded sand
unit is exposed at the top of Paner gaon and Bhandarigaon section. The
thickness of (Sp) facies is varies from 4m to ~ 1m, dominated by
presence of cross bedding with irregular and sharp contact. The unit (Sp)
shows an upward fining and coarsening sequence with respect to
underlying and overlying units.
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The planner cross bedded sand (Sp) facies is marked by presence
of primary sedimentary structures suggesting that the facies was
deposited in fluvial environment. The planner beds were probably formed
due to migration of active channel. This facies is interpreted as a
transverse and linguoid bedform migration (Miall, 1996)
4.6.7 Massive silt (Fsm): The massive silt unit is dominated al the three
sections of Bagwalipokhar area. The thickness of massive silt (Fsm) unit is
ranging from 29m to.3m in nature. This unit comprises fine laminated
bands showing sharp contact with underlain and overlain units. In the
Sakuni section the Fsm contains gravels, which are dispersing in nature.
Few places around the Bhandarigaon section soft sedimentary
deformational features are well documented.
The occurrence of laminated mm thick massive silt is commonly
associated with carbonaceous material. This unite is deposited under low
energy conditions, devoid of sedimentary structure. The silty horizon most
probably formed in backswamp or channel related sedimentary
environment.
4.6.8 Fine laminated sand and silt (Fl): This unit is prominent in all
the sections of Bagwalipokhar but the Lodh section is devoid deposition of
this facies. The fine laminated sand and silt (Fl) unit varies from 1.5m to
.3m, ranging from mm to cm scale, however gravel are well deposited in
few places.
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The fine laminated sand and silt (Fl) facies comprises alternate,
finely laminated mm thick bands of silt and sand. This unit is interpreted
as the deposition of abandoned channel deposit or waning flood plain
depositional environment (Miall, 1996). The alternate bends of sand and
silt most probably formed under low energy condition.
4.7 DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND TECTONICS
The neotectonic activity of the North Almora Thrust (NAT) and
associated transverse faults are manifested by Kali, Saryu, Jaigan, Kosi,
Gagas and Ramganga valleys. The facies Gcm, Gmg, Gmm, Fl, Fsm, Sm
and Sp got deposited in the fluvial environment. The clast rich breccia is
commonly associated with either tectonically or transport from adjacent
mountain slope and associated as debris flow due to landslides. The
fluvial deposits along the Kali, Saryu, Jaigan, Sim, Kosi and Gagas valleys
were mainly induced by tectonics and fluvial environment. Presence of
brecciated material at the base of the section Rari, Ara and Nali is reflects
prominent tectonic activity has been takes place during the deposition of
sediment (Valdiya and Kotlia, 2001; Pant et al., 2007).
The sediment deposit at and around Ara, Nali, Girigad, Haroli,
Kande Tambakhola, and deposits around Bagwalipokhar suggests shifting
of river channel and vertical upliftment of terraces. The base of fluvial
deposits at Rari, Ara and Nali is made up of brecciated material, which
suggests tectonic control during the time of sediment deposition (Pant et
al., 2007).
102
The Gmm and Gmg at the top and at the bottom of this section
were deposited in fluvial environment. The fluvial deposit along the
Jaigan, Sim and Kosi rivers suggests strong tectonic control during the
time of sedimentation. Whereas fluvial deposit at Lodh section reflects
deposition of Gmm, Fsm, Gcm, and colluvial deposit. The reverse faulting
within the Gcm at this section suggest tectonic activity at the time of
deposition of Gcm.
The sediment along the Ramganga fault may have resulted
development of 10m multistoried fluvial sequence showing an upward
fining sequence. The levee deposit may reflect swifting of active river
channel. The 60 m thick brecciated material at Trag valley is most
probably formed under active tectonic regim (Kothyari and Pant, 2004).
The Gcm, Fsm, Fl, Sp and sm, facies at the Trag tal section shows fluvial
as well as lacustrine environment.
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Chapter: V
TECTONIC GEOMORPHOLOGY
AND NEOTECTONICS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The tectonic movements in Quaternary period are generally
referred as neotectonics, where as on going tectonic movements since the
Holocene are generally referred as active tectonics (Burbank and
Anderson, 2001; Troften, 1997; Valdiya, 1884). The term neotectonics
was originally introduced by Mescherikove (1968) and defined by
Mescherikov to involve movements of the earth crust since the Neogene
time, i.e., during the last 23Ma.
The neotectonism is considered as a tool to definene as any earth
movement or deformation of the geodetic reference level, their
mechanism, geological origin, and implications for various practical
purposes and future explorations (Bartolini, 1996; INQUA, 1978; Morner,
1989b; Vita-Finzi, 1986). Neotectonics denotes all kind of crustal
movment vertical as well as horizontal crustal movements
(seismotectonic, plate motion, mountain building, basin subsidence,
isostatic process, etc.) during a longer period of time (Morner, 1989b).
The period may be the ~ 2.5 Ma, ~ 5-6 Ma, ~ 23 Ma, or ~ 38 Ma.
Different time limits listed have arisen because the term “young tectonic
activity (Morner, 1977c, 1992, 1993b, 1994a, 1995 and Morner, et. al.,
1995). It suggests as attentive to “time limit by arguing that the ~ 2.5 Ma
104
represent a worldwide change of tectonic regime and therefore, may be
used an appropriate limit.
The northern flank of Almora Nappe marked by NW-SE to WNW-
ESE trending tectonic plane in Central Kumaun is called North Almora
Thrust (NAT). The thrust zone is stretched west from the Kali valley to
Ramganga valley in Kumaun Lesser Himalaya (Fig. 1.2 and 2.3), bounded
by the Latitude 29025’- 30015’ N and longitude 790 15’-80015’ E. The North
Almora Thrust and associated transverse faults gave rise to an imbricate
stack of highly sheared rocks.
Prakash, et al., (1978) have observed that the North Almora Thrust
bends around Paithani–Musagoli area in Garhwal and joined with South
Almora Thrust (SAT) and Ramgarh Thrust (RT). The North Almora Thrust,
joines the Srinagar Thrust (ST) in the western margin, that limits the
Chandpur slate against the sedimentaries of Outer Lesser Himalaya
(Ghosh, et al., 1974; Kumar, et al., 1974; Mehdi, et al., 1972; Valdiya,
1998, 2001). These workers believe that, the North Almora Thrust is a
high angle reverse fault dipping southwards all along it’s extend.
105
While carryingout this research work, I have observed that the
tectonic plane of the North Almora thrust (NAT) extends from Haldu in Kali
valley, Seraghat in Saryu valley and up to Panduwakhal in Ramganga
valley. Trending generally NNW-SSE or WNW-ESE in the Pancheshwar-
Kakarighat and NNW-SSE trend in between the Seraghat-Kakarighat
section, conscuently it resumes WNW-ESE trend in between Dwarahat-
Serighat, and the area between Dwarahat-Gairsen again the trend of NAT
is noticed NNW-SSE direction (Fig. 2.3).
It is assumed that the tectonic plane of NAT is reactivated in the
Quaternary time (Valdiya, 2001; Kotlia and Valdiya, 2001; Valdiya, et al.,
1996 and Pant et al., 2007). The continuous movements around this zone
have resulted development of numerous NW-SE trending transverse
faults, such as E-W trending Haldu Fault, ENE-WSW trending Panar Fault,
NW-SE trending Saryu River Fault and NNW-SSE trending Ramganga Fault
(Fig. 5.1). The topographic features around this part show high to low
releaf and tectonically influenced rugged topography (Fig. 5.1). The higher
level of neotectonic activity and uplift factor along this tectonic plane has
been combined with geomorphic observations and high resolution of
seismic events. The seismic, as well as geomorphic observations
demonstrate that the North Almora Thrust is still active. The neotectonic
study of North Almora Thrust is mainly determined with the help of using
geomorphic and geological evidences.
Four significant sections have been taken along the thrust plane.
Detail section wise description of each section is summarized below
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5.2 PANCHESHWAR-SERI SECTION
The Pancheshwar-Seri section of the ‘NAT’ lies in the eastern most
flank of the Kumaun Lesser Himalaya. The section is bounded by the
29018’40”- 29026’708” N Latitude and 80001’60”- 80014’517” E Longitude.
The area is characterized by wide Saryu valley with abrupt narrow to a
gorge of nearly vertical wall especially at and around Ghat.
The neotectonic movements along North Almora Thrust around this area
are manifested in the pronounced geomorphic rejuvenation of landscape.
The geomorphological evidences of the tectonic activities in this section
have been documented in the field and with the help of Digital Elevation
Model (DEM) (Fig. 5.2). The prominent evidences are unpaired fluvial
terraces, massive colluvial fans, mass movement along its acute slope,
straight and wide river channel, meandering nature of river, deep gorge,
water falls etc. (Fig. 5.2).
The uplift along NAT has led to the development of five levels of
fluvial terraces at Pancheshwar with elevation difference of 7, 5, 17, 28
and 15m observed near the confluence of Saryu and Kali River (Fig 5.3).
That implies as five puls of tectonic uplift in the Quaternary period along
107
NAT. The terrace are mainly composed of pebbles of 40% granite gneiss
of Saryu Formation, 40% quartzite of Rautgara Formation, 10% slate of
Rautgara Formation, and 10% other rock fragments, with sandy matrix.
