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GREAT INDIVIDUALISTS OF THE PAST

Th/s is the fhrst/12 a ser/es of art/des,

by various authors, on past thinkerswho have con_/buted to individualist

ph//osophy. Future art/des wi// dea/

w/th men such as Burke, Acton, Bast/at

and Herbert Spencer.

Wilhelm yon

HamboldtRALPH RAICO

22 WHEN Oswald Spengler in one of the greatest.

his minor books scornfully characterized Born in 1767, Humboldt was descended

German classical liberalism as, "a bit of from a Junker family which had faith-

the spirit of England on German soil," fully served the rulers of Prussia for

he was merely displaying the willful generations -- a fact which was later to

blindness of the school of militaristic- cause surprise to some of those who

statist German historians, who refused heard young Humboldt in conversation

to acknowledge as a true compatriot any passionately defend personal liberty. He

thinker who did not form part of the was educated at Frankfurt-am-Oder, and

"intellectual bodyguard of the House of later at C-_ttingen, at that time one of

Hohenzollern." Spengler had apparently the centers of liberal ideas in Germany.forgotten that Germany had had its En- In the summer of 1789, Humboldt

lightenment, and the ideals of freedom undertook a trip to Paris, in the corn-

which were conceived and propagated in party of his former tutor, Campe, who

England, Scotland and France towards was a devotee of the philosophes, and

the end of the eighteenth century, had now eager to see with his own eyes,

found an echo and a support in the "the funeral rites of French despotism."

works of writers such as Kant, Schiller His pupil did not share his enthusiasm

and even the young Fichte. Although by for the Revolution, however, for from1899 William Graham Sumner could what Humboldt had witnessed at Paris

write that, "there is today scarcely an and from conversations with Friedrich

institution in Germany except the army," Gentz (at that time a supporter of the

it is nevertheless true that there existed French Revolution) there issued a briefa native German tradition of distin- article, "Ideas on the Constitutions of

guished, libertarian thought, which had, States, occasioned by the New French

in the course of the nineteenth century, Constitution.'1to some degree at least been translated This little essay, orginally intended as

into action. Of the thinkers who con- a letter to a friend, is noteworthy for a

tributed to this tradition, Wilhelm yon number of reasons. In the first place,

Humboldt was unquestionably one of Humboldt appears to have arrived at

Ralph Raico received his B.A. from City Col- 1"Ideen ilber Staatsveriassung, dutch dielege of New Yorkin 1959. He is presently study- neue fransSsische Constitution veranlasst," ining under the Comr-|ttee on Social Thought. Uni- Humboldt's Genamme/te Schr/ften, vol. L (Berlin.versity of Chicago. 1903), pp. 77-85.

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ome of the major conclusions of Burke, 1791, Humboldt resigned his position.ithout at that time being fan_liiar with The genesis of his major work on poUt_he lattar's work. He states, for instance, ical theory, and the one of most interesthat "reason is capable to be sure of gtv- to individualists, is also to be found in

ng form to material already present, discussions with a friend _ Karl yon Dal-ut it has no power to create new mater- berg, who was a proponent of the "en.al . • • Constitutions c_nnot be grafted lightened" state paternAli,m then preva-

pon men as sprigs upon trees." For a lent in Germany. He pressed Humboldtnew political order to be successful, it for a written exposition of his views on

is necessary for "time and nature" to the subject, and Humboldt responded, inhave prepared the ground. Since this 1792, by composing his classic, Thehas not been the case in France, hlator- Sphere and Duties of Government.z

ical analogy compels us to answer no This little book was later to have ato the question whether this new consti- good deal of influence. It was of impor.tution will succeed, tance in shaping some of John StuartIn addition, this essay is interesting Mill's ideas in this field, and may even

because it anticipates an idea which was have provided the immediate occasioncentral to the thesis of Humboldt's most for his On Liberty. In France, Laboulaye,

important work on political theory, and the late nineteenth century individualist,which was never far from his mind owed much to this work of Humboldt's,whenever he deliberated on the nature and in Germany it exercised an influence

of man--the notion that, "whatever is even over such a basically unsympathetic 23to flourish in a man must spring from mind as yon Treitschke's. But it is also

within him, and not be given him from a book which has an inherent value,without." because in it are set forth--in some

