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Rapid Marine EIA for Proposed SPM to Handle Crude Oil and Allied Facilities off Veera in Gulf of Kutch Project Leader Jiyalal Ram M. Jaiswar Associate Project Leaders R. V. Sarma Prashant Sharma JANUARY 2011
CONTENTS Project team i Executive Summary ii List of tables xxxiii List of figures xxxv 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Objectives 2 1.3 Scope of work 2 1.3.1 Prevailing marine environment 2 1.3.2 Marine environmental impact assessment 3 1.3.3 Mitigation measures 3 1.3.4 Environment Management Plan 4 1.4 Approach strategy 4 2 PROJECT DESCRIPTION 5 2.1 Design basis 6 2.1.1 Tanker 6 2.1.2 Crude characteristics 6 2.1.3 Water depth 6 2.2 Berth Occupancy 7 2.3 Single Point Mooring (SPM) Terminal 7 2.3.1 Options 7 2.3.2 System Description 7 2.3.3 Principal Components 8 2.3.4 Pipeline 8 2.3.5 Pipeline Design 9 2.3.6 Construction Methodology 10 2.3.7 PLEM 10 2.3.8 SPM 10 2.4 Crude Oil Terminal (COT) and onshore pipeline 11 2.4.1 COT 11 2.4.2 Crude oil storage tanks 11 2.4.3 Pig launcher/ receiver and associated facilities 11 2.4.4 Terminal piping and pumping system 12 2.4.5 Fire fighting system 12 2.4.6 Civil and structural works 12 2.4.7 Electrical facilities 12 2.4.8 Waste water treatment 13
3 GULF OF KACHCCH 14 3.1 Land environment 14 3.2 Meteorological conditions 15 3.3 Marine environment 16 3.3.1 Physical processes 16 3.3.2 Water quality 17 3.3.3 Sediment quality 18 3.3.4 Flora and fauna 19 4 STUDIES CONDUCTED 23 4.1 Period 23 4.2 Sampling location 23 4.3 Sample collection 24 4.4 Sampling methodology 24 4.5 Methods of analyses 25 4.5.1 Water quality 25 4.5.2 Sediment quality 27 4.5.3 Flora and fauna 28 5 PREVAILING MARINE ENVIRONMENT 30 5.1 Water quality 30 5.1.1 Temperature 30 5.1.2 pH 31 5.1.3 Suspended Solids 32 5.1.4 Salinity 33 5.1.5 DO and BOD 34 5.1.6 Phosphorus and nitrogen compounds 35 5.1.7 PHc 39 5.1.8 Phenols 40 5.2 Sediment quality 41 5.2.1 Metals 41 5.2.2 Organic carbon and phosphorus 44 5.2.3 Petroleum hydrocarbon 45 5.3 Flora and fauna 46 5.3.1 Microbiology 46 5.3.2 Phytoplankton 51 5.3.3 Zooplankton 56 5.3.4 Macrobenthos 60 5.3.5 Fishery 65 5.3.6 Mangroves 66 6 OIL SPILLS 67 6.1 Causes 67 6.2 Spill quantities 68 6.3 Composition of crude’s 68 6.4 Toxicity 70
6.5 Weathering processes 71 6.6 Fate and behaviour 76 7 POTENTIAL MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS 80 7.1 Construction phase 80 7.1.1 Physical processes 80 7.1.2 Water quality 81 7.1.3 Sediment quality 82 7.1.4 Flora and fauna 82 7.1.5 Miscellaneous 85 7.2 Operational phase 86 7.2.1 Ship related wastes 86 7.2.2 Minor leakages and spillages 87 7.2.3 Discharges from COT 88 7.2.4 Discharges during pigging 89 7.2.5 Ship traffic 89 7.2.6 Water quality 92 7.2.7 Sediment quality 93 7.2.8 Flora and fauna 95 8 MITIGATION MEASURES 100 8.1 Design considerations 100 8.2 Construction phase 101 8.3 Operational phase 103 8.3.1 Combating oil spills 105 8.3.2 Spill movement forecasting 108 8.3.3 Traffic management 108 8.3.4 Disposal of wastes from land based sources 109 8.3.5 Oil spill response plan 110 9 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN (EMP) 111 9.1 Local-OS-DCP 112 9.2 Monitoring during construction phase 112 9.3 Monitoring of marine environment 113 9.3.1 Baseline quality 113 9.3.2 Post-project monitoring 114 9.4 Inspection of marine facilities 115 9.5 Institutional arrangement 115 10 RECOMMENDATION 117
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PROJECT TEAM Jiyalal Ram M. Jaiswar R.V. Sarma Prashant Sharma S. N. Gajbhiye V. S. Naidu Soniya Sukumaran Anirudh Ram Jaiswar A.V. Mandalia M. A. Rokade Rajvardhan Kapshikar D. S. Bagde Gopal K. Chauhan B.G. Patel Mohammed Ilyas Jairam G. Oza Texy Jacob Siddhesh N. Karangutkar Radhika Powar Priti Kubal Ajit Ambekar Shashikant Bharati Tushhar S. Mane Sharayu Phadke Nitin Walmiki Kirti V. Konkar Sanjota Jambhale Somnath Vedpathak Bhaskar Yengal Sneha Rawool Subhash Sawant Reshma Jadhav Snehal Patil Shivkumar Kamble Prakash S. Bhargavi Jeju J. Ravindra J. Dnyaneshwar Kulal
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The Kandla port located at the west coast of India is a major port in the
state of Gujarat. The Port has twelve cargo berths for handling dry cargo
traffic, six oil jetties for handling POL products and other liquid cargo traffic at
Kandla for handling crude oil. A deep water offshore crude handling facility is
proposed by Kandla Port Trust (KPT) to cater the requirement of 9.0 Million
Metric Tonnes Per Annum (MMTPA) crude oil through 19 km submarine
pipeline, after setting up of Single Point Mooring (SPM) and Allied facilities off
Veera in Gulf of Kachchh. The KPT contacted National Institute of
Oceanography (NIO) to undertake a marine Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) study. Accordingly NIO conducted 1st phase of study with
respect to water quality, sediment quality, biological characteristics comprising
subtidal and intertidal regions of project site during February – March 2010 for
suggesting the probable impact due to oil spill, mitigation measures and
management of marine environment. The 2nd phase of study (Post monsoon)
is proposed during the December/January 2010 which will be helpful in
preparing the comprehensive marine EIA report.
This 1st phase study and earlier data would be sufficient to prepare
rapid marine EIA report which will meet the objectives such as i) to establish
prevailing marine ecology off Veera, ii) to assess the probable impact on
costal ecology due to development of SPM and its operation, iii) to suggest
appropriate measures to mitigate the probable adverse impacts and, iv) to
recommend suitable environment management plan.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
The traffic including (both liquid and dry cargo) handled by the KPT has
increased from 24.50 million tones in 1993-94 to 79.50 million tones in 2009-
10. Cargo traffic handled at Kandla mainly comprised iron Scrap, Steel, food
grains, ore, timber logs, salt Extractions, POL products, edible Oils, and
Chemicals of 66 varieties. Containerized cargo traffic through Kandla has also
witnessed a significant growth during the last few years.
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The KPT, as a perspective development of their Port facilities, desired
to explore the possibility of developing a deep water offshore crude handling
facility within the limits of port to cater to the future requirement in their
hinterland.
The proposed capacity of SPM (Lat 220 45’ 15” N and Long 690 57’ 00”
E) is worked out of 9.0 Million Metric Tonnes Per Annum (MMTPA). The
pumping rate is considered at 80% of the design flow through the pipeline.
Peripheral time for berthing, deberthing etc has been considered as 9 hours.
The SPM terminal availability is considered to be 330 days in a year.
The total pipeline length from SPM (Lat 220 45’ 15” N and Long 690 57’
00” E) to LFP (Lat 220 54’ 50” N and Long 700 01’ 30” E) is approx. 19 km. Of
this, approx. 3.25 km of the pipeline falls in the intertidal coastal area and the
rest is offshore zone. The water depths of approx.29 m are expected. The
length of offshore pipelines from SPM to COT is 19.5 km.
The offshore pipe laying will be conducted using the lay-barge method
for the present project. In shore approaches, the installation will be carried out
by shore-pulling or barge-pulling method. The string shall be fabricated
onshore/barge accordingly. For intertidal areas, pre-trenching shall be carried
out using suitable dredgers based on the soil conditions. The backfilling in
these areas shall be carried out with the dredged soil. A provision is proposed
for an oily waste water treatment plant with the capacity of approximately 20
m³/h.
Prevailing marine environment
This Rapid EIA report is based on the results of earlier data collected
during December 2004 and present study conducted at 14 subtidal and 7
intertidal transects during February - March, 2010. The results of present
study compared with earlier information are discussed below:
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Water quality
Temperature of the water varied in line with the air temperature. The
maximum temperature recorded in Kandla Creek was 24.5 ºC (av 23.5 C) in
the lower segment whereas Nakti Creek showed still higher temperature of
26.0 (av. 24.9 ºC). A marginal decrease in water temperature was evident
(23.3 ºC av. 22.5 ºC) in the pipeline corridor. Slightly lower values during
February/March 2010 as compared to December 2004 in Kandla Creek
suggested a seasonal variability. Water temperature of pipeline corridor was
uniformly distributed.
The variation of pH (8.3-8.5, av 8.4) recorded during present study was
marginally higher when compared with earlier studies. A uniform distribution of
pH in the different segment of pipeline could be due to typical marine
environment of offshore region.
The values of SS which ranged between 106 – 362 mg/l (av. 243) in
the Kandla Creek, were found abnormally high 185 – 1913 mg/L (av. 971
mg/l) in Nakti Creek. Fairly enhancement in the concentration of SS over the
period of 6 years, during present study as compared to earlier records may be
associated with increased onshore activities. The SS concentration towards
offshore region along the pipeline corridor was markedly low which
represented a natural phenomenon.
High levels of salinity recorded during the study period (38.3-41.3 ppt,
av 40.4 ppt) may be due to seepage of brine from saltpans and exposed
mudflats during low tide. The seasonal impact on the concentration of salinity
was evident with the higher values during premonsoon as compared to
postmonsoon. The upper creek sustained higher values of salinity as
compared with offshore region which can again be related with ingress of salts
from saltpans. The evaporation of nearshore water and seepage from the salt
works resulted in the increase in level of salinity in comparison of offshore
water.
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The DO levels (6.3-7.9mg/l, av. 7.0 mg/l) in the creek as well as offshore water (7.0 – 7.9 mg/l) av 7.2mg/l were much higher than threshold
level of 3.5 mg/l during present study suggesting a healthy water quality in the
region. The levels of BOD recorded during present study did not indicate any
anthropogenic input in the region. The results of present study indicated a
significant enhancement in the concentration of DO suggesting good
oxygenated conditions throughout the Kandla and Nakti Creeks which could
be associated with dense mangroves vegetation resulting good phytoplankton
population along these creeks.
The levels of BOD in the Kandla Creek, Nakti Creek as well as pipeline
corridor was low and ranged between <0.2 to 3.4 mg/l (av. 1.5 mg/l) during
the study period which suggested that the oxidizable matter was consumed
effectively. The pipeline corridor also sustained significantly high
concentration of DO indicating a good water quality of the region. The level of
BOD did not suggest any anthropogenic input.
The concentration of the PO43--P was in the range of 1.1-3.6 µmol/l (av
1.9 µmol/l) in Kandla Creek and 0.7 - 3.1 µmol/l (av 1.9 µmol/l) in Nakti Creek.
The concentration of PO43--P was seen to be slightly decreased during
present study as compared to earlier records. However, the recorded level of
PO43--P is sufficient for sustaining the growth of phytoplankton. The
concentration of recorded PO43--P in pipeline corridor ranged between 0.3-1.3
µmol/l (av 0.9 µmol/l).
The concentrations of NO3 were in the range of (5.6-52.3 µmol/l, av
15.6 µmol/l) in Kandla Creek and (6.4 – 37.1 µmol/l, av 13.6 µmol/l) in Nakti
Creek. The concentrations of NO3--N during present study were significantly
increased towards offshore as compared to earlier records whereas declined
level was seen in Upper and middle segment of the creek. The variation of
NO3 was between 0.4 - 3.5 µmol/l (av 2.5 µmol/l).
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NO2 concentrations were low and exhibited the variation between 0.3-
0.9 µmol/l (av 0.6 µmol/l) in Kandla Creek and 0.4-1.2 µmol/l (av 0.7 µmol/l) in
Nakti creek. The values of NO2 of present study were comparable to the
earlier records. The variation of NO2 was seen to be ND–0.5 µmol/l (av 0.3
µmol/l) in the pipeline corridor. Slight decrease in the concentration of NO2
was seen in the offshore water as compared to nearshore water which could
be common phenomenon in the Gulf.
The concentrations of NH4 was seen in the range of ND – 5.9 µmol/l
(av 1.8 µmol/l) for Kandla Creek and 0.2 - 7.8 µmol/l (av 3.4 µmol/l) for Nakti
Creek. The concentrations were higher in Nakti creek indicating
anthropogenic discharge associated with either land wash or from mangrove
swamp.
The values of NH4 in the pipeline corridor ranged between ND-0.7
µmol/l (av 0.5 µmol/l) and indicated a natural background of the Gulf. Slight
decrease in the concentration of NH4 at offshore in comparison of Nearshore
waters was in the line of natural trend of the coastal water of Gulf.
PHc concentration in Kandla Creek varied from 27 to164 µg/l (av 54
µg/l) which were slightly higher than that of Nakti Creek (ND - 82 µg/l, av 50
µg/l). The observed values of PHc do not indicate any gross accumulation in
marine environment and are comparable with earlier data. The PHc
concentration was slightly higher in the nearshore water as compared to
offshore.
The concentration of phenols in Kandla Creek ranged 18 and 52 µg/l
(av.30 µg/l) and in Nakti Creek from 32 to 59 µg/l (av. 45 µg/l). Though the
values of phenols recorded during present study were slightly higher than that
of earlier results, the over all level were within the natural variations of Gulf of
Khambhat. The levels of phenol are low and fall in the range generally
observed for the Gulf.
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Sediment quality The concentrations of subtidal metals vary widely but do not show any
gross enhancement in the area and indicate of natural background expected
for the Gulf. The concentrations of metals in the subtidal sediments are in the
agreement of earlier studies of Kandla and Nakti Creeks. The values of
metals in the subtidal sediments of pipeline corridor are also indicative of
natural background.
Intertidal sediments revealed that the average value of metals recorded
during present study were comparable to the earlier records and suggested
the natural variability. However, the values of Zinc during present study
indicated slightly higher level than that of earlier results. The levels of organic
carbon (0.3-1.3) of present study were comparable to earlier (0.1-0.7) records
and suggested the natural variation generally seen in variation in phosphorus
(579-844 µ/g) were also in the range of natural background and were similar
to earlier (8-887 µg/g) results. The results of Corg (0.2-2.6 %) and phosphorus
(655-932µg/g) represented baseline concentration and did not show any
evidence of anthropogenic input in the creek.
The variation of PHc (0.2-0.4 µg/g) in subtidal sediment indicated that
the subtidal region of Kandla and Nakti Creeks was free from any
anthropogenic input. The concentrations of PHc (0.1-0.7µg/g, av 0.3 µg/g)
were low and in the range commonly found in sediments of unpolluted coastal
areas.
Microbiology The surface water of middle segment of Kandla Creek sustained
highest total viable counts as compared to the other segments. Total Coliform,
Faecal Coliform and Escherichia coli were common at all stations whereas the
Proteus/ Klebsiella like organisms were observed only in lower segment. The
existences of indigenous microorganism such as Vibrio cholerae like organism
were also seen in low counts towards offshore region of Kandla Creek. The
pathogen such as vibrio parahaemolyticus were found in Middle and lower
segment in low number which may be due to human contamination in Kandla
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Creek. The total viable count in surface waters off Nakti Creek indicated the
high load of bacterial count towards the middle and lower segments in the
comparison of other segment. Significantly high microbial count in the near
shore region as compared to other segments clearly indicated the
contamination of human activities. The bacterial counts in the sediment of
Nakti Creek indicated a built up of microbial population at the middle segment
of the creek. The counts of pipeline corridor in sediment for different segment
indicated a high TVC count in the corridor of SPM which may be inherent to
natural fluctuation of the Gulf. The sediment of offshore region revealed the
absence of pathogenic bacteria such as Total coliform, Faecal coliform,
Escherichia coli like organism and suggested the sediment to be free from any
large scale anthropogenic inputs bacterial contamination.
Phytoplankton
a) pigments
Distribution of Phytoplankton pigments revealed a wide variation with
the high values of chlorophyll a (1.3-6.3 mg/m3; av 2.1 mg/m3) and
phaeophytin (0.2-3.8 mg/m3; av 1.3 mg/m3) in Kandla Creek and suggested
the natural background of creek system. The temporal studies of pigments at
station 2 and 14 revealed that the values of phaeophytin were slightly higher
at bottom than that of surface water, which could be associated with
comparatively higher SS prevailing there. The concentration of chlorophyll a
(0.8-1.6 mg/m3; av 1.4 mg/m3) recorded towards offshore was in the
agreement of normal primary production of the coastal water of Gulf. Higher
phytoplankton pigments observed during present study than that of earlier
results of 2004 could be due to seasonal variability in phytoplankton
production.
Nakti Creek sustained slightly lower chlorophyll a (1.1-2.5 mg/m3; av
1.8 mg/m3) and phaeophytin (0.3-1.3 mg/m3; av 0.9 mg/m3) than that of
Kandla Creek. The upstream region of creek showed higher concentration of
chlorophyll a as compared to lower segment. However, the ratios of
chlorophyll a/ phaeophytin in both Kandla and Nakti Creek were generally
higher than 1 and suggested a healthy condition of phytoplankton cells in the
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region. The values of chlorophyll a (1.8-2.6 mg/m3; av 2.2 mg/m3) and
phaeophytin (0.8-1.2 mg/m3; av 1.0 mg/m3) observed towards off Nakti were
indicative of good phytoplankton production in the region. The revealed higher
values of pigments during present study than that of 2004 and suggested that
March was good season for the growth of phytoplankton. A definite trend of
variation with the highest concentration of chlorophyll a (1.8-3.0 mg/m3; av 2.4
mg/m3) in the nearshore water and gradual decrease towards offshore (0.6-
1.8 mg/m3; av 1.3 mg/m3)was seen along the pipeline corridor. The ratios of
chlorophyll a/ phaeophytin in the pipeline corridor of Gulf were always higher
than 1 suggesting a healthy conditions for growth and development of
phytoplankton cells.
b) Population
Phytoplankton population in Kandla Creek followed the similar pattern
of distribution as pigments. The higher cell counts (45.6-108.5 no x 103/l; av
67.8 no x 103/l) in the lower segment of the creek than offshore water (45.6-
52.8 no x 103/l; av 48.1 no x 103/l) indicated the common characteristics of
any creek system. The predominance of Thalassiosira, Thalassionema,
Coscinodiscus, Navicula and Peridinium indicated the characteristics of
coastal water of Gulf. Phytoplankton population during March 2010 was higher
as compared to December 2004. Seasonal impact on generic diversity of
phytoplankton was also clear with higher numbers during premonsoon than
postmonsoon.
The Nakti Creek exhibited the similar trend of variation of population as
pigments. The creek with wide variation in the values of cell counts (46.9-
148.0 no x 103/l; av 79.1 no x 103/l) and total genera (11-19; av 14) and
suggested a good primary production in the region. The lower segment of the
creek showed an enhanced phytoplankton population in the comparison of
upstream and middle segments. The phytoplankton population off Nakti (45.6-
67.0 no x 103/l; av 56.3 no x 103/l) was in the range of values generally seen
towards offshore. Thalassiosira, Chaetoceros, Navicula, Coscinodiscus,
Nitzschia and Biddulphia were major genera which were commonly recorded
in the coastal water of Gulf. The seasonal variation on phytoplankton was
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evident with higher values of population during premonsoon, 2010 than that of
postmonsoon of 2004. Phytoplankton structure recorded along pipeline
corridor revealed slightly higher values of cell counts at nearshore water as
compared to offshore water. The revealed cell counts from nearshore towards
the offshore water at SPK. However, a very good generic diversity with the
major groups of Leptocylindrus, Thalassiosira, Navicula, Coscinodiscus and
Streptotheca indicated the general characteristics of the Gulf region.