The result of the recent tectonic activity is marked by ~5.5 km E-W
trending dextral strike-slip fault between Haldu and Pancheshwar (Valdiya
and Kotlia, 2001).
The manifestation of movements along the Haldu Fault has been
observed in the Kali valley. The Norht-South flowing river Kali swerves
west along the Haldu Fault till Pancheshwar due to its right lateral
strikeslip movement (Fig. 5.1). The vertical uplift around this area has
resulted development of straight course and gullies in the upper part of
Thalkedar range and entrenched deep canyon course with convex walls of
the north flowing Gheria, Amer, Pundia and other streams of south of the
Saryu River. In the zone of North Almora Thrust (NAT) just before joining
the antecedent Kali River the Thuligad stream has cut progressively
deepening gorge which become a >1800 m deep canyon (Valdiya and
Kotlia, 2001).
In between Pancheshwar to Cham Gad the river Saryu has a wide
and almost straight course as it follows along the North Almora Thrust
108
(Fig. 5.4a) and takes abruptly almost 900 turn around Nisaila followed
upward by entrench meandering till Ghat (Fig. 5.4b). The uplift along the
North Almora Thrust has not only led to development of fluvial terraces,
entrenched meandering of river but has also caused mass movement in
the form of large landslides as seems between Nisaila-Ghat (Fig. 5.4c). On
the up thrown block, the 30m fall of Simila Gad and 15m fall of Khati Gad
have been observed in the zone of NAT (Fig 5.5a).
It may reflect that the northern block of Saryu River towards the
Thalkadar range is vertically uplifted along NAT. The river Saryu abruptly
changes its valley nature narrows to a gorge of nearily vertical wall
particularly between the Ghat-Chamgad (Figs. 5.5 b&c and 5.6a).
Significant evidences of tectonic movements have been observed by
Valdiya and Kotlia, (2001) towards the southern range of Thalkedar, in
the form of three levels of talus fan, with elevation difference 25m 12m
11m at Panthyura (Fig. 5.6b). In the zone of North Almora Thrust (NAT)
number of landslide have been generated towards NNE facing slope and
109
the slope is inclined by 350 at Batori (29037”N latitude and 8000 E
longitude) in front the confluence of the Ramganga and Saryu rivers (Figs.
5.7a).
ENE-WSW trending Panar River Fault (PRF) (Fig. 5.7 b) shows one
of the best evidences of the reactivation of North Almora thrust along
which the Panar River is flowing. The Panar river is marked with almost
~17 km long deep cut ‘V’ shape valley nearly with vertical wall to deep
gorges and steep ridges between Kakrighat-Batuli (Fig. 5.8 & b). Recent
movements along this has resulted uplift of terraces about 40 m (Fig. 5.7b
&c) at Dabaula. Valdiya and Kotlia (2001) believed that the displacement
of Dabaula terraces is suggesting post Pleistocene movement along the
North Almora Thrust (NAT) as well as associated Panar River Faults.
110
5.3 SERAGHAT-SERI SECTION
The recent tectonic activity of the NAT between Seri and Seraghat
has been carried out based on geological, geomorphological, structural
and digital data base (DEM) (Fig. 5.9). The movement along the NAT has
resulted development of unpaired terraces and wide meandering of Saryu
River. The North Almora Thrust has been crisses crossed by active Saryu
River Fault (SRF) in Seraghat-Naichan-Basoli area in Central Kumaun
(Pant at al., 2007). The vertical movements on northeast- facing slope
have not only led to the development of unpaired terraces but have also
made the slope extremely vulnerable to mass movement in Seraghat–
Naichan section.
The broad to wide meandering course of River Saryu between
Seraghat-Naichan gives way to almost ‘V’ shaped river valley with almost
straight course of about 16 km between Naichan and Seri including its
tributary Mano Gad following the trace of Saryu River Fault (SRF) (Fig. 5.9
and 5.10a&b). The Mano Gad has a deep cut entrenched channel along
with almost straight course for about 6 km along the trace of SRF between
Basolikhan and Seri (Fig. 5.11). The Saryu River Fault (SRF) having a
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trend of almost NW–SE direction has been responsible for the straight
course of River Saryu and Mano Gad. Stretch of the river valley, i. e.
Naichan–Seri - Basoli section is almost devoid of fluvial terrace except a
few levels at Raintoli and Ara.
The recent tectonic activity of the Seraghat area has manifested
development of five levels of unpaired terraces in the upthrown side i.e
western block at Nali and vicinity (Figs. 5.12a&b). In most of the section
of the up thrown block, the fluvial sediment is mixed with landslide
material. The average composition of the terrace is 70% quartzite, 20%
quartz mica schist and 10% slate containing coarse sandy matrix with
rock fragments. The maximum grains are angular to sub angular those
are made-up of mostly pebbles, maximum grain size is ~2 meter in
diameter. These terraces are located at an elevation of 865,820,760,730
and 710 msl respectively, and the present river bed is at an elevation of
700 msl (Fig. 5.12b). The opposit part of the river valley has only three
levels of terraces, which indicates episodic uplift along the North Almora
Thrust. During the continuous movement around Nali area terraces got
uplifted vertically by ~44m (Fig. 5.12b). A series of waterfall, about 50
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meter along the course of tributaries, such as Alaknanda Bhanwar and
Galli gads also points the movements along the NAT (Pant et al., 2007).
In the upthrown block side number of triangular cones and facets
has developed along the fault zone, as observed near Nali area (Fig.
5.13a). The fluvial material got tilted by 110 toward north during the
vertical movement along the fault at Jateshwar temple near Raintoli (Fig.
5.13b). The tilted layers are found at the base of T3, where T1 and T2 are
almost covered by colluvium. The composition of T3 is 80% quartzite and
20% slate, with sandy matrix. The size of boulder ranges up to one meter
and are subangular to rounded in nature (Pant et al., 2007). The north
east facing western block, towards the upthrown block side, extremely
vulnerable to mass movement has been takes place in the form of
landslide. The river channel have blocked and shifted towards westward
direction by ~100m observed particularly between Nali and Naichan area
(Fig. 5.13a).
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At Ara three levels of terraces are well documented, where silt and
siltymud layers got deposited at the beginning of sedimentation of T1
terrace (Fig. 5.14a). A thick column ~3m thick coarse sand characterizes
the base of the siltymud layers, followed by 0.3 m gravels towards the top
suggesting two pulses of spasmodic movements of SRF. It has also been
responsible for deposition of flood plain levee of Saryu River at Ara,
followed by subsequent deposition of about 3.5 m thick alternating layers
of silt and siltymud, while forming the T1 terraces (Fig. 5.14b). The
alternate bends of silt and mud layers ranging from 1 to 5 cm thick occur
usually in between the silty horizon. The environment was so stable that it
allowed even the plant fragments to get deposit, which are preserved as
such in the silt and siltymud (Figs. 5.14b and 4.2 b). This sedimentation
has been repeated twice, which indicates multiple event of tectonic
activity in the region. The later two terraces (T2 and T3) are composed of
rounded to subrounded boulders with silty matrix showing an upward
fining sequence, i.e. the sedimentation took place in tectonic quiescence
(Pant et al., 2007).
5.4 SERAGHAT-DWARAHAT SECTION
The Seraghat-Dwarahat section is one of the most active segments
of the NAT zone in Kumaun Lesser Himalaya. The area comprises mainly
granite gneisses, biotite schist and quartzite-sericite schist of Saryu
Formation; and slates and quartzites of Rautgara Formation (Fig. 2.3).
These rocks are highly sheared, shattered and pulverised even
mylonitized, which suggests activity along the North Almora Thrust (NAT)
zone. Numerous evidences of active tectonics such as earthquake induced
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sedimentary deformational structures and geomorphic features have been
documented, which have witnesed of active tectonics in the (Quaternary)
region. The Seraghat-Dwarahat area is controlled by three major river
systems i.e., Jaigan Gad, Kosi River and Gagas River. Prominent among
the geomorphic features are, four episodic terraces development, wide
and straight river course to narrow gorge with nearly vertical walls,
entrenched meandering, triangular facets and cones, steep ridges and
formation of huge/lofty landslide cones. An overview of the
geomorphology and terrain is supported with the help of Digital Elevation
Modeling (DEM) (Fig. 5.15). Conspicuous evidence of active tectonics has
been observed along the Jaigan Gad and Sim Gad, Rasiyari Gad, Sumari
Gad, Kosi and Gagas river valleys.
The continuous vertical movement along NAT has resulted number
of landslides cones towards the southeastern facing slope in the Jaigan
valley, such as Ukholsriad (29043'56"N and 79046'37") (Fig. 5.16a) and
latering shifting of river by ~70m towards southwestward (Fig. 5.16b).
Towards the southeastern range (Gairigad area) of Kaphaligair four levels
of fluvial terraces have been observed with an elevation difference of
29m, 18m, 12m and 28m is a result of reactivation of North Almora
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Thrust (Fig. 5.17a,b).
The Takula and Basoli area in Simgad valley is controlled by almost
10km long NW-SE trending left lateral strike-slip fault (Figs. 5.18a&b and
5.1). The evidence of strike-slip movement of the Simgad Fault is
deflection of Simgad at Haroli northwesterly movement of left block of
Simgad (Fig. 3.9). The uplift along the Simgad Fault has resulted in the
development of three level of unpaired fluvial terraces at Haroli
(29042'08"N and 79042'18"E) (Fig. 5.19a, b). These fluvial terraces are
found with large elevation difference of 20m, 17m and 8m. These terraces
are hopefully witnessed of 110m southwestward shifting of the river (Fig.