Nevertheless, Humboldt does not, in cases, I believe, for the first time--some

this essay, display the hostility towards of the major arguments for freedom.the French people which was character- Humboldt begins his work by remark.istic of Burke. He realizes that if the ing that previous writers on political

French had given themselves over to ill- philosophy have concerned themselvesconsidered schemes for remoulding their almost exclusively with investigating the

society according to a preconceived plan, divisions of governmental power andit was a reaction which might have been what part the nation, or certain sectors

expected, given the provocations of the of it, ought to have in the exercise ofOld Regime. "Mankind had suffered at this power. These writers have neglectedthe hands of one extreme; it understand- the more fundamental question, "to what

ably sought its salvation at the other." end ought the whole apparatus of theOn his return to Berlin, Humboldt had state to aim, and what limits ought to

been given a minor post at the law be set to its activity?" It is this questioncourt. But the relative freedom of thought that Humboldt intends to answer.which had been enjoyed in Prussia under "The true end of man- not that whichFrederick the Great, was at this time capricious inclination prescribes for him,being replaced by persecutions of the but that which is prescribed by eternallypress and religious intolerance and Hum- immutable reason--is the highest andboldt did not find the atmosphere of most harmonious cultivation of his fac-

public life congenial. Added to this, was ultles into one whole. For this cultiva.the disinclination which he felt to inter- tion, freedom is the first and indispensi.

fete in the lives of others (a nicety of ble condition." Humboldt thus begins byfeeling almost grotesquely out of place placing his argument within the frame-in a "public servant"). Most important work of a particular conception of man'sof all, perhaps, was the new conception nature, but it ought to be noted that thewhich he was beginning to formulate ofthe legitimate functions of government, _It was under this title that Humboldt'sa conception which virtually compelled bookQppe_ed in Enqlish.in 1854.TheGerman

title is, Ideen zu einemYerzuc_die Gremmnerhim to look on the states of his time as W_rlura_e_ des Stauts z_ bes_immen;n Hum-engines of injustice. In the spring of _]dt op.. cir. voL i, pp. 97-254.

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validity of his argument does not depend must be flee to develop his ideas, inupon the correctness of his view of "the accordance with the self-hnposed stand-true end of man." Of primary impor- ards of his profession, out of his owntance are his ideas in regard to the mech- orginality. But scientific knowledge isanism of individual and social progress, only one type of knowledge; there areand here even such a socially-minded other types, some at least as socially use-utilitarian as John Stuart Mill could find fuL There is the knowledge which con-

instruction and inspiration, sists in skills and techniques of produc-For the full flourishing of the individ- tion, and the type which, as we have

ual, Humboldt asserts, there is requisite, seen, is embedded in values and waysbesides freedom, a "manifoldness of situa- of life: besides the sort of knowledgetions," which, while logically distinct which is acquired through abstractfrom freedom, has always followed upon thought, there is the sort acquiredit. It is only when men are placed in a through practical thought and through

great variety of circumstances that those action. The argument for freedom inexperiments in living can take place the elaboration of scientific knowledge,which expand the range of values with therefore, is simply a special instance ofwhich the human race is familiar, and it the argument for freedom in general.is through expanding this range that in- Professor Michael Polanyi has de-

creasingly better answers can be found scribed the benefits of "individualism

to the question, "In exactly what ways in the cultivation of science":24 are men to arrange their lives?" The pursuit of science can be organ-

A free nation would, according to Hum- ized . . . in no other manner than byboldt, be one in which "the continuing granting complete independence to allnecessity of association with others mature scientists. They will then dis.