Zooplankton The zooplankton standing stock in terms of biomass (0.7-22.5 ml/100
m3, av. 8.9 ml/100m3), population (8.7-265.0 x 103/100 m3, av. 64.9 x 103 /100
m3) and total groups (7-14, av. 11) suggested wide variation during present
study for Kandla Creek. The offshore waters also sustained wide variation in
biomass (2.4-11.1 ml/100 m3, av. 6.7 ml/100 m3), population (23.2-147.4 x
103/100 m3, av 82.6 x 103 /100 m3) and total groups (12-18, av 15) which were
in the similar range of creek and suggested a conducive marine environment
for zooplankton production. Temporal variation in zooplankton standing stock
could be related with influence of high SS and tides. The most dominant
zooplankton groups in the creek area were decapods larvae whereas the
offshore water was dominated by copepods. The zooplankton standing stock
during present study was comparable to the results of 2004. A slight in
community structure of zooplankton with the presence of fish larvae (3.3%) in
the middle segment of the creek and lamillibranchs (1.8%) towards offshore
was seen. The group diversity in terms of total groups recorded towards
offshore during present study was well in the range of earlier records. The
zooplankton standing stock of Nakti Creek was enhanced and the values of
biomass (11.2-28.6ml/100m3, av. 15.6 ml/100m3), population (168.0-
714.7x103/100m3, av. 385.6x103/100m3) and total groups (9-14, av 12)
revealed wide variation suggesting a good zooplankton production in the
region.
During present study copepods were the most dominant group (68.0-
87.7 %) throughout the Nakti creek due to which a significant enhancement in
population was seen. Thus, the results of present studies revealed a
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significant enhancement in zooplankton standing stock as compared to the
findings of 2004 which could be associated with seasonal variability of
zooplankton.
The corridor off (SPM) also revealed a very good biomass of
zooplankton with the dominance of copepods (53.9 %), decapod larvae (21.6
%) and Ostracods (12.9 %). A total of 19 groups of zooplankton were
recorded in the coastal water of Kandla and surrounding region of Gulf. The
overall scenario of zooplankton standing stock suggested a good water quality
for zooplankton along the pipeline corridor.
Macrobenthos a) Intertidal The intertidal macrobenthic standing stock in terms of biomass (0.0-3.0
g/m2, wet wt.; 0.7 g/m2, wet wt.), population (0-650 no/m2, 224 no/m2) and
faunal groups (0-6 no, 2 no) recorded at Kandla Creek suggested normal
macrobenthic standing stock generally seen along the Gulf area. A significant
decline in intertidal macrobenthic biomass and population during the period of
present study as compared to earlier records indicates the seasonal variability
of macrobenthos. The predominance of brachyurans during postmonsoon,
2004 was replaced by polychaetes during premonsoon, 2010. However, a
slight improvement in the total number of faunal group during premonsoon
than that of postmonsoon suggested the natural variability.
Nakti Creek harbored significantly high biomass (<0.001-6.3g/m2, wet
wt.; 1.4 g/m2, wet wt.), population (25-10325 no/m2, 1711 no/m2) and faunal
groups (1-6 no, 3 no) in the comparison of Kandla Creek. The polychaete as a
major group at Nakti Creek was similar to Kandla Creek.
The present study showed a significant decline in biomass and
population as compared to earlier results of December, 2004.The modification
in community structure over the period of 6 years is also evident from the
results. Markedly high biomass, population and faunal group in pipeline
corridor suggested good macrobenthic standing stock in the region. The
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presence of brachyurans in High Water Level (HWL) resulted in high biomass.
Mid Water Level (MWL) and Low Water Level (LWL) reveals slight change in
community structure with the predominance of polychaetes.
b) Subtidal The subtidal macrobenthic standing stock in terms of biomass (0-2.8
g/m2 wet wt; av. 0.7 g/m2 wet wt), population (0-525/m2, av. 262/m2) and
faunal group (0-5, av. 3) indicated a wide variation in Kandla Creek during
present study. Polychaete was the dominant group followed by isopods,
decapod larvae and amphipods. The coastal water of Kandla exhibited lower
values of biomass, population and total group as compared to Kandla Creek.
The values of biomass, population and total groups of present study
are comparable with the earlier records. Though, the polychaete being the
major group, was similar in middle segment of creek, the other groups were
seen to be different during the present study as compared to earlier records.
The offshore water sustained decapod larvae as a major fauna during March
2010 whereas during December 2004 there was a single group of
brachyurans. The structure of overall biomass (0.02-1.5 g/m2 wet wt; av. 0.5
g/m2 wet wt), population (50-775/m2, av. 252/m2) and faunal group (1-4, av. 3)
of subtidal macrobenthos and indicated a normal standing stock in the region.
The middle segment of the creek showed a slight increase in the
macrobenthic standing stock. There was a significant decline in subtidal
macrobenthic standing stock towards offshore as compared to creek system.
A significant decline in biomass, population and total groups was also
seen as compared to that of earlier during present study results of 2004 which
could be due to seasonal impact on macrobenthic standing stock. The
dominance of polychaetes during both earlier and present studies suggested
no modification in the community structure of macrobenthos over the period of
6 years in the middle segment of Nakti Creek.
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The pipeline corridor sustained noticeably high overall standing stock in
terms of biomass (0.8-7.0 g/m2 wet wt; av. 2.0 g/m2 wet wt), population (300-
800 /m2, av. 573 /m2) and faunal group (2-8, av. 5). The macrobenthic
standing stock of nearshore water of pipeline corridor was almost similar
towards offshore water whereas the waters near SPM revealed higher values
of biomass and population. The community structure remained similar
throughout along the pipeline corridor with the dominance of polychaetes.
Fishery The status of fishery in terms of experimental trawling off Kandla Creek
and off Nakti Creek , revealed a poor fish standing stock in the region.
Though, the catch rate during experimental trawling was low, the quality fishes
such as Pampus argenteus, Harpadon nehereus, Coilia dussumieri along with
prawns viz. Penaeus japonicus and Parapenaeopsis stylifera were obtained
suggesting the region to be conducive for quality fishes.
The dense mangroves vegetation was seen along the middle and
downstream of Kandla Creek with monotypic species of Avicennia marina.
The Nakti Creek also sustained dense mangrove swamp at both the banks.
The average density of plant was seen between 150-225 plants/ 100 m2 with
the average height varying 0.5-3.5 m in Kandla and Nakti Creek. The variation
of seedling density was seen in the range of 18-40/ m2 in the area.
POTENTIAL MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS The impact on marine environment due to crude oil handling can be
seen during construction and operation of SPM, pipeline and COT.
Construction phase The impacts during the construction phase would arise due to Piling for
anchors for SPM and mooring of PLEM, pipelaying and establishment of tank
farm and associated facilities.
The negative impacts on the marine environment would arise due to i)
Movement and operation of construction machinery and boats. ii) Handling of
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excavated spoils, iii) Storage of materials, iv) Movement of manpower, v)
Aesthetics and vi) Noise levels.
The physical processes namely circulation and littoral transport will not
suffer, since the construction operations are generally carried in number of
stages. They are conducted on a smaller scale and localized, resulting in the
negative impacts which are localized, smaller in severity and temporary.
The construction activities may have negative impact on water quality
in terms of i) Increase in turbidity, ii) Depletion in DO content, iii) Increase in
BOD levels, iv) Increase in nutrient and pollutant concentrations, and v)
Increase in PHc levels.
The waters in the study area are turbid due to existing high
concentration SS. The constructions are localized and at the smaller scale at
a time as per their schedule. Since sediment in study area possesses low
levels of Corg and lithogenic metal concentrations, the DO and BOD contents
are unlikely to be altered. Additionally high flushing rate in the study area
would aid to dilute and disperse the enhanced contents efficiently and bring
the contents to ambient levels in a short time. Hence the adverse impacts on
water quality arised during construction phase would be localized, moderate
and temporary. Overall the water quality parameters would attain their
ambient levels as soon as the construction activity is completed.
The adverse impact on sediment quality could arise due to re-
distribution of spoil excavated and disturbance of bed sediments which will
alter texture and enhance metals, organic carbon (Corg), and nutrients as well
as other pollutants in bed sediment. The adverse impact however will be
minor since the sediment in the study area is not contaminated in respect of
Corg, PHc and metals and possesses more or less similar texture. The
negative effect will also be localized, temporary and will be nullified as soon
as the construction activity is completed.
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The major impact during the construction phase will be on the intertidal
and subtidal benthic habitats which will be destroyed along the pipeline route
as well as at the foot prints of the piles driven for the SPM mooring and the
PLEM. The soil excavated and side-cast as well as the left-over can spread
on nearby segments thereby adversely affecting the macrobenthic fauna.
However the impact on flora and fauna during construction phase can be
discussed as follows:
The temporary increase in SS, though locally is expected to hamper
photosynthesis marginally and locally. Considering the prevailing turbidity in
the water column as well as the high dispersive potential of the Kandla and
surrounding region, the impact is expected to be minor and reversible and the
recovery will be fast once the construction phase is completed. An increase in
SS is unlikely to have any serious impact on zooplankton standing stock,
although a localized and marginal change in the community structure and
population counts might result. Such changes are temporary, highly
reversible and unlikely to reflect in the overall productivity of the coastal
system off Kandla.
The total length of the pipeline from SPM to LFP is 19 km including
3.25 km length of intertidal region. Considering the width of 50 m corridor, the
affected intertidal area due to pipeline laying will be (3250 m x 50 m), 162500
m2. The affected subtidal area of pipeline route will be (15750 m x 50 m),
787500 m2. The area of SPM which will be affected is considered to be (100
m x 100 m), 10000 m2. The loss of macrobenthos in the pipeline corridor due
to laying activities is calculated based on the results of macrobenthic standing
stock recorded during present study.
Thus the total loss of biomass (1413.8 kg) population (222 x 106) in the
intertidal area and biomass (1575 kg), population (451 x 106) in the subtidal
area and biomass (28kg) and population (6 x 106) in the SPM area can be
expected due to proposed development. As the fauna is mainly constituted by
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polychaetes, pelecypods, amphipods and brachyurans in this Gulf segment,
their populations would be locally affected.
The LFP area of the pipelines is devoid of mangroves vegetation.
Thus, the loss due to pipeline laying activities to the mangroves around LFP
is negligible. However, the dense patches of mangroves strands prevailing at
Kandla and Nakti creeks may get affected in case of high oil spill occurs
during accident or natural disaster. The top layer of the nearshore subtidal
areas are sandy and silty clay and devoid of any sensitive habitats such as
corals.
These fishing activities will be hampered during the construction phase
not only in the vicinity of the SPM sites and pipeline corridor but in a few
kilometers around since drift-nets used by fishermen are carried over long
distances due to currents. Marine reptiles and mammals common to the
region will not be affected due to the construction activities since they tend to
migrate temporarily from such sites.
Since, the LFP area is devoid of mangroves and does not provide
congenial environment for migratory as well as resident birds. However, some
birds were seen along the shore of LFP point and increased noise level during
pipe laying and construction of COT etc may disturb the population of these birds.
If proper sanitary facilities are not made available to them, they, in all
probability, will use the intertidal area for their daily needs thereby causing
localized increase in BOD and pathogens.
Operational phase
Potential negative impacts during the operational phase would arise due
to i) Ship related operational discharges of oily water and domestic wastewater,
release of solid waste, ii) Minor spillages and leakages during crude oil loading-
unloading operations, and that in the pipeline and at COT and iii) Major oil spills
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at VLCCs, SPM, pipeline and COT due to eventualities such as fire, collision,
earth quake, grounding etc.
Though under MARPOL 1973/78, the ships are prohibited from releasing
solid and oily wastes, some ships release them clandestinely either when at berth
or during voyage. Chronic release of such wastes in the Gulf is undesirable and
might result in environmental degradation in the long run.
Present-day SPMs, designed constructed and operated as per the
internationally accepted codes and practices are generally safe and leakages of
crude oil during pumping are infrequent. However, for the purpose of computing
carrying capacity, it is presumed that the operational discharge at SPM together is
600 t/y. This is a large quantity and is not expected at present-day SPMs.
Nevertheless, such quantities give an insight about probable concentrations of
PHc in water when consistent oil leaks at a slow rate over a long duration.
COT and related shore establishments will also generate domestic
wastewater which is also to be disposed off after treatment.
In a pig launching operation for cleaning pipelines, a large volume of
seawater containing certain specialized chemicals is pumped into it to passivate
the pipeline. The impact of this release on marine ecology depends on the
chemicals added to it and constituents from the inner lining of the pipeline. The
pigging operations however are conducted only occasionally i.e. once in 2 years.
Ship collision, grounding, onboard fire, explosion etc often lead to bulk
releases of cargo to the marine environment. They often result from out of control
ship movement. Accidents involving ships are rare, but if they occur, it can be
disastrous to the local environment if the cargo spilled is crude oil since large
spills of these substances can cause extensive damage to the biorich segments
of the Gulf. The traffic of VLCCs in the KPT area will be confined. The VLCCs
visiting SPMs may use this route. The traffic of deep-sea ships at ports has also
increased substantially over the years. Thus for instance the number of ships
visiting the Kandla Port has increased from 1672 in 2001-02 to 2124 in 2005-06.
xviii
The total number of deep-sea ships other than VLCCs including Vadinar,
Sikka, Navenkhi, Kandla and Mundra visiting the Gulf will be around 3780 ships
(7560 movements) excluding the traffic at Okha Port which is at the mouth of the
Gulf. With an average 7% growth rate per year, the movements will increase
accordingly. For estimating frequency of accidents it is considered that 50% of
the movements of deep-sea ships and all VLCCs are through the DW Route.
The frequency of ship collision is governed by the frequency of ship
encounter and the probability of collision given an encounter. From the records of
accidents maintained at several major ports worldwide it has been considering the
7600 movements of deep-sea vessels in 2007 in Gulf the probability of an
accident would be one in every 17.2 y for this traffic projection.
The major environmental concern due to ship related accidents is spillage
of crude oil or petroleum products, if a VLCC is involved. Since the VLCC traffic
in the Gulf will constitute 7% of the total traffic, the probability of a VLCC accident
would be one in every 246 y.
When probability of occurrence of an oil spill is assessed, it is also
necessary to consider the traffic of tankers carrying petroleum products since an
accident involving a product tanker can be equally disastrous. Even if it is
presumed that 30% of the traffic in the Gulf is of crude oil and petroleum products,
the grounding frequency involving a tanker carrying crude oil or petroleum
products will be 1 in 5 y for the traffic density of 2007. However, as discussed
earlier only <3% of accidents result in large spills. Though the projections of the
grounding frequencies remained high, no accident has taken place in the past
several years in this region.
The water quality affected due to oil spill in the area of SPM and
pipeline route will be predicted by model after IInd phase of study. However,
an accidental oil spill will be a one time spot release. Under continuous
movement of water mass induced by strong tide induced currents in the Gulf,
the water under the spreading slick would be continuously replenished.
Therefore, at a given location degradation in water quality might persist over a
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relatively short period depending on the persistence and weathering of the oil
spill and ambient circulation. Since there is absence of active monsoon in the
Gulf, the impact area of a spill is not expected to vary significantly, seasonally.
Also, the temperature, DO and nutrients, the major factors affecting the rate of
biodegradation, are favourable in the Gulf all through the year. During
naturally cleaning process of the water column, decrease in aromatic
hydrocarbons, the potentially toxic constituent would be removed rather
immediately since the PHc levels would attain the ambient levels immediately.
As the oil slick would cover large surface area of the water column,
water temperature below the slick would increase. Another water quality
parameter that would be affected by the spill is DO. The impact would be
severe in the initial stage and it may act as a limiting factor for biota. However,
since DO in the region is high, it is expected that the ambient levels would
reach within a short time.
A portion of the weathered spill will be adsorbed by the suspended
particulate matter and these particles on settling may increase the load of PHc
in the sediment. Moreover, residues remaining after the lighter fractions
evaporate will be broken down into lumps which may sink to the sea bed or
deposited on the shores when the spill reaches shallow coastal segments.
The residue may be transported over long distances by prevailing
currents and on sinking it will spread unevenly on the sea bed. Hence,
sediment levels of PHc might be highly abnormal in places. The microbial
degradation of oil is however, slow in the sediment since DO becomes a
serious limitation.
As recorded for several oil spills, there would be 100% cover at the
mean high water mark. The accumulation then would decline at a logarithmic
rate with the losses occurring most rapidly at the lower intertidal levels on
shores exposed to the heaviest wave action and most slowly at higher tidal
levels in sheltered locations. Residue from a major spill can result in asphalt
pavements on the intertidal sandy areas or on sheltered tidal flats and coral
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reef flats. Thickness of such pavements may vary from 3 to 15 cm depending
on the quantum deposited and subsequent weathering. The oil deposited on
the shore can penetrate into sub-surface sediments up to a depth of 30 to 60
cm in coarse sandy and muddy regions. On muddy regions, the oil will
penetrate through animal burrows.
The adverse impact on flora and fauna depend on the tolerance
capacity of organisms exposed to crude oil. In extreme cases, the entire
community is destroyed followed by rapid bacterial degradation and
subsequent regeneration. Many tropical marine species have very high
fecundity which provides a reservoir to compensate for any extreme losses
due to adverse local conditions. In course of time, the system recovers and
constitutes the natural community through fresh recruits. However,
populations of animals with long life and low fecundity rates may take
extended period to recover.
In the dynamic Gulf environment, rapid dispersion of crude oil and its
soluble components leading to quick restoration of pre-spill water quality is
expected. The impact of a spill on the Gulf marine biota would critically
depend on location of the spill, the area affected and the nature and the
quantity of the oil spilled.
Small spills will have a temporary and limited adverse impact on the
pelagic and intertidal marine biota. The impact however might be severe in
case of large spills. The residue (70-4000 m3) transported to the shore will
contaminate the subtidal and intertidal benthic habitats of about 1 to 4 km
coastal length depending on the quantity of residue. Hence, the benthic fauna
of these areas will suffer accordingly. The corals of the southern coast of the
Gulf will be vulnerable if the oily residue is deposited on reefs during favorable
winds. The recovery of pelagic biota will be much faster as compared to
benthic biota which might take several years to attain pre-spill status.
Mangroves, seaweeds and algae show greater sensitivity to fresh
rather than weathered crude oil. Oil may coat the pneumatophores and
xxi
hamper the breathing mechanism of mangroves or interfere with salt balance,
killing the trees. Moreover, mangrove areas at Kandla and Nakti Creek are
invariably associated with rich fauna which will suffer severe damage due to
oil spill if occurs.
Green algae are more sensitive to petroleum than diatoms, blue green
algae and flagellates. An oil spill can however cause immediate and localized
retardation of photosynthesis, though temporarily. The intertidal seaweeds,
algae and mangroves will be adversely affected if their habitats get oiled. The
general impact of a spill on the flora of the affected and will be temporary and
reversible though recovery might take 2 y or longer.
An increase in concentrations of dissolved PHc in water subsequent to
a spill can lead to plankton kills. The recovery of plankton will be however
quick through repopulation of the community by fresh recruits from adjacent
areas not affected by oil. Eggs and larvae of fishes, crustaceans and
molluscs which are highly sensitive to even low concentrations of PHc (10-100
µg/l) and aromatics (1 - 5 µg/l) in particular will be severely affected.
However, it is unlikely that any localized losses of fish eggs and larvae caused
by a spill will have discernible effect on the size or health of future adult
populations.