5.19 a,b). The northwest extension of Simgad fault is marked by Kande.
Movement along Simgad Fault has caused lateral shifting of river by 200m
towards southwestward (Fig. 5.18c). The lateral shifting of river is
marked by three levels of terraces with elevation difference of 15m, 20m
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and 10m. The movement along Simgad Fault has led to vertical uplift of
multistoried pleistocene fluvial terraces by ≈30m (Fig. 5.18c).
Conspicuous evidences of multiple tectonic activities are observed
within the rock quartzites and slates of Rautgara Formation and mylonites
of Saryu Formation in the upper catchment of Kosi river, around
Someshwar area. This is in the form of repeated occurrence of folding and
faulting.
The Rasiyari Gad is a westerly flowing tributary of River Kosi along
E-W trending lineament in Someshwar area (Fig. 1.2). The uplift along
this lineament has resulted development of three levels of terraces on
southern valley side at Kharak. These terraces are observed at elevation
difference of 32m, 13m and 10m respectively (Fig. 5.20a).
In addition soft sediment deformational structures are found
throughout the profile within the 38m vertically uplifted fluvial terraces
(Fig. 5.20b) at Rasiyari gaon (29046'48"N and 79048'06"N), is a
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northeastern limit of Someshwar. These structures are folded structures;
pinching and swelling structures superposed deformation structure
resulting in the assemblage of folding overlain by ball and pillow
structures and followed by micro-faulting and tilting of gravelly unit. The
soft sediment structures are discussed in next chapter.
The river Kosi has a broad open channel gravel filled valley in
Someshwar–Ranman area. The river has straight course along Narai Gad
as it flows along the NAT zone (Fig. 5.21a). The river got a sudden
entrenchement with large scale meandering and terraces development in
Supakot-Shonkotli area as it crossed the NAT. The southeastern limit of
Someshwar valley, which is defined by Supakot (29046'00" N - 79037'42"
E) and Shonkotli (29047'03" N - 79036'24" E), the river Kosi has shifted
150m northeastward and cut progressively deepening nearly with vertical
walls (Fig. 5.21b) in the zone of North Almora Thrust. Tectonic activity
around this area has resulted, formation of unpaired fluvial terraces at
Supakot and Shonkotli with large level difference. These terraces are
indicative of lateral shifting of river Kosi towards northeast direction and
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uplifted vertically by 70m (Fig. 5.21c). Tectonic activity around this area
has not only led to development of large fluvial terraces but has also
caused widening of river channel seems at and around Someshwar,
reflects channel filling of river.
The Sumari Gad shows almost straight and wide river course as it
takes the trace of NAT (Fig. 5.22a) between Someshwar-Lodh. A abrupt
drop of about ~150m is observed at Lodh section 5 km west of
Someshwar on the Someshwar-Dwarahat road. The recent movement
along NAT has resulted in the displacement of Quaternary sequence by 2
m. The fault plane is steeply inclined by 450 towards southwestward
having reverse sence of displacement (Fig. 5.22b, c). Such displacement
in the younger terraces is a conspicuous evidence for recent tectonic
activity in the area.
The Gagas River valley takes a sudden right angle turns and
become wide and straight in between the Binta-Bagwalipokhar area
following the trace of Gagas River Fault (Fig. 5.23a). A dramatic change
has been observed towards the southwestern part of Bagwalipokhar,
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where the river takes again a 900 turn towards east and flows across the
fault, and changes its gravel filled wide nature to narro deep gorge with
vertical walls gravel filled. (Fig.5.23c). The straightning and widening of
river Gagas is most probably due to the presence of N-S trending Gagas
River fault. Whereas triangular cones and facets developed towards the
upthrown block (eastern) side of the fault are observed all along the
valley (Fig. 5.23b). Repeated occurrence of the faulting phenomenon
suggests persistent and progressive active tectonics.
Continuous uplift of eastern block of the Gagas River Faults points
development of the unpaired fluvial terraces in downthrown block around
Bagwalipokhar and Nausera (Fig. 5.24a). Unpaired terraces at Nausera
exhibit four episodic depositional cycles of almost 11m, 10m, 14m and 20
m thick (Fig. 5.24a). The basement rocks have also been displaced by NE-
SW trending Gagas River Fault (Fig. 5.24b, c). The movement along this
lineament has caused ~19 m vertical uplift (Fig. 5.24a). In the
Bagwalipokhar (ancient pond) area ~40 m thick fluviolacustrine deposits
with highly sheared basement rock of Almora Group are exposed (Fig.
5.25a). The fluvial deposits consist of silt, matrix supported gravel and
clast supported gravel exhibiting an upward fining sequence (Fig. 4.25a).
120
These deposits suggest southwestward shifting of the river channel by
~120 m reflecting the area is tectonically very active. The lake of this area
is most probably formed due to the movement along the fault passing
from this particular area. Land slide derived debris cones and wide and
straight course have been observed persistently along the Lodh and
Someshwar section (Fig. 5.25b).
In addition to above, conscipeous evidences of recent movement
along NAT have been seen near Dwarahat. At Bijaipur, fault scarp of NAT
is seen along which colluvial material was deposited, which is in the form
of tectonic flate on the down thrown block (Fig. 5.26a). Horst and graben
structures within the rocks of Saryu Formation (Fig. 5.26 b, c, d) are also
observed in near by areas. The surfecial features of these structures are
well developed at the hill top.
5.5 DWARAHAT-PANDUWAKHAL SECTION
The Kulthar and Khastari gad tributaries of Ramganga River, bear a
straight and wide course between Dwarahat-Panduwakhal areas. The
straight course is a result of the NW-SE trending Ramganga fault (RF)
(Fig. 5.27). The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and the Land sat Imagery
of the area, indicate accuracy of these elevation points and based on spot
height which indicates that significant changes in the topography of the
area are a result of multiple events of tectonic activities, taking place
around the Ramganga river domain (Fig.5.27 and 5.28a.). The straight
trace of NAT in Dwarahat-Chaukhutia area reflects right lateral strike-slip
movement along the Ramganga Fault (Valdiya 1976; Kothyari and Pant
121
2004). The evidence of strike-slip movement is observed at Bhatkot in the
form of deflection of the river, and northwesterly movement of the left
block of Ramganga is witness of evolution of Ramganga Fault.
The uplift along the faulted blocks may have resulted in the
development of three levels of unpaired fluvial terraces showing a fining
upward sequence as seen at and around Rampur and Chhitleshwar (Fig.
5.29a). The levee deposits reflect swifting of river channel along the trend
of Ranachyar Gadhera near Rampur and its vicinity. The strike-slip
movement is almost NW-SE, which has caused deposition of the 10m
thick fining upward sedimentary sequence at the base of Rampur
composed mainly of compact clay and unsorted gravel with a silty matrix
(Fig. 5.29b).
At Rampur on the way to Panduwakhal three levels of terraces are
well documented in the up-thrown block (Fig. 5.29a). These terraces are
composed of quartzite of Rautgara Formation 50%, slate of Rautgara
Formation 20%, and limestone of Deoban Formation 30% with medium to
fine silty matrix, gravels are subangular to rounded in nature (Figs. 5.29b
and 4.4). At Chaukhutia, the river valley becomes very wide, which
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indicates that the area lies over a tectonically active zone. Number of
subsidiary faults have also been developed in the up-thrown block, due to
the reactivation of NAT (Fig. 5.27).
Due to the reactivation along the subsidiary fault a 60 m thick huge
landslide cone has developed on the acute slopes 740 towards north at
Rangonis. This resulted in the blockade of the Trag Gad (Stream), forming
a temporary lake (Fig. 5.28b). The lake sediment shows occurrence of
huge gravel sediments, composed of silt, clay and sand (Fig. 5.28c). This
section is observed beneath a thick section of clast supported gravelly
horizon. (Fig. 5.28c, 4.4b)
5.6 REJUVENATION OF THE NORTH ALMORA THRUST (NAT)
Neotectonically the North Almora Thrust in Uttaranchal has been
reactivated time to time (Kothyari and Pant 2004; Pant et al., 2007;
Valdiya, 1976; Valdiya and Kotlia, 2001). The reactivation of NAT has
manifest in the development of number of geomorphic features and
topographical changes in the thrust zone. The movement along the NAT
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has resulted in the formation of NW-SE trending Seraghat and Ramganga
Faults and E-W trending Panar River Fault and Haldughat Fault (Kothyari
and Pant, 2004; Pant et al., 2004, 2007; Valdiya and Kotlia, 2001), those
faults are later than NAT; have been most probably formed due to the
reactivation of NAT.
In between the Pancheshwar and Ghat, the NAT is marked by
straight course of river Saryu, abruptly changing its nature narrows to a
gorge of nearly vertical wall as river crosses the NAT Particularly at Ghat
(Figs. 5.5b,c & 5.6). Development of large uplifted fluvial terraces at
Pancheshwar and development of series of landslide and deep drops of
tributaries is witness of vertical movement along the thrust zone (Fig. 5.4,
5.5a).The movement along NAT has not only led to development of
geomorphic marker but has also many at places terraces got vertically
uplifted, such as 40 m displacement of the Dabula terraces reflects not
only the NAT is active but associated subsidiary faults and thrusts are
equally active (Fig. 5.7). Towards the southern range of Thalkedar, at
many places three level of talus fan having elevation difference 25m.