would urgently impel each gradually to tribute themselves over the whole fieldmodify himself" in the light of his appre- of possible discoveries, each applyingciation of the value of the life-patterns his own special ability to the task thatothers have accepted. In such a society, appears most profitable to him. Thus"no power and no hand would be lost for as many trails as possible will be coy-

the elevation and enjoyment of human ered, and science will penetrate mostexistence:' Each man, in applying his rapidly in every direction towards that

reasontohisown hie an6 £irc_nc_, kin6 ol h\66en _.t_6g_ _\_h i_would contribute to the education of oth- unsuspected by all but its discoverer,

er men, and would, in turn, learn from the kind of new knowledge on whichtheir experience. This is Humboldt's the progress of science truly depends.sview of the mechanism of human prog-

ress. Few will doubt that scientific prog-It should be clear, however, that this ress would have been appallingly retard-

progressive refinement of the individual ed if, for instance, Einstein had beenpersonality can only take place under a compelled to obtain permission from a

regime of freedom, since '%vhat is not board in charge of "planning science"chosen by the individual himself, that before he could undertake his researches

in which he is only restricted and led, (or if a government commission haddoes not enter into his being. It remains been empowered to pass on Galileo's in.foreign to him, and he does not really tended workD. But if men like Henryaccomplish it with human energy, but Ford had not been free to put their

with mechanical address." This is one ideas into operation, industrial progressof the central ideas of the book, and mer- would have been no less stanched. Weits some discussion.

may freely concede that the abstract sci-It is an idea which no one will dis- entific thought of an Einstein is a loftier

pute, when it is a question of scientific thing, representing a greater achieve-progress. No one expects worthwhile ment of the human mind. But this hasscientific thought to take place where

the scientist is compelled or restricted _M_hael Polcm_. the _ of _,

in some important facet of his work. He (London,1951),p. $9.Page Twenty

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no bearing on the argument, that shackled the scientific enterprise as

We believe that individual scientists well.

should be unhindered in the pursuit It was partly because force necessarilyof their aims, because those who would interferes with individual self-develop-

be in charge of the central direction of ment and the proliferation of new ideas,

scientific research, or those who had by erecting a barrier between the indi-

power to restrict scientists in essential viduars perception of a situation and the

ways, would not know as well as the sci- solution he thinks it best to attempt,entists themselves w each of whom has that Humboldt wanted to limit the activi.

an immediate knowledge of the relevant ties of the state as severely as possible.

factors in his particular situation--which Another argument in favor of this con-

are the most promising lines to be e.x- clusion is that a government wishing to

plored. In addition, a self-chosen activi- supervise to even a modest degree such

ty, or one which may be freely followed a complex phenomenon as society, simply

up in all of its ramifications, will sum- cannot fit its regulations to the pecuUari-mon forth energy which will not be ties of various concatenations of circum-

available in cases where a task is ira- stances. But measures which ignore

posed from without, or where the such peculiarities will tend to produceresearcher meets up against countless uniformity, and contract the "manifold-

frustrations in the pursuit of his goal-- ness of situations" which is the spur to

the free activity, in other words, will all progress.

command greaterincentive. But what isthe indispensibleminimum Z 5of government activity?Humboldt funds

that the one good which societycannot

provide for itselfis security against

those who aggress against the person

and property of others. His answer to

the question which he posed at the be-

ginning of his work, "what limitsought

to be set to the activityof the state,"is

"that the provisionof security,against

both external enemies and internaldis.

sensions must constitutethe purpose of

the state,and occupy the circleof its

activity."

As for the serviceswhich it is com-

monly held must fallwithin the scope

of government action,as, for instance,

charity, Humboldt believes that they

need not be provided by politicalnstitu-

tions,but can safely be entrusted to

socialones. "It is only requisitethat

freedom of associationbe given to indl.

vidual parts of the nation or to the

But both of these propositions are nation itself,"in order for charitable

equallytrue of activitiesnvolving prac- ends tobe satisfactorilyulfilled.n this,

ticalknowledge, or knowledge in action, as, indeed,throughout his whole book,

of which techniques of production are Humboldt shows himselftobe a thought-

an example. The socialistwho believes fulbut passionatebelieverin the efficacy

in centraldirectionof economic activity of truly socialforces,in the possibility

ought,consistently,o believealsoin the of great socialends being achieved with-

central planning of science,and those out any necessityfor directionon the

who favor widespread government con- part of the state.Humboldt thus allies

trol of economic life,because the state himself with the thinkers who rejected

'¢knowsbetter,"should,ifthey were con- the statein order to afflrmsociety.