These organisms have limited movements and hence are more
vulnerable to oil spills. If the thick weathered oily mass spread on intertidal
areas, immediate mortalities of organisms in the zones of physical contact are
expected. Subtidal benthos of shallow waters might also be killed or tainted if
the sinking residue affects their habitats. If the residue persists for longer time
in the subtidal or intertidal segments due to sluggish local circulation, the
recovery will be delayed. The benthic organisms of sandy habitats will recover
faster as compared to those of the muddy intertidal segments where oil might
penetrate into subsurface layers through animal burrows and might remain
there for decades due to very low natural weathering of oil in such sheltered
habitats. Clams will be killed in heavily oiled benthic habitats whereas
xxii
polychaetes might survive on moderately oiled sediment bottom. Benthic
system might recover back to normal in about 2 to 3y.
Coral reefs in the Gulf are usually submerged and get exposed briefly
during low tide. The oil floating above corals may not cause severe damage
but if it settles on them during exposed condition, they may be severely
affected if the spill reaches in the surrounding region.
A large oil spill can temporarily reduce the fish catch from the area as
fish might migrate from the affected zone. Limited mortality may also occur
particularly when the oil concentrations in water go abnormally high. Often
fishes get tainted and unpalatable but become normal when the ambient PHc
level approaches the baseline which is expected within a few days. The
mangrove swamps being the breeding and nursery grounds for a variety fish
and shell fish, large scale mortality of eggs and larval stages of several
economically important groups may occur if oil is transported to these
habitats.
The birds are highly sensitive to oil spills and get particularly affected if
their habitats are oiled. Many migratory birds use the intertidal mudflats and
mangrove swamps along the coasts of the Gulf during certain seasons for
spawning, breeding, nursing and feeding. The risk factor will be more for the
breeding populations and spawners.
Marine turtles and mammals are highly sensitive to oil spills and might
temporarily migrate from the spill site. Hence, no serious damage to turtles
and mammals due to an oil spill is expected. However, the spill occurring in
the nearshore region during summer may disturb the breeding of turtles in the
Gulf for a shorter duration.
MITIGATION MEASURES
Major environmental concern at an oil terminal is the accidental spillage of
petroleum in the sea. The technology available today is inefficient to recover the
oil once spilled and pollution of the marine area invariably occurs. The best
xxiii
strategy to prevent spillages of oil is the design and operating philosophy of the oil
terminal which must be "No Leak" under normal operating situations.
It should be ensured that internationally accepted codes and practices are
followed for designing the SPM, pipelines and COT. Their compliance should be
guaranteed through proper inspection, frequent evaluation and intensive testing
particularly for all critical components of the SPM - pipeline - COT system.
Similarly, the vulnerable units such as hoses, fittings, valves, flanges, couplings
etc should be rigorously tested and certified for their reliability, before installing.
It is important that the state of the art surface hoses with marine break-
away couplings both tested above the operating pressure are used at all times.
Isolation valves should also be provided in the pipeline design particularly at the
submarine pipeline LFP location to prevent the inventory of the COT draining in
the Gulf in the event of rupture in the sub-sea pipeline. The Gulf and the
surrounding region is seismically active. Hence, the pipelines and foundations for
structures should be designed for specified seismic loads.
Apart from the disturbance caused by the construction process itself, the
coastal ecology of the Gulf would suffer due to additional stresses if the
construction time is prolonged. The key factors in minimising the adverse impacts
are the reduction in construction period and avoidance of activities beyond the
specified geographical project area should be kept to a minimum. Evidently, as a
part of the management strategy, it is important that various activities are well-
coordinated and optimised to avoid time over-runs and to complete the project
within an agreed time schedule.
Pre-treatment to the pipes such as coating, concreting etc and other
fabrication jobs should be undertaken in a yard on land located sufficiently away
from the HTL and the transfer of materials to the site should be through a pre-
decided corridor devoid of mangroves. Similarly, the movement of construction
barges, ships, machinery etc should be restricted to the pre-decided operational
area. The pipeline in the intertidal area should be buried to a safe depth and the
xxiv
depth of burial should be ascertained through reliable surveys to guarantee their
safety. The intertidal area should be restored to its original status.
Considering that the Kachchh region is prone to occasional cyclones with
wind speeds of 150 km/h, the subsea pipeline segment laid above the bed must
be adequately designed and suitably weight-coated to minimise wave induced
disturbance that can weaken the pipeline. The absence of spans should be
confirmed through seismic surveys. Also, methods of construction of SPM and
laying of pipeline should be carefully evaluated and those suitable for
ecosensitive areas only should be employed.
It should be ensured that the intertidal and supratidal areas are restored to
their original contours after the pipe-laying activities are completed. General
clean-up along the corridor, adjacent areas, and intertidal and subtidal regions
should be taken-up to put the condition natural. The major concern during
operations is the spillages of petroleum. It is established beyond doubt that the
human factor remains to be the cause of about 90% of accidents leading to oil
spillages. Training people to work safely and efficiently is therefore vital. Mooring
officers, pilots, operators and crew of the SPM terminal, as well as the COT must
be trained rigorously in day-to-day operations as well as in handling emergency
situations. Crisis exercises should be designed and used in actual drills to ensure
readiness of the staff at any given emergency situation.
Hence, it should be ensured that valves, couplings, hoses, pumps, sub-sea
pipelines etc are periodically inspected for their integrity as per internationally
accepted norms, to guarantee their proper functioning in an emergency.
Provision for an effective and reliable communication between the tanker,
SPM, and COT should be made to avoid ambiguities and time delays in reacting if
abnormal situation arises during pumping.
After the sub-sea crude oil pipeline is laid, a seismic survey of its entire
segment should be conducted to chart the routing accurately. This route should
be marked on relevant hydrographic charts as a no anchorage zone. During the
xxv
period of pipeline laying activities in the intertidal area the destruction of
mangroves should be avoided or maintained to the minimum loss. During the
construction period the hindrance in the activities of local fisherman should be
avoided. As a step towards improvement in marine environmental quality,
mangrove afforestation of intertidal mudflats should be encouraged through
adequate institutional support. The activities of local fisherman should not be
disturbed. The channel towards Kandla and Nakti Creeks should be made free for
navigation of local fisherman if any.
Despite several precautions and safety measures taken at SPM, accidental
spillages of petroleum occasionally occur and a proper spill response strategy is
necessary to minimize impacts on marine environment. Majority of oil spills at oil
terminals result from routine operations such as hose bursts, valve leakages,
improper couplings etc. These operational spills are generally small with over
90% involving quantities of < 1 to 100 t. Rare but large accidental spills (> 100 t)
can occur when a tanker gets involved in an accident such as collision or
grounding. Hence, response at several levels is necessary for combating oil spills
of such variable quantity. A 3 tier system of response is proposed for this
purpose and is considered best suited for the Gulf.
Careful planning is essential if an oil spill is to be fought successfully. This
is particularly important when a spill is large since many agencies and
organizations will be involved. Often, there is considerable fear of environmental
degradation, loss of fishery and contamination of recreational areas as well as
risk to public health and safety. Such events are easier to resolve when a well-
prepared and a tested contingency plan is in force.
Combating an oil spill in the maritime zone of India is guided by the
National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan (NOS-DCP) which has been updated
recently (1999). Indian Coast Guard is the Central Coordinating Agency for
marine response and is engaged in gradually building up response capability to
deal with a major oil spill of the order of 20000 t in the EEZ of India. This
response capability is considered to be ‘Tier 3 response’ in this report. NOS-DCP
makes port authorities responsible to respond to accidents within the port limits
xxvi
(Tier 1 response) though they can seek additional assistance through the
Regional Communication/Operational Centre of the Coast Guard.
Under Tier 1 response, all SPM operators in the Gulf should have their oil
spill contingency plan for responding to spills of up to 100 t. Hence, KPT should
develop such a plan and put it into operation prior to commissioning of the SPM.
This plan which can be called as Local-OS-DCP should be integrated with the
contingency plans of other SPM operators in the Gulf. The plan should be based
on a quick response strategy to minimize the ecological damage. Presuming that
spill combating equipment is available, the operations are often delayed in
absence of a suitable vessel that can be pressed into service without delay.
Hence, it will be necessary to maintain a pollution combating vessel in readiness
during unloading of a tanker at the SPM. Its practicality and effectiveness should
be ascertained through periodic mock rehearsals.
If a major spill of ≥1000 t occurs in the Gulf, the equipment will have to be
provided by the Coast Guard. Immediate response however may be hampered
because of the time delay in transporting the equipment to the site from their
Response Centre. But, considering the biosensitivity of the Gulf, behavior of
spilled oil and its probable movement response time of only a few hours will be
available.
There are 6 SPMs presently operating in the Gulf and a few more are
under consideration. At present two refineries of 21 and 11 mtpa capacities are
operating near Sikka. Because of these refineries and projected increase in
handling of petroleum products at Kandla and Mundra Ports, the traffic of crude
oil and petroleum products will increase substantially in future. As the traffic
increases, the probability of an accidental large spill will increase accordingly. It
is, therefore, essential that an adequately structured Regional-OS-DCP for the
Gulf as a whole is made with a quick response capability to combat atleast up to
5000 t of an oil spill as a Tier 2 level response. Such a plan should also envisage
predictive capability of oil spill movement based on long-term environmental data
required for accuracy of outputs of numerical models. It will then be possible to
identify vulnerable areas with a fair degree of accuracy, to be protected if a spill
xxvii
occurs. While development of Tier 1 response (Local-OS-DCP) is the
responsibility of KPT, formulation of Regional-OS-DCP (Tier 2) will need an
external agency capable of not only assessing the requirements of the plan
including infrastructure and equipments, but also integrating the Local-OS-DCP of
individual SPM operator (Tier 1), Regional-OS-DCP (Tier 2) and NOS-DCP (Tier
3).
Common practice to fight petroleum spills is to contain the oil by deploying
containment booms and recover the oil-water mixture using skimmers. In calm
periods the booms can be deployed to recover the spilled oil to a certain extent.
However, in rough weather it is generally not feasible to deploy booms to
surround a spill with the intention of collecting it through skimmers since wave
action and currents in excess of 0.5 m/s reduces the efficiency of containment
booms significantly. Furthermore, a floating skimmer tends to suck more water
than oil when the sea is rough.
Sorbent booms or pads which cause the lighter hydrocarbons to adhere to
the fiber material filling of the boom, are the practical means of removing small
spills. Such booms have been tested with success in the North Sea and are now
used at several oil terminals. Curtain or deflection booms can be also of help to
minimize the entry of oil into creek systems from a spill occurring in the main Gulf
as well as to prevent contamination of eco-sensitive areas such as coral reefs,
intertidal flats, mangrove swamps and salt pans.
If a spill occurs in the Gulf, the intertidal segments will be invariably
contaminated. Hence, a proper strategy and response for shore clean-up will be
required.
Chemical dispersants are often favored to disperse hydrocarbons when
containment and recovery is suspect. Although various types of dispersants are
available, concentrate or self-mix dispersants in alcohol or glycol solvents are
usually preferred. However, it is absolutely essential to test the toxicity of
dispersants selected for storage and use by choosing selected sensitive marine
xxviii
organisms from the Gulf. The use of dispersants is not normally advised close to
shellfish beds, coral reefs, mangrove areas or industrial water intake locations.
A large volume transport of crude oil and petroleum products is expected in
the Gulf in the coming years. Hence, the probability of occurrence of accidental
oil spills will increase considerably in future. When the spills are large, it will be
impractical to protect all sensitive segments by deploying deflection booms,
because the coastline of the Gulf vulnerable to oil contamination is long and
intricate. It is therefore necessary to identify the areas to be protected on priority
vis-a-vis the location of the spill. This is effective only if accurate prediction of the
movement of spilled oil and the coastal stretch it would pollute is available with
the decision maker.
Probable spill trajectories will be provided after modeling following the
results of the IInd phase during premonsoon. An area that needs serious regional
attention is the management of ship movements through the navigational channel
(DW Route) of the Gulf since the risk of ship to ship encounter and grounding will
be considerably enhanced due to the projected increase in the traffic density of
VLCCs. Under MARPOL 1973/78, discharges of oil from tank washings, ballast,
bilge and bunker fuel bottoms by ships to marine environment is prohibited.
However, proper vigilance is necessary to enforce the regulations as a part of the
overall environment management strategy of the Gulf.
The management of ship movements should be restricted through the
navigational channel and hindrance in the fishing activities of local fishermen
should be strictly avoided.
The effluents from COT which is expected to contain high oil content
should be suitably treated to meet the norms of GPCB and attempt should be
made to reuse this treated effluent. The release location should be carefully
identified so that the effluent is diluted fairly quickly and the local ecology is not
influenced adversely.
xxix
Proper plan should be evolved to dispose off solid waste such as sludge
generated in waste treatment plants, and garbage. Oil spill response plan should
be formulated as mentioned in report ‘Oil spill risk analysis and oil spill
contingency plan’. A vital issue that needs a holistic approach is to identify and
notify fishing zones. With the establishment of marine facilities, sites in the Gulf
are being increasingly declared as ‘No fishing zones’ thereby traditional fishing
areas are getting shrunk. With more developments envisaged in future, the
fishing zones will reduce further. Hence, an agency such as the Department of
Fisheries, and other connected departments of the Government of Gujarat should
be directed to formulate a fishery plan for the Gulf clearly identifying fishing zones
where activities that will hamper fishing should not be allowed.
Addressing the marine environmental issues directly related to the
operations at the SPM, KPT requires the preparation of (a) Local- OS-DCP, (b)
manuals for handling tankers at SPM and safe unloading operations of crude oil
including actions to be taken in emergencies, (c) schedule for periodic refresher
courses to the operational staff, (d) protocols for inspection of marine facilities and
(e) disaster management plan etc. These manuals/plans/protocols should be
available before the SPM become operational and there should be provisions for
updating the manuals/plans/protocols based on actual operational experiences at
a later stage.
In addition it will be necessary to (a) monitor construction activity
particularly in the intertidal area, (b) prepare plans for improving marine ecology,
HMEL should prepare a detailed contingency plan for combating spills of
about 100 t in collaboration with other agencies operating in the area namely
Kandla Port, Mundra Port, IOCL, Reliance Industries etc. The document should
explicitly and unambiguously address the issues such as (a) the responsibility and
scope of the plan, (b) the geographical area covered by the plan, (c) the types of
crude oils likely to be handled and their physical properties, (d) the probable
movement of oil spill during every month and at different sites, (e) the locations of
amenity areas, ecologically sensitive zones, marine resources etc, in a series of
maps, (f) the inventory of combating equipment, location of their storage,
xxx
procedures for use of booms, skimmers, dispersants, shore clean-up, disposal of
recovered oil, termination of clean-up etc, (g) the on-scene coordinator, his
responsibilities and duties, (h) the functions of communication centre, (i) the
procedure for notification of a spill, officer to whom the spill is to be reported and
further actions to be taken by the officer, and (j) the procedures for training,
refresher courses and mobilisation, deployment and maintenance of equipment
from time to time to ascertain their reliability.
The pipeline between the LFP and the COTs though does not pass
through mangroves, certain segment having mangroves may damage during oil
spills. It is therefore necessary to protect the mangroves. It should be ensured
through proper monitoring that prevailing mangrove areas are maintained and the
activities do not spill-over outside the 20 m corridor during the construction phase.
ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN Environment management strategy to prevent deterioration in marine
environmental quality due to development of SPM can be discussed as follows:
To maintain the marine ecology off Kandla and surrounding creeks, critical
locations should be carefully selected and designated as monitoring sites for
periodic health checks with respect to water quality, sediment quality and flora
and fauna. These should include open shore areas, intertidal segments and
creeks but atleast seasonally. The parameters to be monitored are listed below.
Water samples obtained from 2 levels in the vertical should be studied for
temperature, pH, salinity, DO, BOD, (or total organic carbon), nitrate, nitrite,
ammonia, dissolved phosphate, PHc and phenols. Sediment from subtidal and
intertidal regions should be analysed for texture, Corg, phosphorus, aluminium,
chromium, nickel, copper, zinc, cadmium, lead, mercury, arsenic and PHc.
Biological characteristics should be assessed based on primary
productivity, phytopigments, phytoplankton populations and their generic diversity;
biomass, population and group diversity of zooplankton; biomass, population and
group diversity of benthos; fish quality, density and species diversity; and
xxxi
mangroves of designated experimental sites. As a part of overall strategy for
management of mangroves, the satellite imageries should be used to quantify
mangrove areas and mudflats through proper ground-truth verification. Yearly
assessment of mangrove cover should be made to identify their status.
Till the proper baseline is evolved, the data presented in this report can be
used as an intermediate baseline. However, for proper comparison, the future
monitoring should be undertaken in the same months.
A comprehensive marine quality monitoring programme with periodic
investigations at predetermined locations (these should preferably coincide with
those used for baseline quality) by a specialised agency is a practical solution to
ensure quality data acquisition. This can be a continuation of the study designed
for baseline quality and the same parameters listed above should be included in
the post-project monitoring programme. The post-project monitoring can be Just
prior to the commencement of operations at the SPM, After 6 months of
commencement of operations, and Once a year from the commencement of
operations.
The results of each monitoring should be carefully evaluated to identify
changes if any, beyond the natural variability identified through baseline studies.
Gross deviation from the baseline may require a thorough review of operations at
the SPM and COT. To identify the causative factors leading to these deviations
and accordingly, corrective measures to reverse the trend will be necessary.
A comprehensive protocol for inspection of SPM and pipeline should be prepared
as per the internationally accepted practices.
Institutional arrangements for management of the marine environment fall
under the broad categories of (a) petroleum spill control and combating, (b)
monitoring of the marine environment and (c) periodic inspection of the oil
terminal sub-systems.
xxxii
Apart from combating of oil spills the KPT should be made responsible for
arranging, coordinating and overseeing marine environmental monitoring, periodic
inspections, training programmes, refresher courses, mock rehearsals etc. The
records of all these activities should be maintained as a part of the overall record
system.
RECOMMENDATION
The proposed SPM & allied facilities off Veera in the Gulf of Kachchh for
handling crude oil is recommended following the mitigation measures and
environment management plan for maintaining a healthy marine ecology as
suggested in the present report.
xxxiii
LIST OF TABLES 3.2.1 Details of cyclonic storms along North Gujarat coast (1893-1999). 3.3.1 Water quality of the Gulf during premonsoon (1993-2004). 3.3.2 Water quality of the Gulf during postmonsoon (1993-2004). 3.3.3 Subtidal sediment quality of the Gulf during premonsoon (1994- 2005) 3.3.4 Subtidal sediment quality of the Gulf during postmonsoon (1993- 2004) 3.3.5 List of algae recorded along the intertidal zone of the Gulf 3.3.6 Biological characteristics of the Gulf during premonsoon (1981- 2005) 3.3.7 Biological characteristics of the Gulf during postmonsoon (1984-2004) 3.3.8 Mangrove areas and status of occurrence of major species of Gujarat 3.3.9 Distribution of corals in the Gulf 3.3.10 List of water birds in the Gulf 5.1.1 Water quality at station 1 5.1.2 Water quality at station 2 5.1.3 Water quality at station 3 5.1.4 Water quality at station 4 5.1.5 Water quality at station 5 5.1.6 Water quality at station 6 5.1.7 Water quality at station 7 5.1.8 Water quality at station 8 5.1.9 Water quality at station 9 5.1.10 Water quality at station 10 5.1.11 Water quality at station 11 5.1.12 Water quality at station 12 5.1.13 Water quality at station 13 5.1.14 Water quality at station 14 5.2.1 Subtidal sediment quality around KPT area during March 2010 5.2.2 Intertidal sediment quality around KPT area during March 2010 5.3.1 Microbial counts in Surface water (CFU/ml) of Kandla Creek during February 2010 5.3.2 Microbial counts in sediment (CFU/g) of Kandla Creek during February 2010 5.3.3 Range and average (parenthesis) of phytopigments at different stations for KPT during March 2010 5.3.4 Range and average of phytoplankton population at different stations for KPT during March 2010 5.3.5 Percentage composition of phytoplankton population at different stations around Kandla Creek during March 2010 5.3.6 Range and average of zooplankton standing stock at different stations in the coastal water off Kandla, Gulf of Kutch during March 2010
xxxiv
5.3.7 Abundance of zooplankton at different stations around Kandla Creek April 2010 5.3.8 Range and average (parenthesis) of intertidal macrobenthic standing stock at Kandla during February 2010 5.3.9 Range and average (parenthesis) of intertidal macrobenthic fauna at different transects of Kandla during February 2010 5.3.10 Composition (%) of Intertidal macrobenthos at Kandla during February 2010 5.3.11 Range and average (parenthesis) of subtidal macrobenthic standing stock at Kandla during February 2010 5.3.12 Composition (%) of Subtidal macrobenthos at Kandla during February 2010
1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background
The port of Kandla, which is located at the west coast of India, is
only major port in the state of Gujarat. The Port is well connected by the
network of rail and road and is a gateway port for export and import of
goods on northern Indian states of Jammu & Kashmir, Delhi, Punjab,
Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat and parts of Madhya
Pradesh, Uttaranchal and Uttar Pradesh.
