Radioactive Materials and Radiation A TECHNICAL AND ... · PDF fileRadioactive Materials and...

Radioactive Materials and RadiationA TECHNICAL AND REGULATORY OVERVIEW

Lori Siegelman, CHMM, CSP, CIHSenior ConsultantW&M Environmental Group, Inc.972-516-0300

2W&M Environmental Group, Inc. Presentation April 23, 2010

Purpose of Presentation

► Provides a primer on nuclear science

► Provides a review of the various common types of radioactive material, radiation and radioactive waste that are being used or generated by industries.

► Discusses various definitions and regulatory classifications of radioactive material and waste.

► Provides an overview of Texas regulations governing radioactive material, radioactive waste, and radiation producing machines.


Radiation Primer – What is Ionizing Radiation?

► Ionizing Radiation

Short wavelength end of the spectrum

enough energy to cause chemical changes by breaking chemical bonds.

This effect can cause damage to living tissue.


Radiation Primer – What is Ionizing Radiation


Radiation Primer – What is Ionizing Radiation

►Non-ionizing radiation is electromagnetic radiation that does not have sufficient energy to remove electrons from the outer shells of atoms or to break chemical bonds within a molecule. .


Radiation Primer – Radionuclides and Radioactivity

► What is an Atom?

Atoms are the extremely small particles of which we, and everything around us, are made.

There are 92 naturally occurring elements and scientists have made another 17, bringing the total to 109.

Atoms are the smallest unit of an element that chemically behaves the same way the element does.



►What is an atom?

Nucleus

Electrons

Neutrons + Proton =



►Scientists needed an easy way to write and keep track of the basic nuclear properties.

► They developed a 'shorthand' that combines information about the various forms of an element.



►Chemical symbol of the element, for example, "C" for carbon

►Number of protons in the nucleus (Z) ( the same for any form of an element)

►Mass of one atom of the element (A)

► The number of neutrons in the nucleus is equal to A - Z



► Nuclide

A nuclide is an atomic nucleus (a species of atom) with a given number of protons and neutrons.

The various nuclides, or species, of a particular chemical element with equal proton number (atomic number), but different neutron numbers are called isotopes of the element and share the same chemical properties.

If there is a change in the number of protons, the atom becomes a different element with different chemical properties.



► All isotopes of one element have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

► All isotopes of a certain element also have the same chemical properties but have varying radiological properties such as half-life, or type of radiation emitted.

► A radionuclide is an atom with an unstable nucleus. Radionuclides are often referred to as radioactive isotopes or radioisotopes.

► Two different forms, or isotopes, of carbon are:

Carbon-12, which has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, or an atomic mass of 12. This is the most common form of carbon.

Carbon-14 having 6 protons and 8 neutrons. This form of carbon is radioactive and used in determining the age of archeological artifacts.

http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/glossary/termghi.html#isotope



► An atom with an unbalanced ratio of neutrons to protons in the nucleus seeks to become more stable.

► The unstable atom tries to become more stable by changing the number of neutrons and/or protons in the nucleus.

► This can happen in several ways: Converting neutrons to protons

Converting protons to neutrons

Ejecting an alpha particle (two neutrons and two protons) from the nucleus.

► These transformations often leave the nucleus with excess energy that it loses as gamma rays – which are high energy, neutrally charged, photons (discrete parcels of energy without mass or charge).

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/CNO_Cycle.png


Radiation Primer – Alpha, Beta and Gamma Radiation

► The spontaneous transformation of a radionuclide is called radioactivity, and the excess energy is a form of ionizing radiation. The act of transformation is referred to as radioactive decay.

► There are three main kinds of ionizing radiation: alpha particles,

• Two protons and two neutrons

beta particles,

• Essentially electrons

gamma rays and x-rays,

• Pure energy (photons)



►What are the properties of an alpha particle?

An alpha particle is identical to a helium nucleus having two protons and two neutrons.

It is a relatively heavy, high-energy particle, with a positive charge of +2 from its two protons.



► Which radionuclides are alpha emitters?

The positive charge of alpha particles is useful in some industrial processes:

• Radium-226 may be used to treat cancer, by inserting tiny amounts of radium into the tumorous mass.

• Polonium-210 serves as a static eliminator in paper mills and other industries. The alpha particles, due to their positive charge, attract loose electrons, thus reducing static charge.

• Am-241 is commonly used in smoke detectors and in devices containing neutron sources (Americium/Beryllium) used to make soil moisture measurements.

