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Quick Guide to Commas

Ah, the pesky little comma. Although it sometimes might seem like commas are just useless and too

difficult to mess with, they can change the entire meaning of a sentence. Look at the difference

between:

The policeman said the criminal is mad.

and

The policeman, said the criminal, is mad.

Even if commas can change a sentence’s meaning, what does this have to do with you? Look at one

more example, this time using commas in a list:

I need you to cook dinner for Betty Jo Billy Joseph Jim Bob and Dave.

What if your roommate left you this note? Sounds easy enough, right? You need to cook dinner for

seven people. But double-names are common (especially in the south!) so what if it was meant to say:

I need you to cook dinner for Betty Jo, Billy, Joseph, Jim Bob, and Dave.

Now, there are only five people that need dinner. So even in using writing in everyday life, through

notes, commas can still be important, and this quick guide will help you use them correctly.

A panda walks into a café. He orders a sandwich, eats it, then draws a gun and fires two shots in the air.

“Why?” asks the confused waiter, as the panda makes towards the exit. The panda produces a badly punctuated wildlife manual and tosses it over his shoulder.

“I’m a panda,” he says, at the door. “Look it up.” The waiter turns to the relevant entry and, sure enough, finds an

explanation. Panda. Large black-and-white bear-like mammal, native to China.

Eats, shoots and leaves.”

So, punctuation really does matter, even if it is only occasionally a matter of life and death.

* from Eats, Shoots, and Leaves by Lynne Truss

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Comma Rules

1. Use a comma after introductory clauses, phrases, or any word that comes before

the main clause. Words to watch for: after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while, yes, however,

well, and any preposition or adverb.

Yes, you did well on your paper.

Amazingly, the concert started on time.

After it stopped raining, I took my dog for a walk.

While dinner was cooking, she watched television.

To go to the store, you have to pass the post office.

(Note: If these last three are reversed, you do not need a comma: I took my dog for a walk after it

stopped raining. She watched television while dinner was cooking. You have to pass the post office to

go to the store.)

If you don’t want to memorize the word list, here’s a good rule of thumb: look for the subject.

Generally, any word or phrase that comes before the subject will need a comma.

2. Use a comma to separate independent clauses when joined by any coordinating

conjunction: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.

We wanted to go to the concert, but we didn’t have enough money.

The rain was falling heavily, and the streets were slippery.

(Note: With the word “and,” make sure that the two clauses are independent. If they aren’t, no comma

is needed. For example: We were laughing and talking.)

3. Use a comma to set off phrases and clauses that do not change the meaning of the

sentence.

The food at the restaurant was delicious. The service, however, was slow.

In this instance, I believe, the facts were ignored.

If the sentence still makes sense without the phrase, you need a comma. Watch out for instances

where the phrase is essential: People who lie hurt only themselves. No commas are required because

“who lie” is necessary to the sentence’s meaning.

4. Use a comma to separate items in a list.

I went to the movies with Betty, Jim, and Dave.

We went to the store and picked up oranges, bananas, apples, pizza, and milk.

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5. Use a comma between two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same

thing.

Adjectives are coordinate if they can be used in any order:

The basement was dark, empty, and damp.

The basement was empty, dark, and damp.

The basement was damp, dark, and empty.

If the adjectives are not coordinate, no comma is needed:

They lived in a dark green house.

She wore a solid black bracelet.

For this, just see if the words can be reordered. You can also check to see what the adjective

modifies. In the last two examples, “green” and “black” modify the objects “house” and “bracelet”

while “dark” and “solid” do not; they modify the colors, making them subordinate adjectives.

6. Use a comma to indicate pauses or shifts.

You’re his closest friend, aren’t you?

She was plain, not ugly.

7. Use a comma to introduce a quotation.

She said, “I’ll see you next week.”

“I was able,” he replied, “to answer all the test questions.”

(Note: The exception here is to omit the comma when the quotation flows into your sentence, such as:

She recently said that “it was a good decision.”

Also, if you introduce the quotation with a complete sentence, use a colon:

He uses colors to symbolize the different characters: “Marie was yellow, always brightening

everyone’s day. John was black, trying to dampen spirits with his melancholy. And Susan was

white, pure white, untouched by the colors of her friends.”

8. Use a comma for dates, places, numbers, and titles.

I was born on November 17, 1989.

We traveled to Pensacola, Florida, for vacation.

John Smith, PhD, will visit our class this year.

There are 4,599,030 people living in Alabama.

(Note: Do not use commas for addresses: The white house is at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue.)