Presently, the Port has twelve cargo berths for handling dry cargo
traffic, six oil jetties for handling Petroleum Oil products and other liquid
cargo traffic at Kandla Creek and 3 Single Buoy Mooring (SBM) at
Vadinar for handling crude oil.
M/S Kandla Port Trust (KPT) has proposed to develop a deep
water offshore crude handling facility within the limits of port to cater the
requirement of 9.0 Million Metric Tonnes Per Annum (MMTPA) crude oil
through the submarine pipeline (19.0 km) after setting up of Single Point
Mooring (SPM) and Allied facilities off Veera in Gulf of Kachchh. As a
requirement for marine environment management, KPT contacted
National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) to undertake a marine
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) study. Accordingly NIO
conducted Ist phase of study with respect to water quality, sediment
quality, biological characteristics comprising subtidal and intertidal
regions of project site during February – March 2010. The overall
objective of the project is to establish the baseline data and suggest the
probable impact on marine ecology due to oil spill if occurs, mitigation
measures and management of marine environment. NIO has already
data through the earlier studies conducted in the coastal waters of
Kandla.
The results of present study and earlier data would be deemed
adequate to meet the following objectives:
2
1.2 Objectives
a) To establish prevailing marine ecology off Veera.
b) To assess the probable impact on coastal ecology due to
development of SPM and its operation.
c) To suggest appropriate measures to mitigate the probable
adverse impacts.
d) To recommend suitable environment management plan.
1.3 Scope of work Following scope of work was identified to achieve the objectives.
1.3.1 Prevailing marine environment The prevailing marine environment would be evolved based
on the following studies.
i) Physical processes a) Tides Tides in Gulf of Kachchh will be assessed based on available
information.
b) Currents Current speed at pre selected location would be measured over a
period of 5 days.
c) Circulation Circulation pattern in the study area would be evolved based on
drogue trajectories
d) Oil spill model After IInd phase of study, a 2D model would be used to predict true
oil spill quantity and true area impacted by that.
3
i) Water quality Water quality at selected subtidal stations would be assessed
based on temperature, Suspended Solids (SS), pH, salinity, Dissolved
Oxygen (DO), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), reactive phosphate
(PO43- - P), total phosphorous (Ptotal), nitrite (NO2
- - N), nitrate (NO3
- - N),
ammonia (NH4+ - N), total nitrogen (Ntotal), Petroleum Hydrocarbons
(PHc) and phenols.
ii) Sediment quality Surficial sediment from subtidal and intertidal areas would be
analysed for texture, organic carbon (Corg), phosphorous, selected metals
(aluminium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc and
mercury) and PHc.
iii) Flora and fauna The status of flora and fauna in the project area would be
established based on:
a) Phytoplankton pigments, population and generic diversity.
b) Zooplankton biomass, population and group diversity.
c) Macrobenthic biomass, population and group diversity,
d) Fish and fishery, and mangroves.
1.3.2 Marine environmental impact assessment The available information and the data generated through the
present studies would be utilized to evolve the prevailing marine
environmental status of Gulf of Kachchh. With this as a baseline the
impact of the development of SPM during construction and operational
phase on marine ecology would be assessed.
1.3.3 Mitigation measures Suitable mitigation measures would be recommended to minimize
the adverse impact.
4
1.3.4 Environment Management Plan The suitable Environment Management Plan (EMP) to maintain a
healthy marine ecology would be suggested.
1.4 Approach strategy It is inevitable that the oil spill due to pipeline leakage into the Gulf
of Kachchh would cause a certain adverse impacts on the coastal
ecology. The intensity of which would vary depending on various factors
such as quality and type of spilled oil, capacity of the receiving water to
assimilate contaminants and degree of ecological sensitivity of the
region. This needs detailed information with respect to physical
processes, water quality, sediment quality and flora and fauna of the Gulf
particularly the corridor of pipeline. NIO has data in the Gulf of Kachchh
and surrounding region of the project site.
However, as the coastal environment is expected to undergo
changes on short time-scales, the prevailing conditions need to be
assessed. Hence a comprehensive study on physical processes, water
quality, sediment quality and flora and fauna was conducted in the Gulf
of Kachchh during February/March 2010. This rapid EIA report is
prepared based on the results of present study and available data with
NIO data bank which would serve as a baseline for future monitoring of
the area.
5
2 PROJECT DESCRIPTION The traffic handled by the Port has witnessed a consistent
increase and growing at a fast pace. The total traffic (both liquid and dry
cargo) handled by the Port has gone from 24.50 million tones in 1993-94
to 79.50 million tones in 2009-10. Cargo traffic handled at Kandla Port
mainly comprised Iron Scrap, Steel, food grains, Ore, Timber Logs, Salt
Extractions, POL Products, Edible Oils, Chemicals of 66 varieties etc.
Containerized Cargo traffic through Kandla has also shown a significant
growth during the last few years.
The country’s GDP is growing at an average growth rate of 8.0%
and this growth rate is going to be accelerated to 8-10 % by end of 2010.
Therefore, the traffic projected for future period based on the potential of
traffic of general cargoes originating from Hinterland, industries coming
up in the Kachchh region, development of port infrastructure and
country’s Economy, is as below:
(Projections in to traffic at Kandla port in Million Metric Tonnes) Year of Traffic
Projection POL Dry Bulk Cargo ContainerTonnage
Other Misc. cargo Total
2010-11 41 2.55 5.43 23.96 72.94 2011-12 44.50 4.9 6.28 25.04 80.71 2012-13 47.50 5.15 7.26 26.43 86.35 2013-14 49.95 5.38 8.40 27.36 91.09
Further, action has been initiated to construct four dry cargo
berths within the Kandla Creek. With the commissioning of these berths,
handling capacity of Dry cargo is expected to go up by 8 MMTPA. In
addition to above, KPT has also planned to develop outer harbour facility
at Tuna with the proposed capacity of 14 MMTPA. Further, Kandla Port
has also planned to set up SPM at Veera for handling VLCC .The
capacity of proposed SPM will be 9 MMTPA.
Kandla Port Trust (KPT), as a perspective development of their
Port facilities, desired to explore the possibility of developing a deep
water offshore crude handling facility within the limits of Port’s waters to
6
cater to the future requirement in their hinterland. Since the existing
Kandla Bhatinda Pipeline (KBPL) is not being put to use, this pipeline will
be utilized for transportation of crude to existing Refineries as well as
those planned in Northern India.
2.1 Design basis 2.1.1 Tanker
The proposed facility is planned for handling VLCCs up to 300,000
dwt. The location of SPM is considered accordingly. Even though the
facility will be designed for VLCC, depending upon the chartering
arrangement, Suez Max tankers will also utilize the SPM. Accordingly,
Suez Max tankers of 140,000- 160,000 dwt are also considered in the
design basis. The tanker rail discharge pressures of 11.5 kg/cm²g and
10.5kg/cm³ for VLCC and Suez max tankers will be adopted.
2.1.2 Crude characteristics In the absence of a captive user for the facility, generic
characteristics of the following crude oil have been considered.
Arab crude (Light, Medium & Heavy)
Bombay High Crude
Nigerian crude (Bonny Light)
2.1.3 Water depth For safe navigation of tanker during mooring and cast off, a
maneuvering area for VLCC (300,000 dwt) and Suez-max tankers having
a radius equal to three times of LOA of the respective tankers calling at
the SPM terminal has to be identified. The minimum water depth required
at the maneuvering area is worked out as 28.9 meters and 22 meters for
VLCC and Suez Max tankers respectively. Accordingly, the location of
SPMs off Veera in Gulf of Kachchh has been fixed based NHO chart no:
203.
7
2.2 Berth Occupancy The SPM occupancy is proposed and worked out for throughput of
9.0 MMTPA. The VLCC and Suez-max tankers are expected to call at
the SPM. The pumping rate is considered at 80% of the design flow
through the pipeline. Also, peripheral time for berthing, deberthing etc
has been considered as 9 hours. The SPM terminal availability is
considered to be 330 days in a year. The berth occupancy level is about
25%.
The time period of VLCC at the terminal is high for the Option II,
viz, 1 no. 48 inch pipeline, which may result in higher charges to hire
charter vessel for the crude recipient.
2.3 Single Point Mooring (SPM) Terminal The SPM system is preferred in exposed locations; as the
systems to permit the moored vessel to swing freely around it, allowing
the vessel to orient her in the most advantageous position under the
combined influences of winds, waves and currents.
2.3.1 Options Presently available offshore off-loading terminals can be classified
into three major groups such as:
1. Fixed Structures,
2. Single Leg Mooring Systems
3. Catenary Anchor Leg Mooring Systems
After examining the above systems, it is concluded that the CALM
system is the best suited for the present location considering the
advantage of operational ease and the experience of such types in
operation in Gulf of Kachchh.
2.3.2 System Description The Catenary Anchor Leg Mooring (CALM) type Single Point
Mooring System (SPM) comprise of a buoy moored to the seabed by a
8
number of catenary anchor legs connected to anchor points, and a
rotating part carrying the mooring and product transfer equipment. The
SPM system is designed in accordance with American Bureau of
Shipping (ABS): “Rules for Building and Classing Single Point Moorings.”
2.3.3 Principal Components The Single Point Mooring System has the following principal
components:
• A buoy body consisting of six buoyancy compartments.
• A rotating platform consisting of a mooring platform, a locking
device, lifting equipment and other miscellaneous equipments.
• Mooring system to moor the crude oil tanker to the rotating part of
the SPM.
• An anchoring system comprising number of chains (normally six)
attached to anchor piles at one end and attached to different points
around the buoy at the other.
• A buoy product circuit composed of central piping, rotating platform
piping, expansion pieces and pipe swivels etc.
• Floating hoses with ancillary handling gear and winker lights, to
connect turntable piping and tanker manifold.
• Under buoy hose system to connect the central piping with the
PLEM.
• Hydraulic power unit for operation of sub-sea valves.
• Corrosion protection.
• Safety provisions consisting of navigation aids, life buoys, fire
fighting equipment’s, leak detector, radar reflector, weather
protection covers etc.
• Pipeline End Manifold (PLEM) system.
2.3.4 Pipeline Two locations were studied for proposed Land Fall Point (LFP)
site viz., one on the west and another on east of Lerakh River. The
location on east of river was finally selected based on the advantage of
its falling in the KPT water limit. The COT shall be located approx. 500 m
9
north of LFP site. This section consists of a generally flat terrain with
some gentle undulations.
The total pipeline length from SPM (Lat 220 45’ 15” N and Long
690 57’ 00” E) to LFP (Lat 220 54’ 50” N and Long 700 01’ 30” E) is
approx. 19 km for the VLCC option and 14.3 km for the Suez-max option.
Of this, approx. 3.25 km of the pipeline falls in the intertidal coastal area
and the rest is offshore zone (Figure 2.1.1). For VLCC and Suez-max,
the water depths of approx.29 m and 22 m respectively are proposed.
The length of offshore pipelines for the SPM to COT is 19.5 km and the
length of the cross-country pipeline for the segment from COT to Kandla
(KBPL) terminal is 28.5 km as per proposed scheme.
2.3.5 Pipeline Design Based on optimization study carried out through KPT the following
design parameters are proposed for the mechanical design of the
pipeline system.
Pipeline diameter (NB) in inches
Option-1 :42”x 2Nos.
Option-2 :48”x 1 No.
Design pressure, Kg/cm²g: 19.0
Design temperature, ºC: -28 to +45ºC (sub sea and buried portion)
Corrosion allowance, in mm: 3.0
Material of Construction: Carbon Steel
Based on above design parameter, pipeline wall thickness and
grade have been optimized and are indicated in the table given below:
Option-I (2 Nos. x 42” OD pipelines) Pipeline Section API 5L Gr. Length, km W.T., mm Onshore Crude Oil Terminal- LFP X-60 0.50 14.30 Offshore LFP-SPM (Intertidal) X-60 3.25
17.50
Offshore LFP-SPM (Submarine) X-60 15.75 11.05
10
Option- II (48” OD pipelines) Pipeline Section API 5L Gr. Length, km W.T., mm Onshore Crude Oil Terminal- LFP X-60 0.50 15.90 Offshore LFP-SPM (Intertidal) X-60 3.25 19.10
Offshore LFP-SPM (Submarine) X-60 15.75 (VLCC) 11.05 (Suez-max)
11.05
2.3.6 Construction Methodology
There are a number of methods of laying the submarine pipeline.
The offshore pipe laying using the lay-barge is the best available method
for the present project. In shore approaches, the installation will be
carried out by shore-pulling or barge-pulling method. The string shall be
fabricated onshore/barge accordingly. For intertidal areas, pre-trenching
shall be carried out using suitable dredgers based on the soil conditions.
The backfilling in these areas shall be carried out with the dredged soil. If
necessary, graded engineering fill may be provided to ensure that the
back fill material is not washed away by the wave and current actions.
2.3.7 PLEM On completion of pipeline laying, the laid pipeline will be lifted by
barge davits using the derrick crane the PLEM structure will be lifted,
positioned at the end of the pipeline and welded/bolted. The pipeline
along with PLEM will then be lowered on the seabed carefully. After
checking the position of PLEM, open ended steel pile will be driven to
design depth to secure the PLEM with seabed.
2.3.8 SPM Open ended steel tubular piles, with sufficient length of chains
attached to its head, will be driven at pre-determined locations to design
depths. The balance length of chains will be attached and laid down to
seabed. Diametrically opposite chains will then be picked up and pulled
against each other to design tension. On completion of tensioning the
buoy will be positioned and connected to the chains. After checking the
chain profiles installation of under buoy hoses, floating hoses, hawsers
and other miscellaneous items will be undertaken.
11
2.4 Crude Oil Terminal (COT) and onshore pipeline 2.4.1 COT
The location of the COT is approximately 0.5 km from the LFP.
The area is generally flat. The average level of the area is assumed to be
in the range of +6.5 to +7.0m CD. There are patches of salt pans in the
area. Based on the highest observed tide in the area of 6.4 meters and
considering a storm surge of 2.0m the Finished Ground Level (FGL) of
the COT area has been fixed at +9.0m after making a dul allowance of
0.6 meters above the maximum expected water level.
2.4.2 Crude oil storage tanks The capacity of storage required has been arrived at based on
one parcel of VLCC (300,000 dwt). It is essential that one tank shall be in
dispatch mode for the crude pumping from COT to Kandla through the
onshore pipeline. It is also a standard operating practice to provide for
one tank for outage. With these considerations, 8 nos. of 60,000 m³
(pumpable volume of about 52,000 m³) are required. However, it is
suggested that in the first phase of the project, 7 nos. tanks be provided
with a provision for an additional tank to be installed in future as per the
requirements. Adopting this basis, the tanks required for the case of SPM
for Suez-max tanker is 5 nos. with a provision for future installation of
one more tank. The area for the COT including the green belt is 48
hectares.
2.4.3 Pig launcher/ receiver and associated facilities In order to periodically clean the pipeline from SPM to COT as
well for the onshore pipeline from COT to Kandla, Pig Launcher/Receiver
facilities are provided. In the case of two submarine pipeline scenarios,
pigs will be launched from COT and received back at COT. In the case of
a single pipeline, pigs are launched from the PLEM (SPM), pushed by
the pumps in the tanker and received at COT. Accordingly, a receiver
only is provided at COT.
A pig launcher is proposed to be provided at COT for launching
the pigs through the onshore pipeline up to Kandla Terminal (KBPL).
12
2.4.4 Terminal piping and pumping system Common manifolds are proposed from the launcher/receiver for
receipt of crude in to the tanks. Similarly, a common header is proposed
for dispatch of crude from the tanks through the pumps to the onshore
pipeline up to Kandla (KBPL).
The crude oil pumping system comprise of 3 nos. Booster pumps
and 3 no main line pumps. The booster pmps are necessitated in order
to provide a minimum suction pressure for the mainline pumps which
otherwise is not available directly from the tanks.
2.4.5 Fire fighting system The crude oil tanks are required to be provided with fire protection
with both water and foam. Fire water and foam requirements are
proposed as per the stipulations of OISD 117. Both electric motor driven
and diesel engine driven pumps are provided. Two electric motor driven
Jockey pumps are provide to keep the network pressurized at the
minimum pressure at all times as stipulated by OSID. A fixed skid
mounted foam generation system and foam monitors are provided. The
water spray system is proposed for each of the tanks.
Normal service water stored in steel tanks is proposed for fire
water requirements. Adequate number of mobile fire fighting equipments
has proposed. Drinking water is considered to be stored in separate
tanks. Fire Alarm system for the COT facilities has proposed.
2.4.6 Civil and structural works The tanks are proposed with RCC pile foundations in the absence
of site specific soil parameters. Buildings of suitable size and types are
provided.
2.4.7 Electrical facilities The estimated power demand at the COT is around 5.0 MW. It is
proposed to draw this power from Gujarat Electricity Board (GEB) at
66kV level from GEB’s Anjar sub-station. For this purpose GEB will
13
provide two numbers of 66KV over head feeders at the proposed 66kV
switchyard inside the proposed COT.
Two nos. 66kV/6.6 kV, 6.3 MVA Grid transformers are proposed
for feeding the total land of the terminal.
The 6.6 kV switchboard will feed power to all 6.6 kV motors (All
equipment having motor rating greater than 160 KW such as transfer
pumps, Booster pumps, fire water pumps, and pigging pumps) and
distribution transformers.
Two numbers of distribution transformers of rating 2000 kVA,
6600/433 V is proposed to feed all 415 V loads including lighting, small
power and other facilities through 415V PMCC, MCCs, ASBs & LDBs.
It is assumed that reliable power from GEB will be made available
to run the facilities. To cater for the total power failure conditions, one no.
415 DG set of 150 kVA rating having auto mains failure (AMF) feature is
proposed to provide to emergency lighting, battery chargers, UPS, CP
system and other emergency loads of smaller ratings such as jockey
pumps, critical MOVs, lighting etc.
Plant communication and Public Address (PA) system are
proposed through a central exchange.
2.4.8 Waste water treatment A provision is proposed for an oily waste water treatment plant
capacity of approximately 20 m³/h. This will be wastewater of the crude
oil decanted form the tanks (if required to be done at COT) and the wash
water of the paved area routed through the oily water pipelines inside the
terminal. Septic tanks are considered for the waste water from the toilet
etc.
14
3 GULF OF KACHCCH The Kandla and surrounding region forms an integral part of the
Gulf of Kachchh. Hence, the knowledge of general ecology of the Gulf is
necessary for comparing the site-specific environmental conditions with
that of the parent body.
The Gulf (Figure 3.1.1) occupies an area of 7300 km2 and has
maximum depth that varies from 20 m at the head (Kandla - Navlakhi) to
60 m in the outer regions (off Okha). The actual fairway, however, is
obstructed due to the presence of several shoals, needing periodic
dredging in some areas, to facilitate navigation to the Kandla Port. The
tidal scour that follows the axis of the Gulf has steep slopes and rugged
surfaces. A number of scraps with relative elevation of 6 to 32 m occur
on the sediment-free bed of the central Gulf.