Alpha Emitter Atomic Number

Americium-241 95

Plutonium-236 94

Uranium-238 92

Thorium-232 90

Radium-226 88

Radon-222 86

Polonium-210 84

http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/radionuclides/americium.html

http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/radionuclides/plutonium.html

http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/radionuclides/uranium.html

http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/radionuclides/thorium.html

http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/radionuclides/radium.html

http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/radionuclides/radon.html



► What are the properties of a BetaParticle?

Beta particles are subatomic particles ejected from the nucleus of some radioactive atoms.

They are equivalent to electrons.

The difference is that beta particles originate in the nucleus and electrons originate outside the nucleus.

Beta particles generally have an electrical charge of -1.

Often, gamma ray emission accompanies the emission of a beta particle when the nucleus still has extra energy.



► Which radionuclides are beta emitters?

Beta emitters have many uses, especially in medical diagnosis, imaging, and treatment.

Iodine-131 is used to treat thyroid disorders, such as cancer and graves disease (a type of hyperthyroidism).

Phosphorus-32 is used in molecular biology and genetics research.

Strontium-90 is used as a radioactive tracer in medical and agricultural studies.

Tritium is used for life science and drug metabolism studies to ensure the safety of potential new drugs. It is also used for luminous aircraft and commercial exit signs, for luminous dials, gauges and wrist watches.

Carbon-14 is a very reliable tool in dating of organic matter up to 30,000 years old.

Beta Emitter Atomic Number

Phosphorous-32 15

Tritium (H-3) 1

Carbon-14 6

Strontium-90 38

lead-210 82

Cobalt-60 27

Technetium-99 43




http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/radionuclides/radium.html




► What are the properties of X-Rays andGamma Rays?

Both packets of electromagnetic energy--a photon.

No mass and no charge.

High energy photons that travel at the speed of light .

Once their energy is spent, whether in air or in solid materials, they cease to exist.

10,000 times as much energy as the photons in the visible spectrum.

Cover hundreds to thousands of meters in air before spending their energy.

They can pass through many kinds of materials, including human tissue.

Very dense materials, such as lead, are commonly used as shielding to slow or stop gamma photons.



►Gamma ray

Originates from the nucleus of a radionuclide after radioactive decay

It often follows the emission of a beta particle.

►X-ray

Emitted by an x-ray machine.

X-rays are produced when electrons strike a target or when electrons are rearranged within an atom

►Gamma more energetic than X-ray



► Which radionuclides are gamma emitters?

Gamma emitting radionuclides are the most widely used radiation sources. The penetrating power of gamma photons has many applications.

The three radionuclides by far most useful are cobalt-60, cesium-137, and technetium-99m.

Gamma Emitter Atomic Number

Cesium-137 55

Cobalt-60 27

Americium -241 95

Iridium-192 77

Iodine-125 53

Rubidium-86 37

Selenium-75 34

http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/radionuclides/americium.html








Radiation Primer – Radiation Quantities and Units

► How to Detect and Measure Radiation?

Ionizing radiation cannot be detected by our senses

Indirect methods are available that depend upon the creation of ions that occurs when the radiation interacts with matter.

• An ion is an atom or molecule (of the matter through which the radiation is traveling), which has lost or gained one or more electrons (as a result of the deposition of energy from the radiation), giving it a positive or negative electrical charge.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Silver-tetrafluoroborate-ion-pair-from-xtal-3D-balls.png



► The four most common measures of radiation encountered are:

Activity,

Exposure,

Absorbed Dose, and

Dose Equivalent.



► Activity:

The activity of a radioactive source is defined as the rate at which the isotope decays. Radioactivity may be thought of as the volume of radiation produced in a given amount of time. The International System (SI) unit for activity is the becquerel(Bq) and the curie (Ci) is also commonly used.

The Curie was named after Marie Curie whose systematic studies included two uranium minerals, pitchblende (shown in the photo) and torbernite.

The Becquerel is named for Henri Becquerel, who shared a Nobel Prize with Pierre and Marie Curie for their work in discovering radioactivity.



► ExposureExposure is a measure of the strength of a radiation field at some point in air. This is the measure made by a survey meter. The most commonly used unit of exposure is the roentgen (R).

SI unit of Coulombs per kilogram (C/kg) also used.

► Roentgen1 R is the amount of radiation required to liberate positive and negative charges of one electrostatic unit of charge (esu) in 1 cm3 of dry air at standard temperature and pressure (STP). This corresponds to the generation of approximately 2.08×109 ion pairs.