12m. 11m respectively, are a result of reactivation of North Almora
Thrust.
The movement along the NAT in Seraghat-Seri-Basoli section has
resulted in the development of numerous geomorphic features related to
active tectonics. The area has fluvial terraces at Nali with level difference
of 20, 10, 50, 10, 45m from the top. These terraces are vertically uplifted
by 44m near Nali, which reflects rejuvenation of NAT in the recent time
(Fig. 5.12). The abandoned terraces found at and around Ara suggest
lateral shifting of the river chanel, this may be due to the vertical
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upliftment of the block (Fig. 5.14a). In addition to these the fluvial
terraces on the upthrown block are tilted by 110 towards northward at
Jateshwar (Fig. 5.13b). Shifting of river channel due to massive landslide
and triangular facets and cones are major geomorphic features formed
during reactivation of NAT and associated subsidiary thrusts/faults.
The northwestern limit of NAT between Seraghat-Dwarahat in
Central Kumaun Himalaya is equally active. Conscipeous evidences of
active tectonics have been observed through out this area. The vertical
movement along the Sim and Jaigan gads has resulted uplift of fluvial
terraces as well as lateral shifting of river channel. This may suggest not
only the North Almora Thrust is active but associated faults are
reactivated in the Quaternary time. The movement around this area has
not only resulted deformation of hard rocks but has also been recorded in
Quaternary sediments in the forms of sedimentary deformational features,
as observed at Rasiyari, Lodh and Bagwalipokhar area. At Lodh and
Tambakhola faulting has resulted in the displaced of the overlaying
Quaternary sequence by about 2 m.
The E-W tectonic force has resulted association of different
sedimentary deformational structures at Rasiyari area. These structures
are in the form of open folding, faulting of sediment, irregular folding, ball
and pillow structures, pinching and swelling structures and tilting
structures.
A series of tectonic and geomorphic features such as entrenched
meandering, straight course of rive and number of landslide cones have
been observed between Dwarahat-Panduwakhal through Chaukuthia area
along the trace of North Almora Thrust. Three levels of paired terraces
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particularly at Chaukuthia and left bank of the river around Rampur village
have been observed. At the Bhanotiya village 2m thick levee sediment is
exposed, which is composed of 1.5m thick silty layer and 0.5m thick clast
supported gravel showing swifting of channel which indicates that the area
is tectonically active. The NNW-SSE trending Ramganga Fault in the
Ramganga valley is formed due to reactivation of NAT. Movement along
the NAT has not only led to development of transverse fault but has also
been responsible for formation of landslode cones, observed at and
around Chaukuthia. The movement has caused formation of temporary
lake towards the eastern margin of Chaukuthia along the Trag gad area.
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Chapter: VI
SEISMOTECTONICS AND
SEDIMENT DEFORMATION
6.1: INTRODUCTION
The seismotectonics deal study of crustal movement induced by seismic
events (Morner, 1987). The term paleoseismology can be defined as the
identification and study of prehistoric earthquakes (Wallace, 1981). The
excavation of deformational events, were first made in the late 1960 in
Japan. This excavation was useful for the understanding prehistoric
earthquakes with the help of soft sedimentary structures (Wallace, 1987).
These structures are micro/macro faults, convolute and flame structure,
folded structures and liquefaction, which are the important database
material to study the sediment deformational features. The technique of
study of soft sediment deformation is also useful for micro-stratigraphic
relation along faults, fault scarps and fault trace geomorphology, regional
tectonic relation, seismically induced sedimentary structures and river or
marine terraces related to uplift and faulting/thrusting (Wallace, 1981b).
The study of deformational structures can be determined in the
compressional, extenctional and strike-slip tectonic environment. The
deformation from plate convergence and subduction involves large
regional and a broad spectrum of structures dominated by thrust fault and
fold (Davis, et al., 1983, Moor and Silver, 1987). The Indian subcontinent
shows increasing seismic activity in the recent time. During the Koyana
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(1987, M.6.2), Uttarkashi (1991, M 6.6), Latur (1993, M.7.7), Jabalpur
(1997, M.6.0) Chamoli (1999, M. 7.7) and Kutch (2001, M.7.7)
earthquakes the Indian subcontinent was disturbed by the active
seismicity. The highly active Himalayan region has manifested in seismic
activity in Bihar and Nepal (1934, M.8.4), Assam (1950, M.8.5), Shillong
(1987, M.8.7), Kangra (1905, M. 8.6), Uttarkashi (1991, M.6.6) and
Chamoli (1999, M.6.5) earthquakes. The moderate earthquakes have
been located in the eastern Kumaun region during the Seraghat (1979, M.
6.5) and Dharchula (1980, M.6.5) earthquaks.
In the Kumaun region number of local and regional seismic
activities have been recorded in between Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and
Main Central Thrust (MCT) (Fig. 6.1) (Singh and Jain, 2001; Paul, et al.,
2004, Paul and Pant, 2005). The seismo-tectonic study of present
investigation is focused along the North Almora Thrust (NAT) zone a
compressional tectonic environment in Central Kumaun Himalaya. In
between the MCT and MBT in Kumaun region out of total 106 events ~ 40
events have been recorded along the NAT since 1999.
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6.2: SEISMO TECTONICS OF CENTRAL HIMALAYA:
The central segment of Lesser Himalaya, i.e. Kumaun Himalaya is
seismotectonically very active, and lies in the zone (‘V’) of the seismic
zonation map of India (I.S 1893-1984) (Fig. 6.1). The present seismicity
in the Kumaun Himalaya is a result of continental collision progress
between India and Eurasia (Dewey and Bird, 1970; Molnar, et al., 1973).
In the Kumaun Himalaya maximum strain energy released is related to
Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), North Almora Thrust (NAT) and Main Central
Thrust (MCT) (Fig. 6.2).
The strain energy released is characteristics of these thrusts showing their
mechanism of storage and releases are different. The strain energy
released through the MCT seems to be more uniform as compared to the
MBT and NAT, along which release of the energy has been mostly abrupt,
through large magnitude earthquakes (Verma, et al., 1977, Joshi et al.,
2005). However Himalaya has recorded major seismic events such as
1803 (M ≥7.5), 1816 (M 6.8), 1916 (M 7.5), 1945 (M 6.5), 1958 (M 6.2),
1964 (M 6.2), 1968 (M 7.0), 1979 (M 6.5), 1980 (M 6.5), 1991(M 6.6)
and 1999 (M 6.8), even these seismic events could not release sufficient
amount of strain (Gaur, 1993; Valdiya 2001). The present micro
129
seismicity is located in between Main Central Thrust (MCT) and North
Almora Thrust (NAT) zones (Paul and Pant, 2003; Paul et al., 2004) (Fig.
6.2).
6.3: MAJOR SEISMIC EVENTS:
The above seismological records suggest that the Kumaun Himalaya
is seismotectonically very active domain. The seismic events since 1999
have been further synthesized using computer program (after Paul et al.,
2004, Paul and Pant, 2005). The hyposeismic contour map suggests that
the Central part of Kumaun Himalaya is dominated by shallow focus
earthquaks (Fig. 6.3). The depth of these earthquakes are varies from 10
to 30 km (Fig. 6.3). The hyposeiosmal seismotectonic map of Kumaun
Himalaya suggests that the intense seismicity has occurred along the Main
Central Thrust (MCT) and North Almora Thrust (NAT) zones. In the central
segment of Kumaun Himalaya highest numbers of earthquake events are
recorded up to ≥ 3.0 magnitude and 1.5 < 3.0 magnitudes (Fig. 6.3).
Conscipious seismicity has been observed along the North Almora
Thrust zone which reflects that the NAT is seismotectonically very active.
Along NAT maximum ≥ 3.0 magnitude and 1.5 < magnitude < 3.0
earthquakes are located. The microseismicity along this particular area
suggests high stress accumulation along the thrust zone (Fig. 6.3). The
ongoing movement along the North Almora Thrust zone may be defined
by several seismic activities generally of low magnitude earthquakes with
a depth of 1-30 km.
The part of Kumaun Himalaya lying between the North Almora
Thrust and Main Central Thrust has manifested strain accumulation along
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the thrust zones. Nineteen Major seismic events were recorded around the
central segment of Kumaun Himalaya by DTSN in the year 1999 and 2004
(Paul et al., 2004) with magnitude ≥ 0.3, where as minor events have
also been recorded with magnitude ≤1.5 and 1.5 – 0.3. Particularly along
and around the NAT more then seven events have been recorded with
magnitude ≥ 0.3 and ~ 20 minor events were ranging between 1.5 – 0.3
magnitude (Fig. 6.3).
The continuous movement along the NAT and MCT zone has
resulted in strain generation by Indian-Asian plate convergence. Almost all
faults and thrusts are formed in the Himalayan region during the strong
convergence of India and Asia. These fault/thrusts have been reactivated
time to time in the recent past. The reactivation of these faults and
thrusts has expressed development of geomorphic landforms and tectonic
features, which may reflect the thrusts and associated faults, are
neotectonically and seismotectonically very active. The geomorphic
features which be result of the reactivation of NAT are, tilting of terraces,
entrench nature of river, shifting of river, faults scarp, triangular facets
and cones, formation of landslide induced lakes, vertical uplift of terraces,
landslide, waterfalls straight course of river and gorge nature of streams.