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9. Beware the comma splice!! A comma splice is the easiest grammar mistake to make. It will sneak up on you when you least

expect it. The rule is: Do not use commas to separate two independent clauses, unless joined by one

of the conjunctions mentioned in rule #2:

We liked the way the car drove, we decided to buy it. (INCORRECT)

I went to work, I answered the phone. (INCORRECT)

These sentences require a conjunction or a different form of punctuation. Perhaps the most

challenging comma splice comes with the phrases “not only” and “but also.” Any time you use “not

only,” you must use “but also” as well:

Not only did she fill out an application, but she also sent a letter.

We went to the restaurant not only to have a good meal, but also to have fun.

Not:

I not only did my work, I also made the calls. (INCORRECT)

I not only did my work, but I made the calls. (INCORRECT)

As with all punctuation and grammar, these rules are subject to change in different situations, so always

read and consider every comma you use. This will hopefully get you started, but if you have any more

questions, here’s a good place to look:

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_comma.html

Works Cited

Truss, Lynne. Eats, Shoots, and Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation.

New York: Gotham Books, 2003. Print.

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Quick Guide to Semicolons and Colons

Semicolons

1. Use a semicolon to link two independent clauses with no connecting words.

It rained yesterday morning; I didn’t go to class.

The concert was at eight; we left the house at six.

(Note: The clauses need to be related in thought. If they are not, separate with a comma

instead.)

2. Use a semicolon to separate clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs. Words to watch for: however, therefore, nevertheless, moreover, furthermore,

consequently, for example, for instance, etc.

He made good points in his argument; however, he failed to consider some aspects.

They couldn’t make it back before dark; therefore, they decided to stay the night.

3. Use a semicolon in a list if the phrases already contain commas.

Members of the band include Harold Rostein, clarinetist; Tony Aluppo, tuba player; and Lee

Jefferson, trumpeter.

“Is there any art involved in using the apostrophe? No… The comma, while less subject to

universal rules, is still a utilitarian mark… and announces that you have an ear for sense and

rhythm, confidence in your style, and a proper respect for your reader… But colons and

semicolons—well, they are in a different league, my dear! They give such lift! … The

thermals that benignly waft our sentences to new altitudes – that allow us to coast on air, and

loop-the-loop, suspending the laws of gravity – well, they are the colons and semicolons”

(Truss 105-106).

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Colons

1. Use a colon to introduce a list if the introductory phrase is an independent clause. The newspaper contains four sections: news, sports, entertainment, and ads.

2. Use a colon to introduce a quotation if the introductory phrase is an independent

clause.

She gives an example from her own life to show the effects of television on children: “When I

was younger, we didn’t own a TV set. Instead, we played outside all day.”

While he believes the bill should be vetoed, John Smith disagrees: “This bill is necessary to the

future of our kids because it will provide them with a better education.”

3. Use a colon between the hour and minutes in time, between chapter and verse in

biblical references, and in a business letter greeting.

We left at 5:30 p.m.

He relies on Genesis 1:18 to support his argument.

Dear Ms. Smith:

Although semicolons and colons don’t come with as many rules and regulations as commas do, they are

often more difficult to use because of the comma stipulations. It is important that you be able to not only

choose the grammatical choice, but to also learn to choose the best choice for each situation. For

example, you could use a period everywhere a semicolon could be used (except for the “list” rule) and

be grammatically correct…. but we have the semicolon for a reason—it is sometimes more effective than

a period. As you grow and mature in your writing, you will find yourself faced with more and more

challenging punctuation situations.

Works Cited

Truss, Lynne. Eats, Shoots, and Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation.

New York: Gotham Books, 2003. Print.

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Quick Guide to Sentence Boundaries

Sentence Fragments:

Definition: “A sentence fragment is a group of words that fails to qualify as a sentence but is

capitalized and punctuated as if it were a sentence” (697).

A complete sentence must be an independent clause, meaning it can stand on its own grammatically.

Examples of Fragments:

I wanted to take a history course. Instead of another math class.

I hate reading. Which, by the way, is a huge problem for an English major.

The second sentences are incomplete because they both lack a verb. Just because it follows the

sentence before it doesn’t mean it makes sense. Each sentence must stand on its own, and these would

not.

Checklist for Fragments:

1.) Does the sentence have a subject?

2.) Does the sentence have a verb?