Named after the German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen who discovered x-rays in the late 1800s.



► Absorbed Dose

is the amount of energy that ionizing radiation imparts to a given mass of matter.

The SI unit for absorbed dose is the gray (Gy), but the “rad” (Radiation Absorbed Dose) is commonly used.

1 rad (“radiation absorbed dose”) is equivalent to 0.01 Gy.

Different materials that receive the same exposure may not absorb the same amount of energy. In human tissue, one Roentgen of gamma radiation exposure results in about one rad of absorbed dose.



► Dose Equivalent

relates the absorbed dose to the biological effect of that dose.

• 1 rad to tissue from alpha radiation is more harmful that 1 rad from beta radiation because an alpha particle is heavier and causes more biological damage.

The SI unit is the sievert (SV), but the rem is commonly used.

Rem is an acronym for "roentgen equivalent in man."

One rem is equivalent to 0.01 SV. When exposed to X- or Gamma radiation, the quality factor is 1.

Type of Radiation Rad Q Factor Rem

X-Ray 1 1 1

Gamma Ray 1 1 1

Beta Particles 1 1 1

Thermal Neutrons 1 5 5

Fast Neutrons 1 10 10

Alpha Particles 1 20 20


Radioactive Material

► Everything we encounter in our daily lives contains some radioactive material, some naturally occurring and some manmade:

► the air we breathe, the water we drink, the food we eat, the ground we walk upon, and the consumer products we purchase and use.

► Radiation is used to diagnose disease and treat cancer .

► The following slides describe the most commonly encountered types of radioactive material that you may encounter.


Radioactive Material – Regulatory Definitions (Texas)

► "Radioactive material" means a naturally occurring or artificially produced solid, liquid, or gas that emits radiation spontaneously.

► "Radioactive substance" includes:

By-product Material;

Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material Waste, Excluding Oil and Gas NORM Waste;

Radioactive Material;

Low-level Radioactive Waste;

Source Material;

Source of Radiation; and

Special Nuclear Material.


Radioactive Material – Byproduct Material

►Byproduct MaterialIs a Nuclear Regulatory Commission definition used to describe the radioactive materials that they regulate and issue licenses for.

Includes a wide array of materials, such as those used in:

• Civilian and military applications in such areas as industrial radiography, gauging devices, gas chromatography, and well logging.

• Consumer products, such as smoke detectors, some self-luminous Exit signs, static eliminators, and luminous watch dials.

• Diagnosis and treatment of patients in hospitals or physicians' offices.

• Colleges, universities, and other academic institutions for course work and research.

Can include sealed sources or unsealed sources, both of which are considered to be “discrete” sources.

Orphan sources would most likely be a byproduct material that was lost or abandoned.


Radioactive Material - Sources

► Radioactive material is a source of radiation

► The term source refers to radioactive material and can be

“closed” or “open”, “sealed” or “unsealed”, “discrete” or “diffuse”

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.orau.org/ptp/collection/nuclearmedicine/tc99mg18.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.orau.org/ptp/collection/nuclearmedicine/tc99mgenerator.htm&usg=__qXP3wWqtYnzZXOKQtxDlkHnSGsg=&h=555&w=300&sz=12&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=xDmNdY8j7s8poM:&tbnh=133&tbnw=72&prev=/images?q=Tc-99+cow&gbv=2&hl=en&safe=active

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.orau.org/ptp/collection/Sources/radium10.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.orau.org/ptp/collection/Sources/radiumradiog.htm&usg=__9BZYlNp9v1SmzH6XTSo6G-Qk9qE=&h=269&w=315&sz=5&hl=en&start=12&tbnid=4HRkTMqOaWkm3M:&tbnh=100&tbnw=117&prev=/images?q=radium+source&gbv=2&hl=en&safe=active

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/Brachytherapy.jpeg&imgrefurl=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Brachytherapy.jpeg&usg=__gLqSyF7UuDKRh0b_TzWLzZwJeMQ=&h=486&w=600&sz=62&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=DfYnd4cz1hN6oM:&tbnh=109&tbnw=135&prev=/images?q=brachytherapy&gbv=2&hl=en&safe=active