Development of NNW-SSE trending transverse faults and displacement
within the quaternary sediments reflects the NAT is still active. All
geomorphic and tectonic features are indicating the North Almora Thrust
is neotectonically and seismotectonically very active in the present time.
6.4: SEDIMENT DEFORMATION:
Observations of the earthquakes occurred in recent time and
associated increasing pore fluid pressure resulting in the sediment
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deformation allow us to study more precisely the past seismic activity i.e.
palaeoseismicity. The significance of the soft sediment deformation to
understand rate of deformation has been discussed in detailed by
Hempton and Dewey (1983); Mills (1983); Mohindra and Bagati (1996);
Rossetti (1999); Seilacher (1969), Sims (1973, 1975), Sukhija et al.
(1999). The soft sediment deformation study is foremost requirement to
understand past seismicity in the sedimentary sequence of the highly
rugged Himalayan terrain.
In the Quaternary sedimentation related to North Almora Thrust
zone (NAT) the soft sediment deformation structures are observed in the
gravely, sand and silt units those occurs at different stratigraphic unit
mostly bounded by undeformed units. In order to there nature, these
structures are classified on the basis of morphology and there mechanism
(Allen, 1975, 1982; Lowe, 1975, 1982; McKee et al., 1962; Owen, 1987;
Rossetti, 1999). The deformational structures exhibit morphology and
often more than one structural style is intimately associated.
Table VI.1: Summary of soft sediment deformational structures found, in
the North Almora Shear Zone at the various sections.
Soft sediment deformational
structure
Description
Convolute fold
Folding of unconsolidated silt and
sand, generally sub vertical axial
plane
CONTORTED
Folded stratification
Recumbently folding forming within
silty and sandy horizon nearly
horizontal and sub-horizontal axial
plane
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Ball and pillow structure Silt bodies with ball morphology and
sink down to sediment of similar
composition
Irregular convolute
Highly distorted irregular found
within sandy horizon
Pillar
Elongated straight to steeply
inclined disrupt the primary units
INTRUDED
Dyke
The irregular sandy unit is intruded
in to overlying silty unit
Fault
Large scale to micro gravity faulting
have been observed within gravely
as well sandy horizone
BRITTLE
Tilted stratification
The large scale gravely unit got
tilted by 110 towards northwest
word.
On the basis of morphology individual structure found along the
NAT zone has been divided into three main categories. These structures
are controrted structure, intruded structure and brittle structures; detail
description of each category is described below.
6.4.1. Contorted Structure:
The contorted structures are those deformed sedimentary features
in the sandy, silty and gravely beds which, exhibit crumpling or folding of
the sediment and may vary in orientation (Brenchley and Newall, 1977;
Rossetti, 1999). In NAT zone these structures are observed in the sandy,
silty and gravelly units at Rasiyari, Lodh and Bagwalipokhar area in
133
Central Kumaun Himalaya. According to their morphology these structures
are further classified in to convolute folds, folded stratifications and
irregular convolutes.
Convolute folds: These are defined as a series of folds, regular to
irregular, persisting laterally, which may be confined to the upper part of
sedimentary unit (Allen, 1975). In the NAT the convolute structures are
observed in silty and finely laminated sandy unit within, laminated silty
horizon found at the base of Bhandarigaon near Bagwalipokhar (Fig. 6.4
and 6.5). These convolute folds show complex pattern of anticline and
syncline. These structures are also associated with soft sediment faulting
(Fig. 6.4). The deformed horizon is separated by undeformed sandy unit
from both sides. These structures are probably formed by downward
grading and density loading of undeformed strata or nearly homogeneous
layer of similar composition (Fig. 6.4, 6.5). The convolute folds suggest
penecontemporaneous stage of deformation.
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Open folds: Folded structures have been observed within the alternate
bends of silty and gravely horizon, varying from 1m in the vertical section
and 5m in the lateral amplitude at Rasiyari near Someshwar (Fig. 6.6).
The axial plane of these folds are almost vertical and plunging by 300
towards north. The right limb of the fold is inclined by 250 towards west
and the lift limb is inclined by 150 towards east. These structures are most
probably formed due to E-W compressional tectonic environment followed
by sinistral ramping along the NAT.
Irregular convolute folds: Superimposed deformation structures
resulting as the assemblage of folding are formed in silty body at Rasiyari
(Figs. 6.7 and 6.8). These structures are distorted stratification forms
laterally alternating convex and concave-upward morphology, producing
complex pattern of synclines and anticlines. In the study area the
individual structures are 0.5 to 1m in height and 1-2m in width. The
folded structure is overlain and underlain by coarse grained clast
supported massive gravel. There deformed/folded structures are also
associated with soft-sedimentary micro-faulting (Fig. 6.7).
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6.4.2 Ball and Pillow Structure:
Ball and pillow structures are characterized by silt body with broad
synclinal or concentric morphology, engulfed within sediment either
similar or fine grained composition (Anketell et al., 1970; Kelling and
Walton, 1957; Kuenen, 1958; Lowe, 1975; Mills, 1983; Mohindra and
Bagati, 1996 and Rossetti, 1999). At the Rasiyari Gaon, the ball and pillow
structures are developed in silt body within the matrix of clast supported
gravel (Figs. 6.7, 6.8 and 6.9). The size of these structures is very from
there longest axis ~40cm and shortest axis from ~20cm.
Pinching and swelling structures have also been observed within the
gravely and silty units at Rasiyari. Lateral extension of these structures is
4-6m (Fig. 6.9). These structures are formed in extensional tectonic
environment. The pinching and swelling structure have also been
observed in silty unit, overlain by coarse gravely overburden. It is
136
suggestive of loading phenomenon of dense gravel over comparatively
less dense silt, give rise to the pinching and swelling structure.
6.4.3 Intruded structures:
Intruded structures are refered as to the vertical or horizontal
movement of sediment resulting disruption of the confining sediment
strata gives rise to structures such as dykes, flames, diapirs and pillar
(Lowe, 1975; Rossetti, 1999). These intruded structures are well
preserved within fluvio-lacustrine deposit at Bagwalipokhar, along the
Gagas River (Figs. 6.4, 6.5). The pillars are discrete, steeply inclined to
vertical, up to a few centimeters in lingth (Rossetti, 1999). In
Bagwalipokhar area these structures are found in silty and sandy unit,
usually 0.5cm to 1cm in length (Figs. 6.4, 6.5). In some units of few
sections intrusions of silt-sand and sand-sand strata are also observed
(Figs. 6.4, 6.8). These structures are formed due to viscoplastic intrusion
in the form of diaper structures. Only one event of intrusion is observed
within this section, during which the silt was injucted in sandy unit. The
intrusion is in the form of vented dyke structures. These structures are
also associated with micro faulting and ball and pillow structures (Fig.
6.4). The overburden stratum has subsided in to the underlying
sedimentary strata gave rise to microfaulting and ball and pillow structure
(Fig. 6.8).
6.4.4 Brittle structures:
The brittle structures, consist of numerous irregular branched of
fractures, e.g. gravity faults and tectonically tilted sedimentary units
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(Rossetti, 1999). Along the NAT zone these structures are associated with
clast supported gravel, fine sandy and clay unit as observed
simultaneously at Rasiyari, Lodh and Bagwalipokhar areas (Figs. 6.10, 6.4
and 6.7). At Few places the faulted structures are also associated with
sedimentary deformational structure. The faulting associated with
deformational unit mainly has reversed in nature.
Faulted structure: Faulted structures are documented within the
abundant sedimentary horizon. These structures are associated with
superposed deformation structures resulting in the assemblage of folding,
formed in silty body (Fig. 6.7 and 6.4). The visible range of fault plane
varies between 0.5m to 0.01m. The fault plane is inclined by 400 towards
west directon. These faults are reverse throw in nature, such displacement
is plastic and the sediment strata are tilted westward. Another significant
brittle deformational faulting has been found within the abundand clast
supported gravely horizon at Lodh. The visible range of reverse nature of
fault plane varies from 3m and the fault plane is inclined by 550 towards
NW direction (Fig. 6.10).
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Tilted structures: The E-W compressional force not only led to
development of several sedimentary deformational features, but has also
caused tilting of terraces by 200 towards east direction at Rasiyara along
Rasiyari Gad (Fig. 6.11). The result of continuous compressional tectonic
force has also been caused tilting of fluvial terraces by 110 towards north
at Jateshwar in Saryu valley (Fig. 5.14b).
6.5 INTERPRETATION
Convolute structures exhibit maximum thickness at the middle and
are confined within the other deformed sedimentary layers. These
structures are witness of penecontemporaneous stage of deformation.
These structures also reflect different hydraulic processes related to flow
movement during sedimentation (Allen 1975). Formation of convolute
structures has been experimentally prooved by Owen (1996), according to
his views the convolute structures are formed due to density contrast
between fine grained sediment overlain by coarse sediment. Anketell, et
al., (1970) and Ghosh and Lahiri (1990) believed that the convolute folds
are formed due to seismic shaking and overburden.