sistent,favor a return to the system Parts of Humboldt's book appeared in

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two German periodicals in 1792, but dirt. cies of his government gained for himculties with the Prussian censorship and as much ill-will at court as it did popu-

a certain apparently innate lack of cent- larity among the people. He was hated

dence in his own works, caused him to and intrigued against by the reactionar-

put off publication of the work until it ies at court; they went so far as to opencould be revised. The day for revision his marl, as if he had in actuality been

never came, however, and it was only a Jacobin. When, in 1819, Metternich

sixteen years after the author's death induced Prussia to agree to the Karls-

that The Sphere and Duties of Govern- bad Decrees, which attempted to estab-

merit was published in its entirety, lish a rigid censorship for all of Ger-

For ten years after the completion of many, Humboldt termed the regulations

this book, Humboldt devoted himself to "shameful, unnational and provoking to

traveling and private studies, principally a great people," and demanded the ira-

in aesthetics and the classics, linguistics peachment of Bernstorff, the Prussian

and comparative anthropology. From minister who had signed them.1802 to 1808 he served as Prussian minis- It was clear that a man like Hum-

ter to Rome, a post which involved a boldt was an anomaly in a governmentminimum of official business, and which which treacherously refused to fulfill its

he accepted chiefly out of his love for war-time promises of a constitution, and

the city. Humboldt's real "return to the whose domestic policies were largely dic-

state" occurs in 1809, when he became tated by Metternich. In December, 1819,Director of the Section for Public Wor- Humboldt was dismissed. He refused

26 ship and Education, in the Ministry of the pension offered him by the king.

Interior. In this capacity, he directed The rest of his life he devoted to his

the reorganization of the Prussian public studies, of which the researches into

education system, and, in particular, linguistics were the most important and

founded the University of Berlin. gained for him the reputation of a pie-

That so unquestionably sincere a man neer in the field. He died in 1835.as Humboldt could have acted in such If we ask what are the primary con-

disharmony with the principles set forth tributions of Humboldt to libertarian

in his only book on political philosophy thought, we will find the answer in his

(among them, that the state should have ideas on the value of the free, self-sus-

no connection with education), requires taining activity of the individual, and ofsome explanation. The reason is to be the importance of the unhindered col-

sought in his patriotism, which had been laboration--often unconscious--of the

aroused by the utter defeat suffered by members of society. The first is a con-

Prussia at the hands of Napoleon. Hum- ception which is finding remarkable sup-

boldt wished to contribute to the regen- port and application in the work of theeration of his country which was being Client-centered, or Non-directive school

undertaken by men such as Stein and of psychotherapists4, while the second

Hardenberg, and the reform of the edu- has been explored in the recent books of

cational system fitted his abilities and writers such as F. A. Hayek and Michael

inclinations. Polanyi5 That ideas which were set

This task completed, Humboldt served forth by Humboldt should be proving soin various diplomatic posts for a number relevant to contemporary research into

of years, including that of Prussian rain- man and society, is a sign of the clearly

ister to the Congress of Vienna, and, discernible trend towards individualism

after peace had been established, as a in present-day thought at the highestmember of the Council of State. But levels.

the spirit which now predominated in

Berlin, as well as throughout Europe, 4On this very suggestive approach Io

was the spirit of Metternich, who, al. psychotherapy, see Carl R. Rogers, et. al.,

ways able accurately to identify the Client_gemered Therapy, (New York. 1951).

enemies of his system, had already in s See, especially, F. A. Hcryek, The Counter-Revolution of Science, (Glencoe, IlL, 1952), and1814 termed Humboldt a "Jacobin." Hum- The Constitution of Liberty, (Chicago, 1960), and

boldt's opposition to the reactionary poll- Michael PolanyL op. (:it.

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