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.nrc.gov/images/reading-rm/photo-gallery/20071114-027.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/photo-gallery/index.cfm?page=list&cat=Nuclear%20Materials&usg=__zA31iXlnBjXGzSZsv1Q9LI-32eQ=&h=1740&w=1200&sz=346&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=1f29E0DME706nM:&tbnh=150&tbnw=103&prev=/images?q=fill+gauge+radioactive&gbv=2&hl=en&safe=active

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.peelpolice.ca/ecms.aspx/$prp/Images/NEW%20Releases/2008/08-238_TroxlerGauge.jpg&imgrefurl=http://mysilvercreek.sampa.com/my-silver-creek/news/m/2008-10.htm&usg=__a9oq76CqHk-G1opExOqERP3wCPU=&h=768&w=1024&sz=114&hl=en&start=3&tbnid=SWxC4vV-ErrtSM:&tbnh=113&tbnw=150&prev=/images?q=fill+gauge+radioactive&gbv=2&hl=en&safe=active


Radioactive Material - Radon

► A naturally occurring odorless, colorless gas

► Decay product of Uranium, which is naturally occurring in soil, rock, and water within the earth’s crust

► Inhalation of radon may cause health effects; although, there are “radon spas” where people seek treatment for a variety of illnesses (such as rheumatoid arthritis)

► EPA has established an action level of 4 picocuries per liter of air for radon and has designated January as National Radon Action Month.


Radioactive Material - NORM

►NORM

Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material

For purposes of this presentation – NORM is produced when radionuclidesthat occur naturally in ores, soils, water, or other natural materials are concentrated or exposed to the environment by activities, such as uranium mining or sewage treatment.

The principal radionuclide of concern in NORM is radium-226, a member of the uranium series, which is present in natural soils in concentrations of about 1 pCi/g.

Of particular concern in the petroleum industry from drilling operations.


Radiation Limits and Comparisons

Limits from Texas regulations for control of radiation (above background)For protection of general public 100 mRem/yrFor radium in water 30 pCi/literFor radium in drinking water 5 pCi/literEPA suggested action level for radon in residences

4 pCi/liter

Examples of radiation exposure levelsTerrestrial background Texas Gulf Coast

60 mRem/yr

Terrestrial background Texas Panhandle

120 mRem/yr

Medical X-ray 40 mRemCosmic (sea level) 35 mRem/yrCosmic (10,000 feet) 85 mRem/yr


Radioactive Material – Regulatory Overview (Federal)

► Select Radioactive Materials & Terms included in the regulations

Special Nuclear Material

Byproduct Material

Source Material

Discrete Source

Licensed Material

Residual Radioactivity

Generally Licensed Devices

Orphan Sources

► Fundamental Laws Governing Civilian Uses of Nuclear Materials and Facilities

Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as Amended, is the fundamental U.S. law on both the civilian and the military uses of nuclear materials.

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) was established by the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974.


Radiation and Radioactive Material –TEXAS Regulatory Framework

► Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) has primary jurisdiction to regulate and issue licenses for the disposal of radioactive substances, except for byproduct material and for NORM originating from oil and gas production and exploration activities.

► The Texas Department of State Health Services (TDSHS), has jurisdiction to regulate and license the possession, receipt, use, handling, transfer, transport, and storage of all radioactive material, including the recovery and processing of source material, and processing and disposal of byproduct material.

► The TDSHS has sole jurisdiction to regulate and register or license the use or service of electronic products.

► The Texas Railroad Commission regulates the disposal of oil and gas NORM.


TDSHS Regulations

► The Texas Department of State Health Services, Radiation Control Program is governed by the Texas Health & Safety Code; Subtitle D. Nuclear and Radioactive Materials; Chapter 401. Radioactive Materials and Other Sources of Radiation.

http://www.statutes.legis.state.tx.us/Docs/HS/htm/HS.401.htm





Texas Radiation Permits as of March 2004


TDSHS Regulations –Radiation Control Program – 25 TAC 289

►Regulations most pertinent to registrants with radiation-producing machines:

§ 289.203 Notices, Instructions, and Reports to Workers; Inspections

§ 289.226 Registration of Radiation Machine Use and Services

§ 289.228 Radiation Safety Requirements for Industrial Radiation Machines

§ 289.231 General Provisions and Standards for Protection Against Machine-Produced Radiation


Regulatory Requirements Summary – Radiation –Producing Machines

Activity RequirementRegistration applications, amendments, and renewals

Renewal at least 30 days prior to expiration. Notify TDSHS of changes within 30 days.

Payment of Fees Required every 2 years.