The open folding structures are common within alternate bands of
silt and gravels, sometime such structures are also associated with
medium and fine grained sand laid down in different aqueous environment
(McKee et al., 1962, Nocita, 1988). In the study area these structure are
formed due to E-W compressional tectonic force (Fig. 6.6). The
deformation within gravelly horizon was also probably due to plastic
movement. Similar structural morphology is also formed due to
overburden or bed load.
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The irregular superposed deformation structure resulting in the
assemblage of folding are formed in silty body. The deformation is due to
visco-plastic failure, assemblage of chaotic structure. The deformed
horizon suggests thixotropic response of the cohesive sediment to
increase pore fluid pressure (Fig. 6.4, 6.5 and 6.6). The chaotic
assemblage of deformed sedimentary structure is probably due to
differential response of the sediment to the intensity of liquidization
process (Kotlia and Rawat, 2004). Presence of faulting, which displaces
the deformed convolute, probably also supported by seismic shaking or
compressional tectonic movement.
The ball and pillow structures are generally formed at the interface
of coarse grained sand and clay units. In the North Almora Thrust zone
these structures have been developed in the fine grained sand and clay
units enclosed within coarse grained sediments (Fig. 6.7, 6.8 and 6.9).
These structures are formed when dense sediment unit is overlain by less
dense sedimentary layer (Allen, 1975). Formerly, subsidence the stress
activated liquefaction process of the liquefied dense sediment took place
into the underlying lighter sediment, gradually the coarse material got
reduced to a series of isolated masses, i.e. psuedonoduled followed by
embedded in more or less continuous mud or clay of low density,
produced psuedonodules and other plastic deformed structures (Ghoh and
Lahiri, 1990; Owen, 1996).
The pinching and swelling structures are those structure formed
due to shear stress produced by liquefaction process (Allen, 1975). In the
Rasiyara area these structures are formed within the silty and gravily unit.
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The deformed horizon suggests thixotropic response of the cohesive
sediment to increased pore fluid pressure. Such kinds of deformed
structure are also formed due to overburden of the heavier sediment, and
in extensional tectonic regim.
The intruded deformational structures observed within the fluvio-
lacustrine sediments in the Bagwalipokhar area may be classified as visco-
plastic flowage and fluidized flow. Intrusion of silt suggests visco-plastic
flowage and dykes are formed due to fludization process. The visco-plastic
flowage process of silt is the result of differential permeability and porocity
contrast between sand and silt, due to overburden of other heavier
sediment. During this process silt and fludization of sand, the overlying
sediment has weakened concomitantly, thereby subsided in to underlying
sediment layer as ball and pillow structures.
The faulting event is either in a pencontemporaneous or post
deformational origin as observed by association with other sedimentary
deformational structures. The brittle faulting takes place by the
differentional compaction of sediments during folding and plastic flowages
(Collinson, 1994; Rossetti, 1999). The gravity faulting may be formed
either sediment influence by overburden liquifection or synsedimentary
shocks (Seth et al., 1990; Sukhija et al., 1999; Van Loon , 2002). The
gravity faulting structures found along North Almora Thrust zone is not
seems any evidences of overburden. These structures are probably
formed by slippages along the contact between sediment and underlying
hard rocks. Few places the faulted sedimentary unit is lying in between
the undeformed sedimentary layers, such kind of faulting probably due to
movement along the NAT and associated fault of the area.
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Other brittle structures are tilted sedimentary horizons associated
with clast supported gravel unit. Since the sediment character of the tilted
horizone is uniform therefore the probability of tilting due to overburden is
ruled out. These structure are formed either under the influence of gravity
collaps effect or due to compressional tectonic force.
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Chapter: VII
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The present research work is essentially based on interpretation
made from detailed field observations, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and
topographic maps. The data was acquired (generating DEM) from Survey
of India topographic map on 1:50,000 (contour interval, 20m). The digital
data interpretations have been carried out to support the evidence
gathered from field observations and morphometric analysis. The DEM
data is used to facialate detailed mapping of NAT zone, lineaments,
drainage analysis and geomorphic fatures. A indepth and precise
geomorphological analysis of the North Almora Thrust zone has been
undertaken to study relation of sedimentary sequences and topographical
features related to active tectonics observed on DEM and on the field.
Three faults such as E-W trending Panar river fault, NNW-SSE trending
Simgad fault, E-W trending Rasiyari fault and NNW-SSE trending Gagas
river fault have been delineated and delineated in the present study only.
The Digital Elevation Model (DEM), contour map, Topographic map, and
Image map used first time in this area suggest significant changes in the
topography and development of numerous geomorphic features related to
active tectonic in the NAT zone in the Lesser Himalayan domain of
Kumaun. These geomorphic landforms indicators reflect possible tectonic
activity that has taken place in the Quaternary time.
The central sector of the Lesser Himalaya, Uttarakhand, cress-
143
crossed by number of thrusts and faults is seismotectonically, a very
active domain. The networks of Transverse Tear Faults (TTF) and North
Almora Thrust (NAT) including morph-tectonic lineaments in the central
Kumaun (Fig.1) have been investigated to Neogene-Quaternary tectonic
response. The TTF display an average trend oblique to the NAT with a
dextral slip and are characterized by mylonites, ultramylonites,
cataclasites and pseudotachytes indicating a long ductile to brittle tectonic
activity in the present tectonic framework. The boundary thrusts and NAT
have recorded vertical as well as horizontal movement in the recent past.
Development and deformation of young physiographic landforms indicate
episodic rise of the once mature terrain (Valdiya, 2001, 2003; Kothyari
and Pant 2004; Pant et al., 2004, 2007; Luirei et al., 2006; Joshi et al.,
2007). The transverse faults show not only fast rate of tectonic upliftment
and subsidence but quite a few faults are also releasing accumulated
stress in the form of minor earthquakes of M 3-4 or less (Valdiya, 2001;
Paul and Pant, 2003 and Paul et al., 2004) . Large portions of these
neotectonically active thrusts and faults seem to be seismically locked, as
no large earthquakes are evident at present. Such locked portions, must
be accumulating stresses, would get unlocked accompanied by burst or
shaking of earthquakes and an attendant landslides including ground
subsidence. This regiment thus poses serious threat to the communication
system and public utility structures. Hence, identification, precise
delineation and through appraisal of neotectonically active faults and
thrusts would be an important exercise in the geodynamically active and
populous sector of the central Himalayan province.
The base of Almora Neppe demarcates tectonic base of Great
Himalaya thrust sheets, characterized by two regional thrusts system.
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These thrust are namely the North Almora Thrust (NAT) and Ramgarh
Thrust (RT). The area of present research work stretches west from
Pancheswar to Panduwakhal in central Kumaun along the North Almora
Thrust zone. The NAT zone comprises mainly two lithounits, viz. Saryu
porphyry followed up by garnetiferous mica schist alternating with
micaceous quartzites and; slates and quartzites of Rautgara Formation.
The study area is well distinguished by sharp tectonic line, separating
autochthonous metasedimentaries from the overthrusted metamorphic and
granitic rocks, i.e. cryatallines of Almora Nappe. The mylonitization of
granitic rocks and augen gneiss and persistent bands of chlorite sericite,
phyllonite mark the boundary of the thrust zone in the study area. In the
study area, the rock unit’s quartz-porphyry is strongly mylonitized to
ultramylonite including chlorite sericite schist and phyllonite, exposed at
the base. Higher up, garnetiferous mica schist alternates with micaceous
quartzites. These litho-units are persistent through out the area between
Pancheshwar-Seraghat-Someshwar-Dwarahat-Panduwakhal. For detail
study the proposed area has been subdivided in to four segments.
The Pancheshwar-Seri section constitutes the eastern segment of
the NAT in Kumaun Lesser Himalaya. The segment is dominantly
characterized by strongly mylonitized quartz porphyry and ultramylonite
bands within the chloritic phyllponite, garnitiferous muscovite schist
alternating with micaceous quartzites of the Saryu Formation. The grater
thickness of the southern limb is due to the occurrence of intrusive rock
body, which assume batholithic dimension in southeastern limit of
Kumaun. Stereo plots of Saryu Formation reflect sub horizontal folding of
rock units. The stereo plots of Rautgara Formation reflect the rock units
got folded asymmetrically and the limbs of the fold are roughly oriented
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NW-SE and the axis is inclined by 300. The northern limb is thinner and
steeply inclined by 450-700.The original bedding (So) around Pancheshwar-
Seri area is separated by lithological variation, particularly in
metasedimentaries.
The Seraghat-Seri-Basoli section of NAT along the Saryu valley is
criss crossed by the NNW-SSE trending Saryu River Fault (SRF) (Pant et
al., 2007). The rocks observed along the ‘SRF’ comprise two lithounits, i.e.
mylonitized quartz porphyry of the Saryu Formation and
metasedimentaries of the Rautgara, Deoban and Berinag formations,
dominated by quartzites and slates of Rautgara Formation. The stereo
plots of rocks of the Rautgara Formation also suggest that the So planes
are folded and the axial plane is steeply oriented towards NE-SW. The fold
axis close to the axial plane and the fold is inclined subhorizontly towards
ESE direction. The equal area projection of (S1) of rocks of the Saryu
Formation suggests that the rock units got folded tight too isoclinally and
the fold axis varies NE to NNE.