3.1 Land environment
The coastal configuration of the Gulf is very irregular with
numerous islands, creeks and bays. The coastal area of the Gulf (within
20 km from the shoreline) falls under the Districts of Kachchh (6749.77
km2), Jamnagar (4863.53 km2) and Rajkot (576.71 km2). Cotton is the
major crop in the Kachchh District while oil seeds are predominant crops
in the Jamnagar and Rajkot Districts. Other common crops in the region
include Bajra, pulses, wheat, sugarcane etc. In general, the vegetation in
the study area is sparse and scattered and of tropical dry mixed
deciduous scrub and desert thorn type belonging to the xerophytic group.
Due to extreme unreliability of rainfall in the region, ground water is a
more reliable source of water for domestic as well as agricultural needs.
However, indiscriminate withdrawal of large amounts of ground water
has resulted in a sharp decline in water table in the coastal belt causing
ingress of salinity. The situation is quite alarming in Jodia and
Okhamandal Talukas of the Jamnagar District and severe in Lakhpat and
Anjar Talukas of the Kachchh District.
The coastal region of the Gulf is industrially less developed and
the majority of large-scale industries including the RIL refinery is located
15
in the Jamnagar District. Kachchh District is industrially backward and
except for lignite mining, thermal power plant, fertilizer plant and Mundra
and Kandla Ports, there are no major industries in the district. Okha and
Bedi are the two important intermediate ports in the Jamnagar District.
3.2 Meteorological conditions
The Gulf is a semi-arid region with weak and erratic rainfall
confined largely to the June-October period. With a few rainfall days, the
climate is hot and humid from April till October and pleasant during brief
winter from December to February. Rainfall alone forms the ultimate
source of freshwater to the region. The average rainfall at Kandla is
around 400 mm/y, 414mm/y at Mundra sand 490 mm/y at Mithapur on
the southern coast.
The wind records at Okha indicate that (a) the speed varies
between 0 and 30 km/h during November-February; the predominant
direction being NW - NE, (b) the speed marginally increases during
March-April with the change in direction to NW-SW, (c) maximum speeds
(40-50 km/h) occur during May with predominant SW-W direction and (d)
maximum speeds can reach up to 70 km/h with predominant SW-W
direction during depressions in June - September.
Cyclonic disturbances strike North-Gujarat, particularly the
Kachchh and Saurashtra regions, periodically. These disturbances
generally originate in the Arabian Sea and sometimes the Bay of Bengal.
The details of number of cyclonic storms, which struck the north Gujarat
region during the last 100 y, are given in Table 3.2.1. Generally during
June, the storms are confined to the area north of 15oN and east of 65oE.
In August, in the initial stages, they move along the northwest course and
show a large latitudinal scatter. West of 80oE, the tracks tend to curve
towards north. During October the direction of movement of a storm is to
the west in the Arabian Sea. However, east of 70oE some of the storms
move north-northwest and later recurves northeast to strike Gujarat-north
Mekran coast.
16
The relative humidity is generally high during June-September
(60-85 %) and marginally decreases during rest of the year (30-80 %).
The sky is generally clear or lightly clouded except during monsoon
period. Visibility is good throughout the year. However, average visibility
of less than 1 km can be expected for a few days during the winter
months.
3.3 Marine environment Within the Gulf, though water depths of 25 m are encountered in
the broad central portion up to the longitude 70oE, the actual fairway in
the outer Gulf is obstructed by the presence of several shoals. The high
tidal influx covers the low-lying areas of about 1500 km2 comprising a
network of creeks and alluvial marshy tidal flats in the interior region.
The creek system consists of 3 main creeks Nakti, Kandla and Hansthal,
and the Little Gulf of Kachchh interconnecting through many other big
and small creeks, all along the coast. Very few rivers drain into the Gulf
and they carry only a small quantity of freshwater, except during the brief
monsoon. They are broad-valleyed and their riverbed is mostly
composed of coarse sand and gravel. The Gulf is unique characterised
by numerous hydrographic features like pinnacles, as much as 10 m
high. The southern shore has numerous islands and inlets covered with
mangroves and surrounded by coral reefs. The northern shore is
predominantly sandy or muddy confronted by numerous shoals.
3.3.1 Physical processes
Tides in the Gulf are of mixed, predominantly semidiurnal type
with a large diurnal inequality. The tidal front enters the Gulf from the
west and due to shallow inner regions and narrowing cross-section, the
tidal amplitude increases considerably, upstream of Vadinar. The tidal
elevations (m) along the Gulf are as follows: MHWS MHWN MLWN MLWS MSL
Okha 3.47 2.96 1.20 0.41 2.0 Sikka 5.38 4.35 1.74 0.71 3.0 Rozi 5.87 5.40 1.89 1.0 3.6 Kandla 6.66 5.17 1.81 0.78 3.9 Navlakhi 7.21 6.16 2.14 0.78 4.2 Navinal Pt 6.09 5.65 1.81 0.37 3.4
17
The phase lag between Okha and Kandla is 2 h to 2 h 25 min
while between Okha and Navlakhi it is 3 h to 3 h 20 min. Due to high
tidal ranges in the inner regions, the vast mudflats and coastal lowlands
that get submerged during high tide are fully exposed during low tide.
Circulation in the Gulf is mainly controlled by tidal flows and
bathymetry, though wind effect also prevails to some extent. The
maximum surface currents are moderate (0.7-1.2 m/s) but increase
considerably (2.0-2.5 m/s) in the central portion of the Gulf. The spring
currents are 60 to 65 % stronger than the neap currents. The bottom
currents are also periodic with a velocity normally 60-70 % of the surface
currents.
With high tidal range, negligible land run-off and irregular
topography, the waters are vertically homogeneous in terms of salinity
and temperature.
3.3.2 Water quality The general water quality of the Gulf is illustrated in Tables 3.3.1
and 3.3.2. The annual variation of water temperature is between 23o C
and 30o C though localized higher temperatures up to 35o C can result in
isolated water pools formed in shallow intertidal depressions, during low
tide.
Suspended Solids (SS) is highly variable (5-700 mg/l), spatially as
well as temporally, and largely result from the dispersion of fine sediment
from the bed and the intertidal mudflats, by tidal movements. Evidently,
nearshore shallow regions invariably sustain higher SS as compared to
the central portions. The region between Okha and Sikka has low SS
varying within a narrow range (10-50 mg/l) whereas the inner Gulf areas
sustain markedly higher SS, sometimes in excess of 100 mg/l.
Average pH of the Gulf water is remarkably constant (8.0-8.3) and
is within the range expected for the coastal tropical seas. The
evaporation exceeds precipitation leading to salinities markedly higher
18
than that of the typical seawater. This is particularly evident in the inner
Gulf where salinities as high as 40 ppt commonly occur off Kandla and
Navlakhi. Although the salinities decrease considerably for a brief period
in some creeks of the Little Rann of Kachchh under the influence of
monsoonal runoff, the impact of this decrease in the Gulf proper is small
and salinities exceed 36 ppt off Sikka and Mundra during normal
monsoon periods.
The average DO is fairly high (4.3-7.1 mg/l) and the BOD is low
count into (<0.1-4.0 mg/l) indicating good oxidising conditions. Hence,
the organic load in the water column is considered to be effectively
oxidised. The nutrients (PO43--P, NO3
--N, NO2--N, NH4
+-N) are more or
less uniformly distributed in the Okha-Sikka-Mundra segment and their
concentrations indicate healthy natural waters. Concentrations of major
nutrients however are marginally high in the Kandla-Navlakhi segment.
The networks of creeks of the Little Gulf of Kachchh sustain high natural
concentrations of nutrients perhaps due to high regeneration rates and
anthropogenic input. As expected for an unpolluted coastal environment,
the concentrations of PHc and phenols are low.
3.3.3 Sediment quality Central portion of the Gulf extending from the mouth to upstream
of Sikka is rocky with sediments confined only to the margins. The
nearshore sediment that consists of light grey silt and clay and fine sand
with patches of coarse sand in-between, are poorly sorted with highly
variable skewness. The major source of this sediment is considered to
be the shore material and the load transported by rivers. The portion of
sediment derived from the hinterland is considered to be small because
of the low run-off. Moreover, the streams discharging in the Gulf (during
brief monsoon season) are short with dams constructed on many of
them.
The concentrations of heavy metals such as chromium,
manganese, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, mercury and lead though
variable (Tables 3.3.3 and 3.3.4), indicate natural background levels and
19
there is no evidence of gross sediment contamination. The
concentrations of PHc are also low though large quantities of petroleum
crude and its products are off-loaded at Vadinar and Kandla respectively.
3.3.4 Flora and fauna
The Gulf abounds in marine wealth and is considered as one of
the biologically rich marine habitat along the west coast of India.
Quantitative information for selected biological characteristics of the Gulf
is given in Tables 3.3.5 to 3.3.10.
The marine flora is highly varied, which includes sand dune
vegetation, mangroves, seagrasses, macrophytes and phytoplankton.
The dominant species of sand dune flora are Euphorbia caudicifolia,
E.nerifolia, Aloevera sp, Ephedra foliata, Urochodra setulosa, Sporobolus
maderaspatenus, Eragrostis unioloides, Calotropis procera, Fimbristylis
sp, Indigofera sp and Ipomoea pescaprae. The common seagrasses
found growing on the mud flats are Halophila ovata and H.beccarii.
The most common marine algal species are Ulva fasciata,
U.reticulata, Enteromorpha intenstinalis, Dictyota sp, Hypnea
musciformis, Sargassum tennerimum, S.ilicifolium, Gracilaria corticata,
Cystocera sp, Padina tetrastomatica, Corallina sp, Laurencia sp,
Caulerpa racemosa, C.peltata, Bryopsis sp, Turbinaria sp, Ectocarpus
sp, Acanthophora sp, Chondria sp, and Codium sp (Table 3.3.5).
The primary production of the water column as assessed from
chlorophyll a concentrations is generally good in the outer Gulf but
decreases in the inner regions (Tables 3.3.6 and 3.3.7). The major
phytoplankton genera are Rhizosolenia, Synedra, Chaetoceros,
Navicula, Nitzschia, Pleurosigma, Thalassiothrix, Biddulphia, Stauroneis,
Coscinodiscus and Skeletonema.
The Gulf has a vast intertidal area with rich biota. Sheltered
bays, creeks and mud flats provide ideal sites for mangrove vegetation
over an estimated area of about 1036 km2 (Table 3.3.8). The formations
20
are of open scrubby type, with isolated and discontinuous distribution
from Kandla- Navlakhi in the northeast to Jodia, Jamnagar, Sikka, Salaya
and Okha in the southwest, as also at Pirotan, Positra, Dohlani and
Dwarka. Vast stretches of mangroves also exist along the northern
shore of the Gulf. The dominant species of mangroves are Avicennia
marina var acutissima, A officinalis, Bruguiera parviflora, B gymnorphiza,
Rhizophora mucronata, R apiculata, Ageiceros corniculata and
Sonneratia apetata alongwith the associated species of Salicornia
brachiata, Sueda fruticosa, Artiplex stocksii and a lichen, Rosella
montana.
The marine fauna of the Gulf is rich, both in variety and
abundance. Sponges having an array of colours are seen, both in the
intertidal and subtidal biotopes. The common species of sponge is
Adocia sp, associated with coral reef fauna. In sandy and silty mud
shores, Tetilla dactyloidea (Carter) is common.
The most frequently encountered hydrozoans are Sertularia sp
and Plumularia sp. The giant sea anemone (Stoichactis gigantum) is a
common sight in the coral ecosystem. Sea anemones, belonging to
Anemonia, Bunodactis, Paracondylactis, Anthopleura and Metapeachia,
are wide spread. A zoantharian, Gemmaria sp, is found forming
extensive hexagonal green mats in the coral pools. Another interesting
actiniarian is the Cerianthus sp found in tubes in the soft mud.
One of the most interesting biotic features of the Gulf is the
presence of living corals, thriving as patches, rather than reefs, either on
the intertidal sand stones or on the surface of wave-cut, eroded shallow
banks along the southern shore of the Gulf. The species diversity
however is poor with 44 species of Scleractinian and 12 species of soft
corals (Table 3.3.9).
A number of polychaete worms, both sedentaria and errantia, with
the dominant genera of Eurythoe, Terebella, Polynoe, Iphione and Nereis
are rather common. Amongst a variety of sipunculid and echiuroid
21
worms, the dominant species are Dendrostoma sp, Aspidosiphon sp and
Ikadella misakiensis (Ikeda). The intertidal crustacean fauna is very
rich and equally diverse with spider crab (Hyas sp) and furry crab
(Pillumnus sp).
Amongst the invertebrate component of the marine fauna of the
Gulf, the molluscs have the highest representatives. As many as 92
species of bivalves, 55 species of gastropods, 3 species of cephalopods
and 2 species each of scaphopods and amphineurans have been
reported. The most notable members of the molluscan fauna are
octopus, pearl oyster and a variety of chanks, including the sacred
chank.
The echinoderm fauna represented by 4 classes and 14 genera,
have the commonest genera of Palmpsis, Astropecten, Asteria,
Temnopleura and Holothuria. The subtidal benthic fauna of the Gulf is
dominated by polychaetes, crustaceans, echinoderms, gastropods and
bivalves, with an average biomass of 25 g/m2.
The Gulf has a variety of exploitable species of finfishes and
shellfishes. The sciaenids, polynemids, perches, eels, cat-fishes,
elasmobranchs and prawns are commercially important groups with an
average catch of 1.4x105 t/y. Fishing grounds for Ghol, Karkara, Khaga,
Dhoma, Magra and Musi exist in the Gulf.
The Gulf region offers plenty of facilities for feeding, breeding and
shelter to a variety of birds (Table 3.3.10). In the mangrove forests lining
the islands and along the coast, the birds find a near perfect
environment. In addition, they are well placed to reach their food supply
i.e. the shoals of fish, squids, mud-skippers and other animals, during
low tide. All along the creeks and around islands, mangrove trees and
mudflats are seen crowded with Grey Herons, Pond Herons, Painted
Storks, Large and small Egrets, Reef Heron, Darters, Cormorants,
Flamingos, Lesser Flamingos, etc during the periods of seasonal
migration (November-March).
22
A large number of migratory birds pass through the Gulf and a
small population of most species comprising mainly of juveniles and non-
breeding adults take shelter in this area during summer. Salt works
spread-out along the coast, are also important for feeding and breeding
of birds. They act as alternate sites for them to roost during high tide.
Though a detailed systematic survey of biota is lacking, following
number of species have been reported:
Flora/Fauna Species (no)Algae 130 Sponges 70 Corals 37 Fishes 200 Sharks 8 Prawns 27 Crabs 30 Molluscs 200 Sea turtles 3 Sea mammals 3 Birds 200
Because of its high biogeographical importance and rich flora and
fauna, several areas along the southern Gulf are notified (Figure 3.1.1)
under the Marine National Park (16289 ha) and the Marine Sanctuary
(45798 ha).
23
4 STUDIES CONDUCTED 4.1 Period
The 1st phase of the study for premonsoon was conducted during
February - March, 2010. This rapid EIA report is based on earlier data
with NIO data bank and present study conducted during February –
March 2010.
4.2 Sampling location
The present study was conducted at 14 subtidal stations and 7
intertidal transects (Figure 4.1.1). Station 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5 were in Kandla
creek from upstream towards mouth whereas station 6, 7 were towards
offshore. Station 8,9,10 & 11 were in Nakti Creek from downstream
towards upstream. Station 12 was sampled from nearshore water
whereas station 13 & 14 were studied towards offshore. Station 14 was
taken at SPM location. Stations 2 & 14 were studied temporally whereas
other stations were spot sampled. The coordinates of the stations are as
follows:
Station Latitude Longitude 1 23002’54.88” N 70013’17.58” E2 220 59’19.73” N 700 13’42.53” E3 220 59’01.22” N 700 13’46.06” E4 220 57’59.15” N 700 14’13.14” E5 220 56’39.20” N 700 14’03.47” E6 220 54’08.07” N 700 12’49.51” E7 220 54’08.00” N 700 10’08.00” E8 220 56’34.00” N 700 09’14.20” E9 220 57’12.00” N 700 06’13.00” E10 230 00’19.70” N 700 08’12.56” E11 230 02’00.00” N 700 09’22.80” E12 220 51’58.50” N 700 00’44.90” E13 220 48’09.49” N 690 59’22.34” E14 220 45’15.00” N 690 57’00.00” E
Intertidal sampling was conducted at 7 transects (T 1 – T 7) to
assess the status of intertidal macrobenthic fauna and sediment quality.
The position of transects are as follows:
24
Transect Level Latitude Longitude
T I Upper 23002’46.1”N 700 13’35.2”E Middle 23002’46.0”N 700 13’34.3”E Lower 23002’46.2”N 700 13’33.9”E
T II Upper 22058’29.0”N 700 13’45.8”E Middle 22058’28.9”N 700 13’46.7”E Lower 22058’29.5”N 700 13’48.0”E
T III Upper 22056’56.8”N 70009’20.1”E Lower 22056’52.4”N 700 09’16.9”E
TIV Upper 22057’16.9”N 70007’03.2”E Lower 22057’17.1”N 700 07’03.3”E
TV Upper 22059’41.2”N 70007’37.2”E Lower 22059’42.2”N 700 07’39.1”E
TVI Upper 22054’20.4”N 700 00’19.1”E Middle 22054’05.7”N 700 00’57.9”E Lower 22053’49.2”N 700 01’41.5”E
TVII Upper 22053’23.1”N 690 59’56.3”E Middle 22053’08.1”N 690 59’52.1”E Lower 22053’54.3”N 690 59’48.7”E
4.3 Sample collection
Subtidal samples were collected from surface and bottom for
depths exceeding 5 m while only surface samples were obtained for
shallow regions less than 5 m depth. Selected stations were sampled
over a tidal cycle to evolve tidal variability of water quality.
4.4 Sampling methodology
A Niskin sampler (5 l) with a mechanism for closing at a desired
depth was used for collecting sub-surface water samples. Sampling at
the surface was done using a clean polyethylene bucket. Glass bottle
sampler (2.5 I) was used for obtaining samples at 1 m below water
surface, for the estimation of PHc. Samples for phytoplankton
identification and cell count, were preserved after adding Lugol’s
solution.
Samples for bacteriological analyses were collected in sterilized
bottles from surface water. Sediment samples for microbial analysis were
obtained in uncontaminated zip lock -plastic bags and were immediately
kept in ice box.
25
Oblique hauls for zooplankton were made using a Heron Tranter
(HT) net (Mesh size 0.33 mm, mouth area 0.25 m2) attached with a
calibrated TSK flow meter. All collections were of 6 min duration.
Samples were preserved in buffered formalin.
For the analyses of metals, total phosphorous, PHc and
macrobenthos, subtidal sediment samples were collected using a van-
Veen grab of 0.04m2 area and intertidal samples were obtained with a
hand-held shovel. The macrobenthic samples after retrieval were
transferred to polyethylene bags for staining with Rose Bengal and
preserving with buffered formaldehyde to analyze them at Mumbai.
4.5 Methods of analyses
The methods adopted for the analyses of different parameters are
briefly described below:
4.5.1 Water quality
Majority of the water quality parameters were analysed within 24 h of
collection in the temporary shore laboratory established at Plant site, Gulf of
Kachchh. Colorimetric measurements were made on a Schimadzu (Model
1201) spectrophotometer for nutrients. RF-5301 Shimadzu
Spectrofluorometer was used for estimating PHc. The analytical methods of
estimations were as follows:
i) Temperature: Temperature was recorded using a mercury thermometer with an
accuracy of 0.1 oC.
ii) pH: pH was measured on a microprocessor controlled pH analyzer. The
instrument was calibrated with standard buffers just before use.
ii) Suspended Solids (SS):
A known volume of water was filtered through a pre-weighed 0.45 µm
Millipore membrane filter paper, dried and weighed again.