If the answer to either of these questions is no, then you have a fragment. Be sure to not be

fooled by words that appear as verbs: (“Walking down the street while the birds sing” is not a

complete sentence because, first of all, there is no subject (don’t be fooled by “birds”) and

“walking” is not a verb. The sentence would have to have more to it: “Walking down the street

while the birds sing is a good way to spend a fall day.”

Note: There are instances where fragments are used intentionally, to “gain special emphasis or create

special effects” (698). This is a very difficult grammar rule to break on purpose, so if you want to

attempt it, be sure you check with me or with a tutor before doing so. Fragments count off on your

essay, so if I cannot tell that it’s intentional, you will lose points. If you’re unsure, don’t attempt it until

you discuss it with me or a tutor first.

Run-ons:

Definition: “A run-on, or fused, sentence occurs when one sentence runs into another without

anything to mark their junction” (699).

Example: “Laura failed to set her alarm she was late for work” (699).

What makes this a run-on or fused sentence? How can we correct it? (Note that simply

adding a comma after “alarm” would not solve the problem; it would create a comma

splice.)

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Technically, this is not a run-on sentence, but it is extremely wordy and long. In your writing,

don’t try to cram everything you want to say into one sentence—break it up so that it is easy to

read, but be sure to avoid fragments as well.

Comma Splices:

Definition: “A comma occurs when only a comma marks the junction” (699).

Examples:

Animals do not only act as pets or something to take care of, they give their owners love and a

friend to lean on when they are down.

Every time you have “not only,” you need “but also” as well.

Of course, there are other considerations to take into account, if gasoline is such a determining

factor to the American budget, then a steep price increase would negatively affect any economy

that relies on consumer purchases.

Avoiding comma splices gets more complicated when the sentences get longer. Which

comma here creates a comma splice? How could we correct it?

He explains that “when I get home from work and he wiggles all over the place in his happiness

to see me, or when he comes into the bedroom and lies beside me,” any person with a dog has

come upon this scenario.

Don’t be fooled or tricked by quotations. Treat the sentences as if the quotation marks

weren’t there, and see if you’ve created a comma splice.

Works Cited

Reinking, James A. and Robert von der Osten. Strategies for Successful Writing. Eighth

Edition. Prentice-Hall, 2007.

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Quick Guide to Pronouns

A pronoun refers back to a noun or takes the place of a noun. Basic pronouns include I, you, he, she, we,

them, me, mine, him, his, hers, her, your, yours, their, it, this, that, anybody, everybody, and many more.

Although most of you know how and when to use pronouns, your papers are still showing numerous

errors in choosing which pronoun you should use, so let’s go over some of the rules for using pronouns.

1.) Pronouns must agree in person.

In other words, don’t switch from first-person to second- or third-person in the middle of

a sentence or paragraph. (When a person drives, you should obey the speed limit.) Although

your papers reflect few problems with being consistent in sentences, you are still having

problems being consistent within paragraphs and throughout your entire paper. (Additionally,

remember that you should never use second-person in academic papers. One more time: You

should never use second-person in academic papers.)

2.) Pronouns must agree in number.

When a student goes to class, he or she must be prepared to participate.

Although my sisters were in town, they did not stop by to visit.

Just so there’s no confusion, let’s clear up what words are singular and which are plural. In what

category do the following words belong?

EVERYBODY

ANYBODY

ANYONE

EACH

NEITHER

NOBODY

SOMEONE

A PERSON

All of these are SINGULAR, meaning they require “he” or “she”—not “they.”

Lastly, note that if you are using singular nouns and get tired of the “he or she” and “his or her”

construction, it is acceptable to just use one gender. However, be very careful to be consistent with

gender; do not alternate between the two within a paper. To avoid being considered “sexist,” though,

the best solution is to use plural nouns as often as possible so that you can simply use “they” and “their”

as your pronouns. Whichever you choose, though, you need to proofread your paper carefully and look

for every instance of “they” and “their” to make sure it matches the noun. I’ll say that again: You need

to proofread your paper carefully and look for every instance of “they” and “their” to make sure it

matches the noun. It’s a mistake that is easily caught and easily fixed, so why would you want to lose

points on something that is so easily corrected?

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3.) Pronouns should clearly refer to a specific noun.

This rule is especially true with the words “this” and “it” and also with instances in which

you are discussing two different singular people or two different singular groups. Let’s

look at some examples:

Students and parents should both be concerned about education. They go to

school every day.

o Although you can probably figure out that “they” is supposed to refer to

students, it originally seems to refer to both students and parents.