The Seraghat-Dwarahat area stretches west from Saryu valley to
Ramganga valley through Jaigan and Kosi valleys. The area is traversed
by number of subsidiary thrusts and tear faults. The to two major
lithounits, the crystallines of Almora Group and metasedimentaries of
Rautgara Formation characterises the segment. The ‘So’ of Rautagara
Formation are striking in general NW-SE and NNW-SSE, however quite
few ‘So’ surfaces are striking towards NE-SW. The variation of trends of
‘So’ around this particular area is directly controlled by regional folding of
the lithounits. The contoured density stereo plots of bedding planes (So)
of Rautgara Formation reflect the axial plane of the fold is oriented
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towards NNW-SSE direction and the ‘β’ point of the fold is nearly close to
subhorizontal. The density stereo plot of S1 Planes of Saryu Formation
reflects the foliation plans are folded tight to isoclinal, with NNE and few
are SSW. The plunge of the folds varying between subhorizontally to 20-
300 in N20E direction and the axial plane is oriented in NNE direction. The
contoured equal area plot of the stretching lineations suggests distribution
of lineation due to a post deformation. The axial plane of the fold is
striking NE-SW and dipping towards southward. The southward dip
direction of stretching lineations probably formed due to the southward
movement of NAT.
Dwarahat-Panduwakhal section (Chaukhutia region) is the western
most segment of NAT taken up for the present investigation. The NNW-
SSE trend of North Almora Thrust (NAT) is noticed in the area west of
Dwarahat and around Dwarahat and east it resumes WNW-ESE trend.
Apart from other tectonic units of the Kumaun Lesser Himalaya, the Saryu
Formation of Almora Group, the carbonates of the Deoban Formation of
the Tejam Group and the quartzites of the Rautgara Formation are
important litho-units in the investigated area. The rock units of the area
are folded in nature and striking NW-SE and NNW-SSE direction. The
stereographic projections of ‘So’ and lineations of Saryu and Rautgara
formations on lower hemisphere suggest folded nature of rocks and the
fold is orientation towards southwestward. The poles density plots of
Rautgara and Saryu formations reflect the ‘So’ surfaces are folded
isoclinally with NNW and few are SSW. The plunge of the fold varying
between subhorizontally about 20-300 in NE direction and the axial plane
of the fold is oriented towards SW to WSW direction. The stereo plot of
lineations suggests post lineation folding.
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Morphometric analysis of the various landforms has been
undertaken to understand the role of tectonics in sculpturing the face of
the study area. It mainly involves lineament analysis, drainage analysis,
sinuosity characters, longitudinal valley profiles etc.
The morphotectonics of the North Almora Thrust (NAT) zone
suggests, expressions of a active thrust and tear faults. The area between
Pancheswar-Seraghat-Someshwar and Dwarahat-Chaukhutia-
Panduwakhal sections in Central Kumaun Himalaya is bounded by several
thrusts/faults. These thrusts/faults show dominant ENE-WSW and NNW-
SSE tectonic trend. The lineaments found in the area having dominent
NW-SE to NE-SW trend, suggests an N-S compressional axis.
The area of present investigation is drained by the Saryu, Jaigan
Kosi, Gagas and Ramganga rivers in general from east to west. The
drainage network of the area in general is dominating by the dendritic
pattern and at few places it resumes rectangular, trailis and radial as well.
The detailed study of drainage analysis has been done for the 1st, 2nd and
3rd order of drainage as they seem to be controlled by lineaments. The
morphometric analysis of the drainage basin has been carried out with the
help of orientation of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd order of drainage pattern. The 1st
and 2nd order of drainage are generally dominated by ENE-WSW trend
direction, conspicuously the 3rd order of drainage pattern is dominated by
NNW-SSE trend direction. The NNE-SSW trend of 1st and 2nd, order
drainage might be controlled by major tectonic structures, present around
the area, such as transverse faults and associated lineaments. The Saryu,
Jaigan, Kosi, Gagas and Ramganga rivers high order of streams show two
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prominent NNW-SSE and ENE-WSW tectonic trend, which is supported by
the NAT tectonic trend. On the basis of these observations it can be
assumed the area is controlled by NNW-SSE and ENE-WSW trending
lineaments.
The tectonic plane of the North Almora Thrust (NAT) extends west
from Kali valley to Ramganga valley. The Pancheshwar-Kakarighat section
is almost WNW-ESE; Seraghat-Seri section is NNW-SSE to NW-SE
direction and in the area between Dwarahat-Serighat it resumes WNW-
ESE trend, however in the Dwarahat-Chhaukhutia-Panduwakhal area it
again resumes the NW-SE trend.
The longitudinal valley profiles of Saryu, Jaigan, Kosi, Gagas and
Ramganga rivers indicate a major structural control. The knick points
observed at thrust and faults interset along the profile show uplift of river
bed. This uplift reflects still at present tectonic activity is also taking place,
reflects the area is influenced by active North Almora Thrust and
associated faults.
The Gradient Index (GI) is calculated with the help of longitudinal
valley profile. The value of Gradient Index (GI) and Pseudo-Hypsometric
Integral (PHI) are measured with the help of valley profiles. The GI, which
suggests differential upliftment around the area, is calculated by Rhea
(1993). The Pseudo-Hypsometric Integral (PHI) reflects overall shape of
the valley, and is obtained from the longitudinal valley profile, which is
calculated by numerical means, using the formula after Rhea (1993).
The sinuosity characters are described as Hydraulic Sinuosity Index
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(HSI), Topographic Sinuosity Index (TSI), Standard Sinuosity Index (SSI),
Channel Index (CI) and Valley Index (VI). These indices for the river
valleys along the North Almora Thrust (NAT) have been calculated using
formula of Muller (1968).
The study of GI and PHI reveals that the overall morphology of river
systems present in central Kumaun is controlled by active NAT and
associated faults. The higher values of ‘GI’ (75.01 – 2905) obtained from
the valley profiles reflect episodic upliftment during the Quaternary time.
On the basis of HSI, TSI, SSI, CI and VI it can be assumed that the
landscape pattern of central Kumaun Himalaya is evolved in a rejuvenated
tectonic environment. The Higher values of HSI and TSI indicate higher
rate of incision of river and dominant role of active tectonic in detrmining
the drainage pattern. The very low values of TSI and HSI is obtained were
the river takes right angle turn, which is marked by unpaired fluvial
terraces, triangular facets and cones deepening and widening of river etc.
Along with downcutting and deposition, response to uplift by changing
channel pattern may be assumed by increasing values of TSI and HSI. The
values of SSI reflect the young mature and old nature of river.
The history of Quaternary tectonics and morphotectonics of the NAT
zone in Kumaun region is a result of the co-interaction between
exceptionally active and accelerating Cenozoic tectonism to left several
massif during the Quaternary period. The Quaternary period has
witnessed disruption of widespread areas resulting in the formation of
broad open valleys and blockade of several drainaige basins in the form of
palaeolakes. The Quaternary deposits along the riverer channels of the
150
study area are the result of the active North Almora Thrust (NAT) zone
and associated transverse faults, e.g. Saryu River Fault, Simgad Fault,
Gagas River Fault and Ramganga Fault. The fluvial terraces preserved
along these features most probably formed during the time of
rejuvenation of active tectonics. The rejuvenation indicates depositional
environment of late Quaternary fluvial terraces, lacustrine flats and
colluvial cones.
The neotectonic rejuvenation along the North Almora Thrust (NAT)
zone is precisely studied along the Kali, Saryu, Jaigan, Kosi, Gagas and
Ramganga valleys. The facies Gcm, Gmg, Gmm, Fl, Fsm, Sm and Sp were
deposited in fluvial and fluviolacustrine environment. The clast rich breccia
is commonly associated with either tectonically or transported from
adjacent mountain slope and associated as debris flow. The fluvial
deposits along the Saryu, Jaigan and Gagas valleys were mainly induced
by tectonic environment. Presence of brecciated material at the base of
the section Rari, Ara, Girigad, Rasiyari, Tambakhola and Tragtal sections
reflects prominent tectonic activity during the deposition of sediment. A
shift of fluvial domain towards the flood plain depositional environment
may also mark the tectonic activity in controlling the river domain. The
Gmm and Gmg at the top and at the bottom of this section were
deposited in fluvial environment. The terrace deposit along the Jaigan,
Kosi and Gagas rivers show strong affect of vertical as well as lateral
movement of NAT and associated thrusts/faults. Fluvial deposit at Lodh
section reflects deposition of Gmm, Fsm, Gcm, and colluvium.
The sedimentation along the Ramganga Fault system has resulted
in the development of multistoried fluvial sequence. These deposits along
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Ramganga probably formed during continuous uplift movement along the
thrust plane. The Gcm, Fsm, Fl, Sp and sm, facies at the Tragtal section
show fluvial as well as lacustrine environment.
The tectonic movements since Quaternary time are generally
referred as neotectonic. Tectonically, the North Almora Thrust has been
reactivated time to time. The reactivation of North Almora Thrust has
manifested in development of number of geomorphic features and
topographical changes in the thrust zone terrain. The Tertiary movement
along the NAT may have resulted NW-SE trending tear faults. These faults
are respectively Saryu River Fault, Simgad Fault, Gagas River Fault and
Ramganga Fault. These faults have been rejuvenated in the Quaternary
time.