26
iii) Salinity: A suitable volume of the sample was titrated against silver nitrate (20
g/l) with potassium chromate as an indicator. The salinity was calculated
using Standard Tables.
iv) DO and BOD: DO was determined by Winkler method. For the determination of
BOD, direct unseeded method was employed. The sample was taken in a
BOD bottle in the field and incubated in the laboratory for 3 days after which
DO was again determined.
v) Phosphate: Acidified molybdate reagent was added to the sample to yield a
phosphomolybdate complex that was then reduced with ascorbic acid to a
highly colored blue compound, which was measured at 882 nm.
vi) Total phosphorous: Phosphorous compounds in the sample were oxidized to phosphate
with alkaline potassium persulphate at high temperature and pressure. The
resulting phosphate was analyzed as described under (v).
vii) Nitrite: Nitrite in the water sample was allowed to react with sulphanilamide in
acid solution. The resulting diazo compound was reacted with N-1-Naphthyl-
ethylenediamine dihydrochloride to form a highly colored azo-dye. The light
absorbance was measured at 543 nm.
viii) Nitrate: Nitrate was determined as nitrite as above after its reduction by
passing the sample through a column packed with amalgamated cadmium.
27
ix) Ammonia: Ammonium compounds (NH3 + NH4
+) in water were reacted with
phenol in presence of hypochlorite to give a blue color of indophenol. The
absorbance was measured at 630 nm.
x) Total nitrogen: Nitrogen compounds in the sample were oxidized to nitrate by
autoclaving with alkaline persulphate. The solution was neutralized and
nitrate was estimated as described under (viii). xi) PHc: Water sample (2.5 l) was extracted with hexane and the organic layer
was separated, dried over anhydrous sodium sulphate and reduced to 10 ml
at 30o C under low pressure. Fluorescence of the extract was measured at
360 nm (excitation at 310 nm) with Saudi Arabian crude residue as a
standard. The residue was obtained by evaporating lighter fractions of the
crude oil at 100oC.
xii) Phenols: Phenols in water (500 ml) were converted to an orange coloured
antipyrine complex by adding 4-aminoantipyrine. The complex was extracted
in chloroform (25 ml) and the absorbance was measured at 460 nm using
phenol as a standard.
4.5.2 Sediment quality The sediments collected and preserved were brought in the laboratory
at regional center Mumbai for further analysis.
i) Metals: Sediment was brought into solution by treatment with conc. HF-HClO4-
HNO3-HCl and the metals were estimated on a Perkin Elmer (Analyst
300/600) Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) by flame/graphite
furnace. Mercury was estimated by flameless AAS technique after digesting
the sediment with aquaregia.
28
ii) Corg: Percentage of Corg in the dry sediment was determined by oxidizing
organic matter in the sample by chromic acid and estimating excess chromic
acid by titrating against ferrous ammonium sulphate with ferroin as an
indicator.
iii) Phosphorous: Digested sample for metals was used for estimating phosphorous in
the sediment.
iv) PHc: Sediment after refluxing with KOH-methanol mixture was extracted
with hexane. After removal of excess hexane, the residue was subjected to
clean-up procedure by silica gel column chromatography. The hydrocarbon
content was then estimated by measuring the fluorescence.
4.5.3 Flora and fauna Phytoplankton pigments and microbiology were analysed in the field
laboratory within 24 h whereas the analysis of other parameters were carried
out at NIO, Regional Center, Mumbai.
i) Microbiology Bacteriological parameters water and sediments were analysed by
plating techniques for Total Viable Counts (TVC), Total Coliforms (TC),
Escherichia coli like organisms (ECLO), Faecal Coliform like organisms (FC),
Shigella like organisms (SHLO), Salmonella like organisms (SLO), Proteus /
Klebsiella like organisms (PKLO), Vibrio like organisms (VLO), Vibrio
parahaemolyticus like organisms (VPLO), Vibrio cholerae like organisms
(VCLO), Psuedomonas aerugenosa like organisms (PALO) and
Streptococcus faecalis like organisms (SFLO) colonies of TC, ECLO, VLO,
VPLO and VCLO were counted separately. The media employed for growth
of colonies were as follows:
Nutrient agar (NA) for TVC, Mac Conkey agar (MC) for TC, MFC agar for
ECLO, MFc agar for faecal coliforms, xylose-lysine deoxycholate agar (XLD)
for SHLO, SLO and PKLO, Thiosulphate citrate bile salt medium (TCBS) for
29
VLO, VPLO and VCLO, cetrimide agar (CS) for PALO and M. enterococcus
agar for SFLO.
Spread plate method techniques with serial dilution were used for
enumeration of all groups.
ii) Phytoplankton Phytoplankton pigments: A known volume of water (500 ml) was filtered
through a 0.45 µm Millipore membrane filter paper and the pigments retained
at 5˚ C overnight on the filter paper were extracted in 90% acetone. For the
estimation of chlorophyll a and phaeophytin the extinction of the acetone
extract was measured at 665 and 750 nm before and after treatment with
dilute acid (0.1N HCI).
Phytoplankton population: Water samples for phytoplankton cell counts
were preserved in Lugol’s solution with 2% formaldehyde. Enumeration and
identification of phytoplankton were done under a compound microscope
using a Sedgewick-Rafter slide.
iii) Zooplankton Volume (biomass) of zooplankton was obtained by displacement
method. A portion (25-50%) of the sample was analysed under a microscope
for faunal composition and population count.
iv) Benthos The sediment sample was sieved through a 0.5 mm mesh sieve and
animals retained were preserved in 5% buffered formaldehyde. Total
population was estimated as number of animals in 1 m2 area and biomass on
wet weight basis.
30
5 PREVAILING MARINE ENVIRONMENT 5.1 Water quality
The results of water quality parameters are presented in Tables
5.1.1 - 5.1.14. Temporal variations studied at station 2 and 14 to evolve
the tidal variability in water quality are illustrated in Figures 5.1.1-5.1.2.
The results are compared with earlier studies and discussed below:
5.1.1 Temperature Temperature of the water varied in line with the air temperature.
The maximum temperature recorded in Kandla Creek was 24.5 ºC (av
23.5 C) in the lower segment whereas Nakti Creek showed still higher
temperature of 26.0 (av. 24.9 ºC). A marginal decrease in water
temperature was evident (23.3 ºC av. 22.5 ºC) in the pipeline corridor.
Spatial variation in water temperature revealed a narrow range. The
overall results of present study and earlier information are compared in
the following Table:
Segment December 2004 January 2010 Kandla Creek Nakti Creek Kandla Creek Nakti Creek
Upper 23.5-24.5 (23.5)
26.0-26.1 (26.1) - 24.5
Middle 23.0-23.2 (23.1)
23.5-24.0 (23.8)
23.0-23.4 (23.4) 24.5
Lower 23.6-23.8 (23.7) - 22.5-24.5
(23.4)25.0- 26.0
(25.1) Towards Offshore
25.0-26.1 (25.5)
24.7-25.5 (25.1)
23.0-24.5 (23.5)
25.3-26.0 (25.6)
It is evident from the above Table that there is no definite trend in
temperature variation. However, slightly lower values during January
2010 as compared to December 2004 in Kandla Creek suggested a
seasonal variability.
The results of temperature recorded for pipeline corridor are
shown below:
31
Water temperature of pipeline corridor was uniformly distributed
as evident in above table.
5.1.2 pH
The pH value in coastal waters of Kandla varied in a narrow range
(7.8-8.3) which may be due to buffering action by CO2/ HCO3-/ CO3. The
results of present study are presented in Tables 5.1.1 to 5.1.14. The
variation of pH (8.3-8.5, av 8.4) recorded during present study was
marginally higher when compared with earlier studies. The overall
scenario of pH is shown below:
Segment December 2004 January 2010 Kandla Creek Nakti Creek Kandla Creek Nakti Creek
Upper 7.8-8.0 (7.9)
7.8-7.9 (7.9) - 8.4
Middle 7.9 7.9 8.4 8.4
Lower 8.0 - 8.3-8.5 (8.4) 8.4
Towards Offshore
7.8-7.9 (7.9)
7.9-8.0 (8.0)
8.3-8.5 (8.5)
8.4-8.5 (8.5)
The pH observed during present study revealed slightly higher
values as compared to earlier findings.
The pH recorded along pipeline corridor is shown below:
January 2010 Pipeline corridorNearshore 8.5 Towards offshore 8.5
Offshore 8.5
January 2010 Pipeline corridor
Nearshore 22.4-22.5(22.5)
Towards offshore
22.0-23.3(22.8)
Offshore 21.5-23.0(22.2)
32
A uniform distribution of pH in the different segment of pipeline
could be due to typical marine environment of offshore region.
5.1.3 Suspended Solids The high currents churning out bed sediments resulted in a high
concentration of SS in the Kandla Creek and surrounding region as
evident from (Tables 5.1.1 - 5.1.14). The values of SS which ranged
between 106 – 362 (av. 243) mg/l in the Kandla Creek, were found
abnormally high 185 – 1913 (av. 971 mg/l) in Nakti Creek. The overall
results of SS in the different segments of the region are as follows:
Segment December 2004 January 2010 Kandla Creek Nakti Creek Kandla Creek Nakti Creek
Upper 131-221 (173)
114-1446 (780) - 1913
Middle 148-182 (165)
52-64 (58)
290-362 (335) 386
Lower 151-207 (179) - 111-362
(211) 258-1730
(994)
Towards Offshore 164-166 (165)
126-174 (156)
106-310 (183)
185-1400 (591)
A significant enhancement in the concentration of SS over the
period of 6 years, during present study as compared to earlier records of
Nakti Creek may be associated with increased human activities.
The variability of SS in the pipeline corridor is shown below:-
January 2010 Pipeline corridor
Nearshore 37-69(54)
Towards offshore 23-60(43)
Offshore 16-25(20)
The SS concentration towards offshore region along the pipeline
corridor was markedly lower as compared to creek which represented a
natural phenomenon of the coastal water.
33
5.1.4 Salinity The Gulf region generally sustains very high salinity particularly in
the interior regions. Hence salinities exceeding 40 ppt is very common
around Kandla.
The salinity of the study area is given in the Tables 5.1.1 to 5.1.14.
High concentrations of salinity recorded during the study period (38.3-
41.3 ppt, av 40.4 ppt) may be due to seepage of brine from saltpans and
increased evaporation due to shallow region. The distribution of average
salinity in the study area is as follows:
Segment December 2004 January 2010 Kandla Creek Nakti Creek Kandla Creek Nakti Creek
Upper 39.3-41.3 (40.1)
37.4-37.7 (37.6) - 41.0
Middle 39.1-39.9 (39.5)
34.1-38.2 (36.0)
40.4-41.3 (41.1) 40.3
Lower 39.7 - 39.6-41.3 (40.5)
38.3-40.3 (39.5)
Towards Offshore 37.4-37.7 (37.6)
38.2-38.8 (38.6)
40.3-40.7 (40.6)
39.8-40.3 (40.0)
The seasonal impact on the concentration of salinity was evident
with the higher values during premonsoon as compared to postmonsoon.
The upper creek recorded higher values of salinity as compared with
offshore region which can again be related with ingress of salts from
saltpans.
The level of salinity in the pipeline corridor is discussed below:
January 2010 Pipeline corridor
Nearshore 39.0-39.6(39.3)
Towards offshore 38.7-39.2(39.0)
Offshore 37.7-38.9(38.5)
34
The above table does not indicate any significant variation in
salinity along the pipeline corridor. The level of salinity of offshore water
suggested true characteristics of Gulf region.
5.1.5 DO and BOD
The DO concentrations of the study area are presented in Tables
5.1.1-5.1.14. The DO levels (6.3-7mg/l, av. 7.0 mg/l) in the creek as well
as offshore water (7.0 – 7.9 mg/l) av 7.2mg/l were much higher than 3.5
mg/l during present study suggesting a healthy water quality in the
region. The concentration of BOD during present study was normal and
did not indicate any anthropogenic input in the region. The overall
average values for the different segments of the creek are as follows:
Segment December 2004
Kandla Nakti DO (mg/l) BOD (mg/l) DO(mg/l) BOD(mg/l)
Upper 2.7-6.9 (5.3)
<0.2-2.5 (0.8)
6.3-6.6 (6.4)
3.1-3.2 (3.2)
Middle 6.3-6.9 (6.6)
0.9-1.6 (1.3)
5.6-7.6 (6.4)
0.7-1.9 (1.3)
Lower 5.6-6.0 (5.9)
0.3-2.2 (1.3) - -
Offshore 6.3-6.6 (6.4)
3.1-3.8 (3.4)
2.4-7.3 (5.0)
<0.2-3.4 (1.7)
Segment January 2010
Kandla Nakti DO(mg/l) BOD(mg/l) DO(mg/l) BOD(mg/l)
Upper - - 6.7 1.0
Middle 6.3-7.0 (6.7)
<0.2-1.3 (0.7) 7.0 0.6
Lower 6.3-7.9 (7.1)
<0.2-3.5 (2.0)
6.7-7.4 (7.1)
<0.2-1.0 (0.5)
Offshore 7.0-7.9 (7.3)
0.3-3.4 (2.0)
7.0-7.3 (7.2)
<0.2-0.3 (0.2)
The results of present study indicated a significant enhancement
in the concentration of DO throughout the Kandla and Nakti Creeks as
compared to earlier results which could be associated with dense
mangroves vegetation resulting good phytoplankton population along
these creeks.
35
All natural waters contain some oxidizable matter in low
concentration, leading to BOD, which can be 2 – 5 mg/l. The levels of
BOD in the Kandla Creek, Nakti Creek as well as pipeline corridor
revealed lower level <0.2 to 3.5 mg/l (av. 1.5 mg/l) during the study than
that of earlier data which suggested that the oxidizable matter was
consumed effectively.
The results of DO (mg/l) and BOD (mg/l) recorded along the
pipeline corridor are presented in the table shown below:
Segment
January 2010 Pipeline corridor
DO (mg/l)
BOD (mg/l)
Nearshore 6.0-7.2 (7.1)
0.6-0.9 (0.7)
Towards offshore 7.2-7.5 (7.4)
0.9-1.3 (1.2)
Offshore 2.5-8.5 (7.0)
0.9-2.5 (1.5)
The pipeline corridor also sustained significantly high
concentration of DO indicating a good water quality of the region. The
level of BOD did not suggest any anthropogenic input.
5.1.6 Phosphorus and nitrogen compounds: Dissolved phosphorus and nitrogen compounds are present in low
concentrations in seawater but they are crucial for primary productivity.
The major dissolved inorganic species of phosphorus is orthophosphate
while nitrogen is mainly present as nitrate with low levels of nitrite and
ammonia in oxygenated waters. The concentrations of phosphorus and
nitrogen compounds of the present study are given in Tables 5.1.1 to
5.1.14.
i) PO4 The concentration of the PO4 was in the range of 1.1-3.6 µmol/l
(av 1.9 µmol/l) in Kandla Creek and 0.7 - 3.1 µmol/l (av 1.9 µmol/l) in
Nakti Creek during present study.
36
The overall average level of PO4 (µmol/l) for the different segment
of the creeks with earlier date is discussed below:
Segment December 2004 January 2010 Kandla Creek Nakti Creek Kandla Creek Nakti Creek
Upper 2.8-12.2 (5.0)
1.9-2.2 (2.1) -
2.8-3.1 (3.0)
Middle 3.8-5.4 (4.4)
2.4-4.5 (3.3)
1.5-2.2 (2.0)
1.5-1.6 (1.6)
Lower 1.9-3.7 (2.8) - 1.4-3.6
(2.1) 1.1-2.1 (1.6)
Towards Offshore
0.9-2.3 (1.7)
1.2-4.0 (2.1)
1.1-2.0 (1.6)
0.7-1.7 (1.5)
The level of PO4 was seen to be slightly decreased during present
study as compared to earlier records in both Kandla and Nakti Creeks
which may be due to natural variation. However, the present level of PO4
is sufficient for the growth of phytoplankton.
The average scenario of PO4 in the pipeline corridor is shown
below:
January 2010
Pipeline corridor
Nearshore 0.9-1.3 (1.2)
Towards offshore
0.7-1.1 (1.0)
Offshore 0.3-0.8 (0.6)
The concentration of PO4 in pipeline corridor ranged between 0.3 -
1.3 µmol/l (av 0.9 µmol/l) and indicated a natural back-ground in the
region.
ii) NO3
A wide variation in the concentrations of NO3 (5.6-52.3 µmol/l, av
15.6 µmol/l) in Kandla Creek and (6.4 – 37.1 µmol/l, av 13.6 µmol/l) in
Nakti Creek suggested the high level in the area.
37
The overall averages of NO3 in Kandla and Nakti Creeks are
presented below:
Segment December 2004 January 2010 Kandla Creek Nakti Creek Kandla Creek Nakti Creek
Upper 10.3-15.0 (13.0)
9.3-10.0 (9.5) - 6.4-7.1
(6.8)
Middle 11.4-17.6 (14.1)
5.3-7.1 (6.1)
9.6-12.6 (10.8)
6.4-6.8 (6.6)
Lower 8.7-10.4 (9.7) - 5.6-52.3
(23.1) 7.8-37.1 (20.6)
Towards Offshore
9.2-12.3 (10.1)
5.9-11.3 (8.9)
7.6-21.9 (13.0)
17.2-25.2 (20.5)
The values of NO3 during present study were significantly
increased towards lower and offshore segments as compared to earlier
records whereas declined level was seen in Upper and middle segment
of the creeks. The declined level of NO3 in the creeks may be due to
enhanced population of phytoplankton indicating the utilization.
The average concentration of NO3 recorded along the pipeline
corridor is presented below:
January 2010
Pipeline corridor
Nearshore 2.0-3.2(2.6)
Towards offshore
1.5-2.3(2.1)
Offshore 0.4-3.5(2.8)
The variation of NO3 was between 0.4 – 3.5 µmol/l (av 2.5 µmol/l).
iii) NO2
The NO2 concentrations were low and exhibited the variation in
the range of 0.3-0.9 µmol/l (av 0.6 µmol/l) in Kandla Creek and 0.4-1.2
µmol/l (av 0.7 µmol/l) in Nakti creek.
The average values of NO2 with earlier information are presented below:
38
Segment December 2004 January 2010 Kandla Creek
Nakti Creek
Kandla Creek
Nakti Creek
Upper 0.5-1.4 (0.9)
0.4-0.5(0.5) - 0.8-1.2
(1.0)
Middle 0.9-1.9 (1.4)
0.4-2.5(1.0)
0.5-0.9 (0.7) 0.9
Lower 0.5-0.6 (0.6) - 0.3-2.0
(0.6) 0.4-0.9(0.6)
Towards Offshore
0.4-0.6 (0.5)
0.4-0.9(0.5)
0.3-0.7 (0.5)
0.4-0.6(0.5)
The values of NO2 of present study were comparable to the earlier
records and indicated true natural back-ground.
The variation of NO2 was seen to be ND–0.5 µmol/l (av 0.3
µmol/l) in the pipeline corridor. The average concentrations of NO2 along
pipeline corridor are presented below:
January 2010 Pipeline corridor
Nearshore 0.3-0.5(0.4)
Towards offshore
0.2-0.3(0.3)
Offshore ND-0.1(0.1)
Slight decrease in the concentration of NO2 was seen in the
offshore water as compared to nearshore water which could be common
phenomenon in the Gulf.
iv) NH4
The concentrations of NH4 was seen in the range of ND – 5.9
µmol/l (av 1.8 µmol/l) for Kandla Creek and 0.2 - 7.8 µmol/l (av 3.4
µmol/l) for Nakti Creek. The overall averages in different segments of
creeks are shown below:
39
Segment December 2004 January 2010
Kandla Creek
Nakti Creek
Kandla Creek
Nakti Creek
Upper ND-4.4 (1.7)
1.1-2.2 (1.7) - 7.7-7.8
(7.8)
Middle 0.7-1.9 (1.3)
0.4-10.9(4.5)
1.7-2.5 (2.0)
3.5-4.0(3.8)
Lower ND-0.3 (0.2) - ND-5.9
(2.7) 0.2-3.2(1.6)
Towards Offshore
1.3-2.2 (1.6)
ND-3.1 (1.5)
0.2-2.5 (0.7)
0.3-0.6(0.5)
The concentrations were higher in Nakti creek which could be
associated with dense vegetation of mangrove.