Personnel Monitoring If doses are 10% or more of the annual limit then monitoring is required. Monitoring is not required for operators of minimal threat machines.

Instrument Calibration Equipment used for quantitative radiation measurements must be calibrated every 12 months.

Radiation Level Surveys Surveys that are necessary for demonstrating compliance with dose limits and when necessary for evaluating magnitude and extent of radiation levels.

Training For individuals likely to receive 10% or more of annual dose. Also, operators of machines must demonstrate competency.

Posting of Notices to Workers In sufficient number of places.

Notification of Disposal or Transfer of Machines

Within 30 days

Labeling of Radiation Machines Caution to individuals that radiation is produced when energized.

Annual Survey Testing of interlocks and checking for leakage.


Radioactive Material – Specific Licenses for Radioactive Material (TDSHS Rules)

► "Specific license" means a license, issued pursuant to an application, to use, manufacture, produce, transfer, receive, acquire, own, possess, process, or dispose of quantities of or devices or equipment using by-product, source, special nuclear, or other radioactive material (RAM).

► 25 TAC §289.252 “Licensing of Radioactive Material” contains regulations for issuance of specific licenses for:

Broad Scope Authorization for Multiple Quantities or Types of RAM for Use in Research and Development

Introduction of RAM into Products in Exempt Concentrations

Commercial Distribution of RAM in Exempt Concentrations

etc..


TDSHS Regulations –Radiation Control Program – 25 TAC 289

►Regulations most pertinent to RAM licensees:

§ 289.201 General Provisions for Radioactive Material

• Requires a Radiation Protection Program sufficient to ensure compliance with provisions of § 289.201 and must be reviewed annually.

§ 289.202 Standards for Protection Against Radiation from Radioactive Material

§ 289.203 Notices, Instructions, and Reports to Workers; Inspections


Regulatory Requirements Summary – RAM Licensees

Activity RequirementLicense applications, amendments, and renewals

Renewal at least 30 days prior to expiration. Notify TDSHS of changes within 30 days.

Payment of Fees Required every 2 years.

Personnel Monitoring If doses are 10% or more of the annual limit then monitoring is required. Personnel monitoring assessment (to determine if monitoring is required) should be reevaluated annually.

Instrument Calibration Equipment used for quantitative radiation measurements must be calibrated every 12 months.

Radiation Level Surveys Surveys that are necessary for demonstrating compliance with dose limits and when necessary for evaluating magnitude and extent of radiation levels.

Training For individuals likely to receive 10% or more of annual dose.

Posting of Notices to Workers In sufficient number of places.

Sealed Source Leak Checks Every six months for beta and gamma sources; Every three months for alpha sources.

Receipt, Transfer, Disposal Very specific recordkeeping requirements for receipt, transfer or disposal of RAM.

Inventory Control Inventory of sources required annually.


Example Outline of Radiation Protection Program

► Introduction

purpose of program, reference applicable regs, license requirements, etc.)

►ALARA policy statement

As Low As Reasonably Achievable

►Organization and Administration

Responsibilities, RSO, RSC, Qualified Users

►Personnel Monitoring

► Training and Safe Handling Procedures

►Procurement, Receipt and Shipping

►Security of Licensed Material

► Inventory, Surveys and Leak Tests

►Posting and Labeling

►Records and Reporting

► Incidents and emergencies

NOTE: Radiation Protection Program does not necessarily need to be one single document, but could be comprised of multiple procedures, programs, forms and checklists.


What’s NEW?

►Draft Rules for Comment

► §289.302. Registration and Radiation Safety Requirements for Use of Laser Hair Removal Devices [NEW REGULATION]

► §289.226. Registration of Radiation Machine Use and Services

► §289.227. Use of Radiation Machines in the Healing Arts

► §289.229. Radiation Safety Requirements for Accelerators, Therapeutic Radiation Machines, [and] Simulators, and Electronic Brachytherapy Devices

► §289.231. General Provisions and Standards for Protection Against Machine-Produced Radiation


Sources for More Information

► South Texas Chapter, Health Physics Society

► National Health Physics Society

► Conference of Radiation Control Program Directors

► TDSHS Radiation Control Program

► TCEQ Permitting – Radioactive Waste

► Texas Railroad Commission – NORM Oil and Gas

► Nuclear Regulatory Commission

► National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

Recently Published Report No. 162 “Self Assessment of Radiation-Safety Programs”

► International Commission on Radiological Protection

► Campus Radiation Safety Officers


Questions?

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