In the Pancheshwar-Ghat section the NAT is followed by straight
course of river Saryu, abruptly changing its nature narrows to a gorge of
nearly vertical wall as it crosses the NAT at Ghat. Development of large
and uplifted fluvial terraces at Pancheshwar is witness of vertical
movement along the thrust zone. The movement along NAT has not only
led to development of geomorphic marker but at many places terraces got
vertically uplifted. 40 m displacement along the Dabula terraces reflects
not only the NAT is active but associated subsidiary faults (Panar Fault)
and thrusts are equally active. Towards the southern range of Thalkedar,
three level of talus fan having elevation difference 25m. 12m. 11m
respectively are a result of reactivation of North Almora Thrust.
In the Seraghat-Seri-Basoli section movement along NAT has
resulted in the development of numerous geomorphic markers related to
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active tectonics. These evidences are unpaired fluvial terraces, triangular
facets and cones, waterfalls, abandoned river channel, entrenched
meandering naturae of tributaries etc. The area is full of fluvial terraces
particularly at Nali, with level difference of 20, 10, 50, 10, 45m from the
top. The Nali area is uplifted by 44m, reflects rejuvenation of NAT in the
recent time. The abandoned three levels of fluvial terraces found at and
around Ara suggest lateral shifting of the river channel; this may be due
to the vertical upliftment of the area. In addition to these the fluvial
terraces on the upthrown block are tilted by 110 towards northward at
Jateshwar. Shifting of river channel due to massive landslide and
triangular facets and cones at and around Nali and Rintoli are major
geomorphic features, formed during reactivation of NAT and associated
subsidiary faults.
Conspicuous evidences of active tectonics have been observed
around Seraghat-Someshwar-Dwarahat area. The vertical movement
along the Jaigan and Sim gads has resulted upliftment of fluvial terraces
and lateral shifting of river channel near Parkhet and Girigad areas in the
Jaigan valley and Kande in the Simgad section. This may suggest not only
the North Almora Thrust is active but associated faults (Simgad Fault) are
also reactivated in the Quaternary time. The movement around this area
has not only resulted deformation of hard rocks but it has also deformed
Quaternary sediments in the forms of faulting and sedimentary
deformational features. At Lodh, three km. west of Someshwar, recent
faulting has resulted in the dismemberment of the overlaying quaternary
sequence by about 2 m in a cliff section. The fault plane trending E-W is
moderately inclined (450) having a reverse nature of slip. The E-W
tectonic force has resulted association of different sedimentary
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deformational structures at Rasiyari in the east of Someshwar. These
structures are in the form of folding, faulting, ball and pillow structures,
pinching and swelling structures and tilting structures.
A series of tectonic and geomorphic features such as entrenched
meandering, straight course of river and number of landslide cones have
been observed between Dwarahat-Panduwakhal through Chaukuthia area
along the trace of North Almora Thrust. Three levels of paired terraces
particularly at Chaukuthia and left bank of the river Ramganga around
Rampur village have been observed. These terraces are found at an
elevation of 995m, 1006m and 1022m respectively. Deposition of ~2m
thick silt and gravel deposit at Bhanotia suggests lateral shifting of river
channel by 100m. The NNW-SSE trending Ramganga Fault in the
Ramganga valley is formed due to reactivation of NAT. The vertical uplift
along the thrust zone has caused mass movement in the form of massive
landslide, such as 60m thich landslide at Tragtal area. The blocked of Trag
Gad has caused formation of a temporary lake towards the eastern margin
of Chaukuthia along the Tragtal Fault.
The present seismicity in the Uttarakhand Himalaya is a result of
continental collision between India and Eurasia. In the Kumaun Himalaya
maximum strain energy released is related to boundary thrusts, i.e. Main
Boundary Thrust (MBT), North Almora Thrust (NAT) and Main central
Thrust (MCT). The strain energy released through the MCT seems to be
more uniform as compared to the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and North
Almora Thrust (NAT), along which the release of energy has been mostly
abrupt, through large magnitude earthquakes. In between the MCT and
MBT total 120 events have been located since 1999-2005. The present
154
study has been concentrated only on North Almora Thrust zone along
which ~ 40 events of M ≤3 have been recorded (Pant et al., 2005). The
study reveals that the majority of seismic events generally of low
magnitude, with depth of 1-30 km have been recorded in the area
enclosed by Main Central Thrust and the North Almora Thrust, which
suggests that the strain buildup in the central segment of Kumaun
Himalaya is dominated by moderate to low intensity earthquakes. Nearly
19 seismic events are recorded in and around NAT and south of MCT in
central Kumaun Himalaya by DTSN in the year 1999 and 2004. These
events are of magnitude ≥ 3, whereas few minor events were also
recorded with magnitude ≤ 1.5 and 1.5-0.3. Particularly at and around
the NAT more then seven events were recorded with magnitude ≥ 0.3 and
~ 20 minor events were recorded with magnitude ≤ 1.5. The reoccurrence
of these events observed along NAT; suggests that the continuous
movement along the NAT and MCT zone has resulted in strain building by
Indian-Asian plate convergence.
Almost all faults and thrusts are formed in the Himalayan region
during the strong convergence of India and Asia, are reactivated time to
time in the recent past. Reactivation of these faults and thrusts in recent
time has expressed development of geomorphic landforms and tectonic
features, which reflect the thrusts and associated faults, are
neotectonically and seismotectonically very active. The important
geomorphic features which, be a result of the reactivation of NAT are,
tilting of terraces, entrench meandering, shifting of river courses, faults
scarp, triangular facets and cones, formation of landslide induced lakes,
uplift of terraces, landslide, waterfalls straight course of river and gorge
nature of vallyes. Development of NNW-SSE trending transverse faults
155
and displacement within the Quaternary sediments reflects the NAT is still
active. All geomorphic and tectonic features are indicating the North
Almora Thrust is neotectonically and seismotectonically a very active
thrust.
In the Quaternary sedimentation related to North Almora Thrust
Zone (NAT), the sediment deformation structures are observed in the
gravely, sand and silt units those occurs at different stratigraphic unit,
mostly bounded by undeformed units. On the basis of morphology
individual structure found along the north Almora Thrust Zone (NATZ) has
been divided into three main categories. These structures are controlled
structure, Intruded structure and brittle structures. The convolute
structures exhibit maximum thickness at the middle and are confined
within the other deformed sedimentary layers. The convolute structures
are witnessed of penecontemporaneous deformation and different
hydraulic process related to flow movement during sedimentation. The
convolute structures generally formed due to density contrast between
fine grained sediment overlain by coarse sediment. Sometime these
(convolute folds) structures are formed due to overburden as well
movement along thrust/fault plane.
The open folding are common within alternate bends of silt and
gravels, sometime such structures are also associated with medium and
fine grained sand laid down in different aqueous environment. In the
study area these structure are formed due to E-W compressional tectonic
force in the NAT zone as seen at Rasiyari. The deformation within gravelly
horizon was also probably due to plastic movement. Similar structural
morphology may be also formed due to overburden or bed load.
156
The irregular superposed deformation structures resulting in the
pollyassemblage of folding are formed in silty horizons. The deformation is
due to visco-plastic failure, assemblage of chaotic structure. The deformed
horizon suggests thixotropic response of the cohesive sediment to
increase pore fluid pressure. The chaotic assemblage of deformed
sedimentary structure is probably formed due to differential response of
the sediment to the intensity of liquidization process.
The ball and pillow structures in the North Almora Thrust zone have
been developed in the fine grained sand and clay units enclosed within
coarse grained sediments. These structures are formed, when dense
sediment unit is overlain by less dense sedimentary layer. Formerly the
stress activated liquefaction process subsidence of the liquefied dense
sediment takes place into the underlying lighter sediment, gradually the
coarse material got reduced to a series of isolated masses, i.e.
psuedonoduled followed by embedded in more or less continuous mud or
clay of low density along with other plastic deformed structures.
The pinching and swelling structures, formed due to shear stress
produced by liquefaction process, in the Rasiyari area are observed within
the silty and gravely units. The deformed horizon suggests thixotropic
response of the cohesive sediment to increased pore fluid pressure. Such
kinds of deformed structure are also formed due to overburden of the
heavier sediment, and in extensional tectonic regime.
The intruded structures observed within the fluvio-lacustrine
sediments in the Bagwalipokhar area have been classified as visco-plastic
157
flowage and fluidized flow. Intrusion of silt suggests visco-plastic flowage
including dykes is formed due to fludization process. The visco-plastic
flowage process of silt is the result of differential permeability and porocity
contrast between sand and silt, due to overburden of other heavier
sediment. During this process, the overlying sediment got weakened
concomitantly, thereby subsided in to underlying sediment layer as ball
and pillow structures.
The faulting event is either in a pencontemporaneous or post
deformational origin as observed its association with other deformational
structures. The brittle faulting took place due to the differentional
compaction of sediments during folding and plastic flowages. The gravity
faulting is formed either by sediment influence overburden liquifection.
The gravity faulting structures found along North Almora Thrust zone not
seem any evidences of overburden. These structures are probably formed
by slippages along the contact between sediment and underlying hard
rocks. Few places around Lodh and Rasiyari, the faulted sedimentary unit
is lying in between the undeformed sedimentary layers, such kind of
faulting is probably due to reactivation of North Almora Thrust. Other
brittle structures are tilted sedimentary horizons associated with clast
supported gravel unit as observed at Rasiyari. Since the sediment
character of the tilted horizone is uniform therefore the probability of
tilting due to overburden is ruled out. These structure are formed either
under the influence of gravity collaps effect or due to compressional
tectonic force.
158
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