The values of NH4 in the pipeline corridor ranged between ND-0.7
µmol/l (av 0.5 µmol/l) and indicated a natural background of the Gulf. The
overall concentrations of NH4 along the pipeline corridor are shown
below:
January 2010
Pipeline corridor
Nearshore 0.3-0.7(0.6)
Towards offshore
0.2-0.7(0.6)
Offshore ND-0.6(0.3)
Slight decrease in the concentration of NH4 at offshore in
comparison of Nearshore waters was in the line of natural trend of the
coastal water of Gulf.
5.1.7 PHc The results of PHc are presented in Tables 5.1.1-5.1.14. PHc
concentration in Kandla Creek varied from 27 to164 µg/l (av 54 µg/l)
which were slightly higher than that of Nakti Creek (ND - 82 µg/l, av 50
µg/l).
40
Segment December 2004 January 2010Kandla Creek Nakti Creek Kandla Creek Nakti Creek
Upper 6.8-14.7 (9.2)
6.0-24.8 (15.4) - ND
Middle 13.9 6.3 34 39
Lower 5.5 - 27-164 (78)
18-39 (29)
Towards Offshore
6.2-9.4 (7.8)
6.2-8.9 (7.5)
34-64 (49) 82
Although the values of PHc were slightly higher during present
study as compared to the earlier records, they do not indicate any gross
accumulation in marine environment.
PHc concentration in pipeline corridor is shown below:
January 2010
Pipeline corridor Nearshore 103 Towards offshore 32
Offshore 40-102
(71)
As per the natural trend, the PHc concentration was slightly higher
in the nearshore water as compared to offshore. However the over all
scenario is in the agreement of Gulf region.
5.1.8 Phenols Phenols in marine environment generally originate through
onshore anthropogenic discharge. The results of phenols in study area
are presented in Tables 5.1.1 – 5.1.14. The concentration of phenols in
Kandla Creek ranged between 18 and 52 µg/l (av.30 µg/l) and in Nakti
Creek from 32 to 59 µg/l (av. 45 µg/l). The average values of phenols for
Kandla and Nakti Creeks are compared with earlier information which are
as follows:
41
Segment December 2004 January 2010
Kandla Creek
Nakti Creek
Kandla Creek
Nakti Creek
Upper ND-36.6(16.5) ND - 32
Middle 29.8 36.6 25 59
Lower 22.4 - 21-52 (34) 41
Towards Offshore
ND-9.8 (4.9)
ND-34.4(17.2)
18-45 (31) 49
Though the values of phenols recorded during present study were
slightly higher than that of earlier results, the over all level were within the
natural variations of Gulf of Khambhat. In pipeline corridor the level of phenol is seen with the values
varying from 50 - 101 µg/l (av 61 µg/l) which are as follows:
January 2010
Pipeline corridor Nearshore 50Towards offshore 57
Offshore 50-101(76)
These levels are low and fall in the range generally observed for
the Gulf.
5.2 Sediment quality 5.2.1 Metals
a) Subtidal In the present study the surficial sediment samples from the
subtidal as well as intertidal areas (Tables 5.2.1 and 5.2.2) were
investigated for their quality with respect to texture, heavy metals, Corg,
phosphorus and PHc.
Determination of trace pollutants such as heavy metals and
organic compounds in water often reveals fluctuations as the
concentrations depend on the location and the time of sampling, nature
of pollutants and chemical characteristics. Moreover, several trace
42
pollutants get rapidly fixed to SS and thus removed from the water column. The pollutants absorbed by the SS are ultimately deposited on
the bed sediment on setting of SS. The concentrations of metals in the
sediments of subtidal as well as intertidal areas and their comparison
with earlier studies are given in the table below.
Elements
Subtidal (December 2004)Kandla Creek Nakti Creek
Upper Middle Lower Tow.off Upper Middle Lower Tow
off
Al (%) ND-0.7 (0.4) 5.6 0.3 7.9 4.2 4.3 - 4.7
Mn (µg/g) ND-113 (57) 778 ND 637 740 544 - 471
Fe (%) ND-3.9 (2.0) 4.5 0.1 5.4 5.3 2.5 - 2.1
Co (µg/g) 3-18 (11) 19 1 21 13 10 - 8
Ni (µg/g) 1-8 (5) 52 1 72 40 28 - 23
Cu (µg/g) 4-26 (15) 21 ND 46 16 10 - 10
Zn (µg/g) 2-38 (20) 133 20 129 87 37 - 85
Hg (µg/g) 0.03-0.05 (0.04) 0.03 0.05 0.09 0.04 0.05 - 0.04
The concentration of metals as evident in above table is indicative
of natural background expected for the Gulf. Slightly higher values of
Mn may be in accordance of variability of Gulf region.
The concentration of metals observed in the sediments during
present study is discussed below:
Elements
Subtidal (January 2010) Kandla Creek Nakti Creek
Upper Middle Lower Tow off Upper Middle Lower Tow
off Al (%) - 5.4 3.1 4.0 5.9 5.5 6.1 5.8 Mn (µg/g) - 520 411 519 709 641 790 718 Fe (%) - 3.0 1.8 1.9 4.2 3.1 4.0 4.1 Co (µg/g) - 14 8 8 19 17 17 9 Ni (µg/g) - 37 23 30 67 46 55 56 Cu (µg/g) - 34 15 12 43 22 43 45 Zn (µg/g) - 96 73 462 82 204 73 548 Hg (µg/g) - 0.06 0.03 0.03 0.07 0.04 0.05 0.05
43
The concentrations of metals in the subtidal sediments as evident
in the above Table were in the agreement of earlier studies of Kandla
and Nakti Creeks and did not indicate any significant anthropogenic
stress in the study area.
The results of metals of the subtidal sediments recorded along the
pipeline corridor are presented in the table below:
Elements Subtidal (January 2010)
Pipeline CorridorNearshore Towards off Offshore
Al (%) 6.0 5.0 5.2 Mn (µg/g) 658 418 565 Fe (%) 3.9 2.1 3.1 Co (µg/g) 18 5 14 Ni (µg/g) 62 20 50 Cu (µg/g) 43 17 30Zn (µg/g) 241 159 1022 Hg (µg/g) 0.04 0.06 0.07
The values of metals as evident in the above table observed in the
subtidal sediments of pipeline corridor were indicative of natural
background. The level of metals in the subtidal sediments did not
indicate any anthropogenic input, and hence suggested the region to be
free from any contamination.
b) Intertidal The metal concentrations in the intertidal sediments of earlier and
present studies are compared below:
Elements IntertidalDecember 2004 January 2010
Al (%) 6.9-9.5 (8.5)
5.1-7.0 (5.9)
Mn (µg/g) 553-699 (642)
501-712 (594)
Fe (%) 1.3-5.1 (3.4)
2.9-4.3 (3.3)
Co (µg/g) 14-19 (16)
9-17 (13)
Ni (µg/g) 42-68 (54)
7-52 (29)
Cu (µg/g) 20-45 (30)
20-40 (29)
Zn (µg/g) 91-117 (103)
936-1307 (1056)
Hg (µg/g) 0.03-0.04 (0.04)
0.04-0.32 (0.12)
44
The values of metals except Zn, of present study, were
comparable to the earlier records and suggested the natural variability.
The fluctuation in the values of Zinc during present study indicated
slightly higher level than that of earlier results.
5.2.2 Organic carbon and phosphorus a) Subtidal The source of organic carbon in coastal marine sediments is the
decaying organic matter which settles on the sediment after death of
organisms and from the terrestrial sources. On the contrary phosphorus
can occur in mineral phases in the source rock and on weathering
contributes to the sediment apart from that derived from the same source
as Corg.
The concentration of Corg and P are presented in Tables 5.2.1 to
5.2.2. Their levels in sediment around Kandla are compared with earlier
data and vary as follows:
Subtidal
Segments
December 2004 January 2010 Kandla creek Nakti creek Kandla creek Nakti creekCorg (%)
P (µg/g)
Corg(%)
P (µg/g)
Corg (%)
P (µg/g)
Corg (%)
P (µg/g)
Upper 0.1-.07 (0.4)
51-887(469) 0.3 408 - - 1.0 727
Middle 0.7 560 0.2 489 1.0 677 0.8 579
Lower 0.2 8 - - 0.3-1.3(0.7)
196-744 (469) 0.2 844
Towards offshore 0.7 550 0.2 461 0.5 486 0.9 770
The level of organic carbon of present study was comparable to
earlier records suggesting the natural background of the Gulf. The values
of phosphorus were similar to earlier results and did not indicate any
significant alteration in its level through anthropogenic sources.
a) Intertidal The scenario of organic carbon and phosphorus is shown in the
following Table:
45
Parameter Intertidal December 2004 January 2010
Corg (%) 0.4-1.6 (0.8)
0.2-2.6 (1.0)
P (µg/g) 130-747 (501)
655-932 (773)
Although the above results indicated a slight increase in Corg and
phosphorus during present study in the comparison of earlier records did
not show any significant anthropogenic input in the intertidal area.
5.2.3 Petroleum hydrocarbon
a) Subtidal Concentration of hydrocarbons in marine sediments are low and
levels are result from contamination by PHc. PHc entering marine waters
from sources such as transportation, effluent release and ship accident
etc. is weathered and also absorbed by SS and carried to the bed
sediment.
The concentrations of PHc in sediment are presented in Table
5.2.1 - 5.2.2. The concentration of PHc is compared with earlier data and
presented below:
Segment
Subtidal December 2004 January 2010
PHc (µg/g) PHc (µg/g) Kandla creek Nakti creek Kandla creek Nakti creek
Upper 0.2-2.4 (0.3) 0.2 - 0.4
Middle 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3
Lower 0.2 - 0.2-0.4 (0.3) 0.2
Towards off 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 The values of PHc as evident in the above table indicated that the
subtidal region of Kandla and Nakti Creeks was free from any
anthropogenic input and were similar to earlier records.
46
b) Intertidal The level of PHc in the intertidal region is given in the following
table:
Intertidal
December 2004 January 2010PHc (µg/g) PHc (µg/g)
0.2-0.4 (0.3)
0.1-0.7 (0.3)
The concentrations of PHc were low and in the range commonly
found in sediments of unpolluted coastal areas. The values were
comparable to that of earlier results.
5.3 Flora and fauna Evaluation of biological sensitivity of potential coastal activities is
an integral part of environmental monitoring, since the ultimate
consequences of perturbations in the environment, affect marine life. In
the marine environment organisms experience natural stress which
varies in magnitude and frequency depending on changes in physico -
chemical characteristics of water body.
With this view, the status of flora and fauna in the coastal water of
Kandla, Gulf of Kachchh was evaluated in terms of microbiology,
phytoplankton pigments, population and total genera, zooplankton
biomass, population and total groups and intertidal and subtidal
macrobenthic biomass, population and total groups. The results of these
studies are discussed below:
5.3.1 Microbiology a) Water
The results of different group of bacteria counts for different
regions of the coastal water of Kandla are discussed below:
47
Kandla Creek The microbial counts recorded at different stations in Kandla creek
are presented in Table 5.3.1. The overall average of counts for the
different segment of the creek is evident in the following Table:
Type of Bacteria Middle Lower Tow. OffCFU/ml
TVC 3x103 2.375x103 1050 TC 240 295 400 FC ND 76 185
ECLO 100 110 105 SHLO ND ND ND SLO ND ND ND
PKLO ND 15 ND VLO 20 305 125
VPLO 20 7 ND VCLO ND 297 125 PALO ND ND ND SFLO ND ND ND
ND –Below Detectable Level
It is evident from the above Table that the surface water of middle
segment of Kandla Creek sustains highest total viable counts as
compared to the other segments. Total Coliform, Faecal Coliform and
Escherichia coli were common at all stations whereas the Proteus/
Klebsiella like organisms were present only in lower segment. The
presence of pathogenic bacteria indigenous microorganism such as
Vibrio cholerae like organism were also seen in low counts towards
offshore region.
The human pathogen i.e. bacteria such as vibrio
parahaemolyticus were found in Middle and lower segment in low
number which may be due to human contamination in the region.
Nakti Creek The results of bacterial count are presented in the Table 5.3.1.
The overall average values of counts are as follows:
48
Type of Bacteria UpstreamCFU/ml
Middle CFU/ml
Lower CFU/ml
Tow. Off CFU/ml
TVC 6.0x104 19x104 8.6x104 2.7x104 TC 160 510 500 160 FC 50 170 260 100
ECLO 110 150 235 40 SHLO ND ND ND ND SLO ND ND ND ND
PKLO ND ND ND ND VLO ND 1600 50 ND
VPLO ND ND ND 200 VCLO ND 1600 50 ND PALO ND ND ND ND SFLO ND ND ND ND
ND –Below Detectable Level
The Total Viable Count in surface waters off Nakti Creek indicated
the high values of bacterial count towards the middle and lower
segments in the comparison of other segments. The middle and lower
segments also revealed high counts of Total Coliform, Faecal Coliform,
Escherichia coli like organism which is associated with dense mangroves
prevailing in the region. The pathogenic micro organisms like Vibrio
cholerae were found in high count in middle segment which suggested
the human contamination in the creek. The Vibrio parahaemolyticus like
organism recorded only towards offshore region indicated a patchy
distribution.
Pipeline Corridor The details of bacterial counts in water are presented in Table
5.3.1. The overall average values in the different segment of pipeline
corridor are discussed below:
Type of Bacteria Near Shore
CFU/ml Tow. OffCFU/ml
Off (SPM)CFU/ml
TVC 1.3x104 300 900 TC ND ND 40 FC ND ND 15
ECLO ND ND 10 SHLO ND ND ND SLO ND ND ND
PKLO ND ND ND VLO 70 20 ND
VPLO ND ND ND VCLO 70 20 ND PALO ND ND ND SFLO ND ND ND
ND –Below Detectable Level
49
Significantly high microbial count in the near shore region as
compared to other segments clearly indicated the contamination of
human activities.
The presence of Total Coliform, Faecal Coliform and Escherichia
coli like organism towards offshore region were minor. The pathogenic
bacteria such as Vibrio cholerae like organism in near shore water was
an indicative of human contamination in the region.
a) Sediment The microbial counts recorded in sediments are presented in
Table 5.3.2. The overall scenario of bacterial counts for different region
of the study area is discussed below:
Kandla Creek The average values for the different segment of the creek are
shown below:
ND –Below Detectable Level
The bacterial count in sediment off Kandla Creek indicated
noticeably high Bacterial population in the middle segment when
compared to lower and offshore region which suggested a natural trend
of distribution of bacteria. Slightly higher count of Total Coliform and
Escherichia coli like organism in the comparison of middle and offshore
Type of Bacteria MiddleCFU/g
Lower CFU/g
Tow.OffCFU/g
TVC 5x106 4.25x106 1.5x106
TC 3100 1333 2000 FC ND 666 600
ECLO 2000 333 500 SHLO ND ND ND SLO ND ND ND
PKLO ND ND 3500 VLO ND ND 24000
VPLO ND ND 21000 VCLO ND ND 20000 PALO ND ND ND SFLO ND ND ND
50
region suggested a common distribution trend. The presence of Proteus
/Klebsiella, Vibrio cholerae and Vibrio parahaemolyticus like organism
only in the water of offshore could be due to occasional occurrence.
Nakti Creek The results of bacterial count at different stations of Nakti Creek
are given in Table 5.3.2. The average values for the different segment of
the creek are shown below:
Type of Bacteria
UpstreamCFU/g
Middle CFU/g
Lower CFU/g
Tow. Off CFU/g
TVC 5.6x106 24x106 20.5x106 4x106
TC 3000 10000 6000 NDFC 1000 7000 3000 ND ECLO 1600 4000 1500 ND SHLO ND ND ND ND SLO ND ND ND ND PKLO ND ND ND ND VLO ND ND ND NDVPLO ND ND ND ND VCLO ND ND ND ND PALO ND ND ND ND SFLO ND ND ND ND
ND –Below Detectable Level
The above results indicated a built up of microbial population at
the middle and lower segments of the creek. The creek throughout its
segment exhibited slightly high counts of Total coliform, Faecal coliform
and Escherichia coli whereas offshore region showed the count below
detectable level of these bacteria which were in agreement of natural
trend of distribution.
Pipeline Corridor The results of pipeline corridor are shown in Table 5.3.2. However
the average values of bacteria in sediment for different segment of
pipeline indicated a high TVC count in the corridor of SPM as evident in
following Table:
51
Type of Bacteria
Near ShoreCFU/g
Tow.OffCFU/g
Off (SPM)CFU/g
TVC 2.8x106 1x105 3.2x106
TC ND ND ND FC ND ND ND ECLO ND ND ND SHLO ND ND ND SLO ND ND ND PKLO ND ND ND VLO ND ND ND VPLO ND ND ND VCLO ND ND ND PALO ND ND ND SFLO ND ND ND
ND –Below Detectable Level
The sediment of offshore region showed only TVC count and
suggested the sediment to be free from any bacterial contamination.
5.3.2 Phytoplankton
a) Phytoplankton pigments: The concentration of phytoplankton pigments revealed wide
variation with the high values of chlorophyll a (1.3-6.3mg/m3; av 2.1
mg/m3) and phaeophytin (0.2-3.8 mg/m3; av 1.3 mg/m3) in Kandla Creek
and suggested the common characteristics of creek system (Table
5.3.3). The temporal studies of pigments at station 2 and 14 indicated
that the values of phaeophytin were slightly higher at bottom than that of
surface water as illustrated in Figures 5.3.1 and 5.3.2, which could be
associated with comparatively higher SS prevailing there. The
concentration of chlorophyll a (0.8-1.6 mg/m3; av 1.4 mg/m3) recorded
towards offshore was in the agreement of normal primary production of
the coastal water of Gulf of Kachchh. The overall scenario of present
results of Kandla Creek are compared with the earlier findings and
shown below:
52
Kandla Creek
Chlorophyll a (mg/m3)
Phaeophytin (mg/m3)
Ratio of Chl a to Phaeo
S B S B S B December 2004
Upstream 0.2-0.2 (0.2)
0.2-0.2(0.2)
0.2-0.5(0.4)
0.5-1.0(0.7)
0.4-0.9 (0.7)
0.2-0.4 (0.4)
Middle 0.2-0.2 (0.2)
0.2-0.2(0.2)
0.4-0.5(0.5)
0.8-1.0(0.9)
0.4-0.6 (0.5)
0.2-0.3 (0.3)
Lower 0.4-0.4 (0.4)
0.4-0.4(0.4)
0.5-0.6(0.5)
0.8-0.9(0.8)
0.7-0.9 (0.8)
0.5-0.6 (0.6)
Towards offshore
0.2-0.2 (0.2)
0.2-0.2(0.2)
0.2-0.5(0.4)
0.7-0.8(0.8)
0.4-0.9 (0.7)
0.3-0.3 (0.3)
March 2010 Upstream - - - - - -
Middle 1.4-1.7 (1.6)
1.7-1.8(1.8)
0.9-1.2(1.1)
1.3-1.3(1.3)
1.2-1.9 (1.6)
1.3-1.4 (1.4)
Lower 1.3-6.3 (2.6)
1.5-5.2(2.5)
0.2-3.5(1.2)
0.5-3.8(1.4)
1.3-6.5 (3.1)
1.4-4.5 (2.4)
Towards offshore
1.3-1.6 (1.5)
0.8-1.5(1.3)
0.4-0.9(0.7)
0.4-1.2(0.9)
1.6-3.9 (2.6)
1.2-2.1 (1.7)
The phytoplankton pigments as evident in above table suggested
higher concentration during present study than that of earlier results of
2004 which could be due to seasonal variability of phytoplankton
production.