I hit a tree with my car. Fortunately, it wasn’t damaged.

o Whew, lucky tree—oh, wait, you mean “it” doesn’t refer to the tree? You

see the confusion. Again, though you can probably figure out the

reference, don’t make your readers work to understand. They will get

frustrated.

4.) Who’s vs. Whose

Who’s is a contraction for who is or who has.

Who’s going to be there?

She was talking to the girl who’s tall.

Whose is possessive.

Whose book is this?

Did you see the girls whose sweater was too small?

5.) It’s vs. Its

It’s is a contraction for it is or it has.

It’s been a while since we talked.

It’s not time to leave yet.

Its is possessive.

Jealousy will often rear its ugly head in a relationship.

The jury has reached its decision.

Every dog has its day. [Note: “dog” could also be “he or she”—up to you.]

Note that I mentioned nothing about the word its’. That’s because its’ is not a word. Its’ is never

correct… so that’s one less thing you have to worry about.

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Quick Guide to Verbs

A verb denotes an action or state of being. Every sentence must have a verb. If there is no verb, it is a

sentence fragment.

Since you are all familiar with the concept of a verb, we need to discuss larger problems that occur when

verbs are present, particularly in the context of writing an academic paper that is several pages long.

1.) Always be consistent with verb tense.

I was not satisfied with the results, so I went again. (past + past)

I want to meet her, so I go to the book signing. (present + present)

This generally sounds easy enough to control, but it comes increasingly difficult when you are

writing more than one sentence, especially when you don’t do it all in one sitting (and you shouldn’t

write academic papers in just one sitting!). So be sure to look back and don’t shift tenses back and forth,

even from paragraph to paragraph and page to page. Of course, there are instances where this will be

necessary for your writing, but be sure you handle the tense change accurately:

The Iroquois Indians regularly burned land to increase open space for agriculture. In fact,

the early settlers of Boston found so few trees that they had to row out to the islands in the harbor

to obtain fuel. Just how far north this practice extended is uncertain, but the Saco River in

southern Maine appears to have been the original northern boundary of the agricultural clearings.

Take a minute and circle all of the verbs in this paragraph. Where does the shift occur, how does it

happen, and why does it work?

When in doubt about shifting tenses, remember this general rule: Past historical events are always set in

the past, but any current findings, beliefs, etc. stay in the present tense. Where do you see that in the

above paragraph? (Also remember that all literature – books, journal articles, essays – are always

discussed in present tense, as literature itself is never a thing of the past.)

2.) Be sure to use helping verbs appropriately. (Watch for have/had/has, is/are/am, was/were.)

have/has – describes an action that began in the past and continues into the

present or that occurred in the recent past

had – describes actions that began and ended in the past

I have been in college for a year.

He has finished the job.

She had promised him a new car.

Is/are – action that is in progress now

Was/were – action that was in progress at a certain time

They are going to be late to the concert.

We were laughing all night.

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Be sure to always use have and had with the proper form of the actual verb (these are not verbs

themselves; they just accompany an action). “I would never have went” is incorrect, nor is “she has

went.” The correct word here should be gone instead of went. When in doubt, consult a grammar book

or look it up online.

3.) Don’t be fooled by nouns/adjectives posing as verbs.

Traveling will satisfy your desire for new experiences.

The crying baby needed to be fed.

What are the verbs in these two sentences?

Although gerunds (words ending in –ing) are often verbs (we were laughing; she was praying), here

they function as a subject (in sentence one) and an adjective (in sentence two). Be sure you use the

proper form of each verb you use, and don’t see a gerund and assume your sentence has a verb.

4.) Lay vs. Lie

This seems to get everybody because it is extremely confusing to differentiate between lay and

lie (excluding the definition of “telling an untruth,” of course. That’s the easy one.)

Present tense is easy to remember: lay requires a direct object; lie does not. (You lay down a book; you

lie on the sofa.)

Now it all goes amuck.

The past tense of lie is lay. The past tense of lay is laid.

The past participle of lie is lain. The past participle of lay is laid.

Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle

Lie Lay Lain

Lay (req. object) Laid Laid

Let’s see if we can fill in these sentences with the proper word:

Last week, he _____ on the floor.

Yesterday, I ____ the report on your desk.

The cat has _____ in the mud for hours.

This gets much easier with practice, and to be honest, I still get them confused sometimes. When in

doubt, look it up. The resources are out there; you just have to find them.

5.) Use active verbs as much as possible in your writing.

Steve threw the ball.

The ball was thrown by Steve.

Notice how much more concise and effective the first sentence is. Watch for this in your papers; always

avoid the dull passive voice when possible.