The level of pigments in Nakti Creek was seen slightly lower with
the normal variation of chlorophyll a (1.1-2.5 mg/m3; av 1.8 mg/m3) and
phaeophytin (0.3-1.3 mg/m3; av 0.9 mg/m3). The upstream region of
creek showed slightly higher concentration of chlorophyll a as compared
to lower segment. However, the ratios of chlorophyll a/ phaeophytin in
both Kandla and Nakti Creek were generally higher than 1 and
suggested a healthy condition of phytoplankton cells in the region. The
values of chlorophyll a (1.8-2.6 mg/m3; av 2.2 mg/m3) and phaeophytin
(0.8-1.2 mg/m3; av 1.0 mg/m3) observed towards off Nakti were indicative
of good phytoplankton production in the region. The overall average
values of chlorophyll a and phaeophytin of present study were compared
with the earlier results of 2004 and shown below:
53
Nakti Creek
Chlorophyll a (mg/m3)
Phaeophytin (mg/m3)
Ratio of Chl a to Phaeo
S B S B S B December 2004
Upstream 0.2-0.2 (0.2)
0.2-0.2(0.2)
0.2-0.5(0.4)
0.5-0.7(0.6)
0.4-0.9 (0.6)
0.3-0.4 (0.4)
Middle 0.4-0.4 (0.4)
0.4-0.4(0.4)
0.6-0.6(0.6)
0.8-0.9(0.9)
0.7-0.7 (0.7)
0.5-0.6 (0.6)
Lower - - - - - - Towards offshore
0.2-0.2 (0.2)
0.2-0.2(0.2)
0.2-0.5(0.3)
0.4-1.0(0.6)
0.4-2.5 (1.0)
0.2-0.6 (0.4)
March 2010 Upstream 2.3-2.5
(2.4) - 0.9-1.3
(1.1) - 1.8-2.8
(2.3) -
Middle 1.1-1.2 (1.2)
- 0.8-0.9(0.9)
- 1.3-1.4 (1.4)
-
Lower 1.4-2.3 (1.8)
- 0.3-1.2(0.8)
- 1.7-6.8 (3.2)
-
Towards offshore
2.1-2.6 (2.4)
1.8-2.0(1.9)
0.8-1.0(0.9)
1.0-1.2(1.1)
2.5-2.8 (2.7)
1.5-1.9 (1.7)
The higher concentration of pigments during present study than
that of 2004 clearly suggested that March was suitable season for the
growth of phytoplankton.
The overall scenario of phytoplankton pigments in pipeline corridor
is presented in the following table:
Pipeline corridor
Chlorophyll a (mg/m3)
Phaeophytin
(mg/m3) Ratio of Chl a to
Phaeo
S B S B S B March 2010
Nearshore 2.9-3.0(3.0)
1.8-1.8(1.8)
0.5-0.5(0.5)
0.6-0.7(0.7)
5.8-6.0 (5.9)
2.6-3.0 (2.8)
Towards offshore
1.6-1.7(1.7)
0.6-1.6(1.1)
0.4-1.0(0.7)
0.4-0.6(0.5)
2.3-4.3 (3.3)
1.5-2.7 (2.1)
Off (SPM) 0.6-1.8(1.2)
0.8-1.7(1.3)
0.3-0.8(0.6)
0.4-0.6(0.5)
1.8-3.6 (2.7)
1.1-3.4 (2.3)
The concentration of pigments in pipeline corridor revealed a
definite trend of variation with the highest concentration of chlorophyll a
(1.8-3.0 mg/m3; av 2.4 mg/m3) in the nearshore water and gradual
decrease towards offshore (0.6-1.8 mg/m3; av 1.3 mg/m3)(Table 5.3.3).
The ratios of chlorophyll a/ phaeophytin in the pipeline corridor of Gulf of
54
Kachchh were always higher than 1 suggesting a healthy condition of
phytoplankton cells.
a) Phytoplankton population: The phytoplankton population in terms of cell counts, total genera
and major genera is presented in Table 5.3.4. Phytoplankton population
in Kandla Creek followed the similar pattern of distribution as pigments.
The higher cell counts (45.6-108.5 no x 103/l; av 67.8 no x 103/l) in the
lower segment of the creek than offshore water (45.6-52.8 no x 103/l; av
48.1 no x 103/l) indicated the common characteristics of any creek
system. The predominance of Thalassiosira, Thalassionema,
Coscinodiscus, Navicula and Peridinium indicated the characteristics of
coastal water of Gulf (Table 5.3.5). The overall scenario of phytoplankton
population during present and earlier studies observed in Kandla Creek
is compared as follows:
Kandla Creek
Cell Count (No x 103/l)
Total genera Major genera
S B S B S B December 2004
Upstream 2.4-17.4 (6.0)
3.2-11.8 (5)
9-13 (11)
7-13 (10)
Navicula Nitzschia Biddulphia Melosira
Thalassionema Nitzschia Navicula Thalassiosira
Middle 3.6* 3.6* 10* 10*
Thalassionema Oscillatoria Thalassiosira Coscinodiscus
Biddulphia Nitzschia Thalassiosira Coscinodiscus
Lower 6.8* 2.0* 5* 4*
Thalassionema Thalassiosira Coscinodiscus Biddulphia
Thalassiosira Coscinodiscus Navicula Surirella
Offshore 5.2-45.2 (25.2)
0.8-32.8 (16.8)
5-14 (10)
2-10 (6)
Fragillaria Melosira Thalassiosira Coscinodiscus
Fragillaria Coscinodiscus Skeletonema Thalassiosira
March 2010Upstream - - - - - -
Middle 56.3* 72.0* 15* 18*
Thalassiosira Coscinodiscus Thalassionema Compyloneis
Thalassiosira Peridinium Melosira Coscinodiscus
Lower 47.2-108.5 (82.6)
45.6-60.3 (52.9)
9-21 (15)
9-17 (14)
Thalassiosira Fragillaria Peridinium Coscinodiscus
Thalassiosira Coscinodiscus Thalassionema Navicula
Offshore 48.2-52.8 (50.5)
45.6-45.6 (45.6)
15-15 (15)
9-12 (11)
Thalassionema Thalassiosira Navicula Fragillaria
Thalassiosira Navicula Nitzschia Coscinodiscus
55
The higher values of phytoplankton population during March 2010
as compared to December 2004 are discernible in above Table.
Seasonal impact on generic diversity of phytoplankton was also clear
with higher numbers during premonsoon than postmonsoon suggesting
the suitability of season for phytoplankton growth.
Phytoplankton population in Nakti Creek followed the similar trend
as pigments (Table 5.3.4). This creek exhibited wide variation in
phytoplankton population in terms of cell counts (46.9-148.0 no x 103/l;
av 79.1 no x 103/l) and total genera (11-19; av 14) and suggested a good
primary production in the region. The overall structure of earlier studies
and present results can be seen in following table:
Nakti Creek
Cell Count (No x 103/l)
Total genera Major genera
S B S B S B December 2004
Upstream 6.0-22.4
(13.9)
1.6-15.0 (8.5)
6-11 (8)
4-9(7)
Fragillaria Skeletonema Biddulphia Eucampia
Fragillaria ThalassionemaSkeletonema Rhizosolenia
Middle - - - - - - Lower - - - - - -
Towards offshore
4.4-8.0 (5.8)
2.0-10.4 (5.7)
5-6 (6)
5-8(6)
Melosira Coscinodiscus Fragillaria Thalassionema
Melosira ThalassionemaCoscinodiscus Thalassiosira
March 2010
Upstream 76.8* - 13* -
Fragillaria Thalassiosira Nitzschia Coscinodiscus
-
Middle 46.9* - 11* -
Thalassiosira Navicula Coscinodiscus Leptocylindrus
-
Lower 79.2-148
(113.6) -
14-19
(17) -
Thalassiosira Navicula Guinardia Coscinodiscus
-
Towards offshore 67.0* 45.6* 25* 12*
Chaetoceros Thalassiosira Bacteriastrum Thalassionema
Biddulphia Coscinodiscus Thalassiosira Nitzschia
The lower segment of the creek sustained an enhanced
phytoplankton population in the comparison of upstream and middle
56
segments. The phytoplankton population off Nakti (45.6-67.0 no x 103/l;
av 56.3 no x 103/l) was comparable of values recorded in Khambhat
creek and revealed a good water quality for growth of phytoplankton.
Thalassiosira, Chaetoceros, Navicula, Coscinodiscus, Nitzschia and
Biddulphia were major genera which were commonly recorded in the
coastal water of Gulf (Table 5.3.5). The seasonal variation on
phytoplankton was evident with higher values of population during
premonsoon, 2010 than that of postmonsoon of 2004.
Phytoplankton structure recorded along pipeline corridor revealed
slightly higher values of cell counts at nearshore water as compared to
offshore water. The overall scenario of phytoplankton population along
pipeline route is shown below:
Pipeline corridor
Cell Count (No x 103/l)
Total genera Major genera
S B S B S B March 2010
Nearshore 105.9* 68.8* 17* 15*
Thalassiosira Navicula Melosira Nitzschia
Navicula Thalassiosira Nitzschia Surirella
Towards offshore 72.4* 74.4* 20* 24*
Peridinium LeptocylindrusMuneira Thalassiosira
ThalassionemaNavicula Nitzschia Fragillaria
Off (SPM) 10.4-27.2
(19.0)
15.2-93.8
(55.0)
7-15
(11)
10-19
(15)
LeptocylindrusThalassiosira CoscinodiscusNavicula
Thalassiosira Navicula Leptocylindrus Streptotheca
A gradual decline in cell counts from nearshore towards the water
off (SPM) is evident in the above table. However, a very good generic
diversity with the major groups of Leptocylindrus, Thalassiosira,
Navicula, Coscinodiscus and Streptotheca indicated the general
characteristics of the Gulf region (Table 5.3.5).
5.3.3 Zooplankton The zooplankton standing stock as evident in Table 5.3.6
indicated a wide variation in biomass (0.7-22.5 ml/100 m3, av. 8.9
ml/100m3), population (8.7-265.0 x 103/100 m3, av. 64.9 x 103 /100 m3)
57
and total groups (7-14, av. 11) during present study and suggested a
normal zooplankton standing stock expected for the Kandla Creek.
Zooplankton biomass (2.4-11.1 ml/100 m3, av. 6.7 ml/100m3), population
(23.2-147.4 x 103/100 m3, av. 82.6 x 103 /100 m3) and total groups (12-
18, av. 15) recorded towards offshore suggested a conducive marine
environment for zooplankton production. Temporal variation as evident in
Figures 5.3.3 and 5.3.4 could be associated with tidal variation. The most
dominant zooplankton groups in the creek area were decapods larvae
whereas the offshore water was dominated by copepods (Table 5.3.7).
The overall zooplankton standing stock of Kandla Creek is presented in
the following Table:
Kandla Creek
Biomass (ml/100m3)
Population (nox103/100m3)
Total groups
(no)
Major group (%)
December 2004 Upstream 5.1-21.5
(12.1) 7.6-101.5
(54.0) 13-16 (15)
Decapod larvae (69.5), Copepods (24.0), Chaetognaths (5.4), Lamellibranchs (0.6).
Middle 2.0-2.6 (2.3)
3.9-4.7 (4.3)
12-15 (14)
Copepods (64.2), Decapod larvae (25.7), Chaetognaths (2.2), Gastropods (2.1).
Lower 12.9-13.0 (13.0)
39.2-46.2 (42.7)
11-14 (13)
Decapod larvae (70.0), Copepods (17.6), Chaetognaths (8.5), Amphipods (2.4).
Towards offshore
4.5-8.8 (6.8)
26.8-89.0 (58.5)
17-19 (19)
Decapod larvae (54.0), Copepods (27.4), Chaetognaths (15.2), Amphipods (2.4).
March 2010 Upstream - - - -
Middle 10.4-12.4 (11.4)
62.9-70.8 (66.8)
9-11 (10)
Decapod larvae (72.0), Copepods (18.7), Mysids (4.5), Fish larvae (3.3).
58
Kandla Creek
Biomass (ml/100m3)
Population (nox103/100m3)
Total groups
(no)
Major group (%)
Lower 0.7-22.5 (6.5)
8.7-265.0 (63.0)
7-14 (11)
Decapod larvae (52.0), Copepods (38.6), Chaetognaths (3.3), Lamellibranchs (2.4).
Towards offshore
2.4-11.1 (6.7)
23.2-147.4 (82.6)
12-18 (15)
Copepods (58.1), Decapod larvae (33.5), Chaetognaths (4.3), Lamellibranchs (1.8).
The above table indicates almost similar structure of zooplankton
standing stock during present study as compared to the results of 2004.
A slight change in community structure of zooplankton with the presence
of fish larvae (3.3%) in the middle segment of the creek and
lamellibranchs (1.8%) towards offshore is evident in the above Table.
The group diversity in terms of total groups recorded towards offshore
during present study was well in the range of earlier records of 2004.
The zooplankton standing stock of Nakti Creek was enhanced and
the values of biomass (11.2-28.6 ml/100 m3, av. 15.6 ml/100m3),
population (168.0-714.7 x 103/100 m3, av. 385.6 x 103 /100 m3) and total
groups (9-14, av. 12) revealed wide variation suggesting a good
zooplankton production in the region. The overall zooplankton standing
stock of present study with earlier results is shown in the following yable:
Nakti Creek
Biomass (ml/100m3)
Population (nox103/100m3)
Total groups(no)
Major group (%)
December 2004 Upstream 0.3-19.0
(6.7) 2.6-37.4 (18.1)
2-17 (13)
Decapod larvae (50.5),Copepods (34.3), Lamellibranchs (10.5), Mysids (1.1).
Middle 4.6-5.5 (5.1)
24.1-31.8 (27.9)
15-16 (16)
Decapod larvae (50.5),Copepods (45.5), Chaetognaths (1.9), Amphipods (1.1).
Lower - - - -
59
The group diversity was almost similar throughout Nakti Creek.
The water off Nakti exhibited lower biomass and population as compared
to creek system which represented a normal scenario of the coastal
water. Copepods were the most dominant group (68.0-87.7 %)
throughout the creek due to which a significant enhancement in
population was seen. Thus, the results of present studies revealed a
significant enhancement in zooplankton standing stock as compared to
the findings of 2004. This could be associated with seasonal variability of
zooplankton.
Nakti Creek
Biomass (ml/100m3)
Population (nox103/100m3)
Total groups(no)
Major group (%)
Towards offshore
2.1-6.8 (4.0)
4.5-21.3 (10.9)
14-16 (15)
Copepods (53.9), Decapod larvae (23.9),Chaetognaths (14.0), Amphipods (3.7).
March 2010 Upstream 14.2-16.6
(15.4) 210.1-277.9
(244.0) 11-12 (12)
Copepods (87.7), Decapod larvae (6.5), Mysids (2.1), Chaetognaths (1.8).
Middle 12.8-28.6 (20.7)
460.6-714.7 (587.7)
11-11 (11)
Copepods (81.8), Decapod larvae (8.7), Mysids (7.6), Lamellibranchs (0.9).
Lower 11.2-26.7 (10.7)
168.0-701.5 (325.2)
9-14 (12)
Copepods (68.0), Decapod larvae (23.2),Mysids (5.5), Lamellibranchs (1.1).
Towards offshore
3.2-4.3 (3.8)
24.4-69.3 (46.8)
12-14 (13)
Copepods (74.5), Decapod larvae (22.4),Chaetognaths (1.4), Lamellibranchs (0.6).
Pipeline Corridor
Biomass(ml/100m3)
Population(nox103/100m3)
Total groups(no)
Major group (%)
March 2010Nearshore 3.5-5.3
(4.4) 44.7-222.8
(133.7) 12-14 (13)
Copepods (96.1), Decapod larvae (2.0), Lamellibranchs (0.7), Chaetognaths (0.5).
Towards offshore
20.9-28.4 (24.7)
360.3-845.4 (602.8)
13-13 (13)
Copepods (99.3), Chaetognaths (0.3), Decapod larvae (0.2), Medusae (0.1).
Off (SPM) 2.3-32.5 (11.3)
18.7-164.7 (81.1)
11-15 (13)
Copepods (53.9), Decapod larvae (21.6),Ostracods (12.9), Gastropods (3.7).
60
The zooplankton standing stock recorded along the pipeline
corridor is as follows:
The above table indicates a good zooplankton standing stock
particularly towards offshore region. The corridor off (SPM) also revealed
a very good biomass of zooplankton with the dominance of copepods
(53.9 %), decapod larvae (21.6 %) and Ostracods (12.9 %). A total of 19
groups of zooplankton were recorded in the coastal water of Kandla and
surrounding region of Gulf. The overall scenario of zooplankton standing
stock suggested a good water quality for zooplankton along the pipeline
corridor.
5.3.4 Macrobenthos
a) Intertidal The intertidal macrobenthic standing stock in terms of biomass,
population and faunal group revealed wide variation at the region of
Kandla Creek which could be evident from Tables 5.3.8 and 5.3.9. The
overall scenario of biomass (0.0-3.0 g/m2, wet wt.; 0.7 g/m2, wet wt.),
population (0-650 no/m2, 224 no/m2) and faunal groups (0-6 no, 2 no)
recorded at Kandla Creek suggested normal macrobenthic standing
stock generally seen along the Gulf area. The comparison of present
results with earlier information on intertidal macrobenthic fauna is shown
below:
Kandla Creek
Biomass (g/m2; wet wt.)
Population(no/m2)
Faunal group(no)
Major group
December 2004 HWL 0.0-5.3
(1.9) 0-704 (411)
0-3 (1)
Mysids Brachyurans
MWL 4.5-23.6 (12.7)
352-704 (528)
1-3 (1)
Brachyurans Amphipods
LWL 7.0-15.3 (12.4)
176-528 (411)
1-2 (1)
Brachyurans
March 2010 HWL 0.0-1.1
(0.7) 0-650 (385)
0-6 (3)
Polychaetes Brachyurans
MWL 0.0-1.2 (0.5)
0-625 (159)
0-5 (2)
Polychaetes Brachyurans Amphipods
LWL 0.0-3.0 (0.8)
0-525 (129)
0-4 (2)
Polychaetes Brachyurans
61
A significant decline in intertidal macrobenthic biomass and
population during the period of present study as compared to earlier
records indicates the seasonal variability of macrobenthos. The
predominance of brachyurans during postmonsoon, 2004 was replaced
by polychaetes during premonsoon, 2010 (Table 5.3.10). However, a
slight improvement in the total number of faunal group during
premonsoon than that of postmonsoon suggested the natural variability.
Nakti Creek sustained significantly high biomass (<0.001-6.3g/m2,
wet wt.; 1.4 g/m2, wet wt.), population (25-10325 no/m2, 1711 no/m2) and
faunal groups (1-6 no, 3 no) in the comparison of Kandla Creek (Tables
5.3.8 and 5.3.9). The polychaete as a major group at Nakti Creek was
similar to Kandla Creek. The overall average of intertidal macrobenthic
standing stock recorded during present study and earlier information is
presented below:
Nakti Creek
Biomass (g/m2; wet wt.)
Population(no/m2)
Faunal group(no)
Major group
December 2004 HWL 0.0-104.8
(32.2) 0-6952 (1953)
0-4 (3)
Brachyurans Copepods Isopods
MWL 0.0-10.0 (4.4)
0-3168 (880)
0-7 (4)
Polychaetes Copepods
LWL 0.0-72.5 (21.9)
0-4224 (1744)
0-6 (3)
Brachyurans Cumaceans Polychaetes
March 2010 HWL 0.06-6.3
(1.4) 150-5350
(1205) 2-6 (3)
Polychaetes Mysids Amphipods
MWL - - - - LWL <0.001-5.9
(1.4) 25-10325
(2217) 1-5 (3)
Polychaetes Amphipods Pelecypods
A significant decline in biomass and population during March,
2010 as compared to December, 2004 revealed the seasonal impact on
macrobenthic fauna. The modification in community structure over the
period of 6 years is also evident in above Table.
62
The pipeline corridor sustained markedly high biomass, population
and faunal group suggesting a good macrobenthic standing stock in the
region. The overall scenario of intertidal macrobenthic fauna is presented
below:
Pipeline Corridor
Biomass (g/m2; wet wt.)
Population(no/m2)
Faunal group(no)
Major group
March 2010 HWL 0.2-37.3
(14.2) 50-1000
(510) 1-7 (3)
Brachyurans Polychaetes
MWL 0.0-15.3 (7.6)
0-4425 (2454)
0-6 (5)
Polychaetes Amphipods Gastropods
LWL 0.008-8.3 (4.2)
25-2225 (1139)
1-4 (3)
Polychaetes Pelecypods Amphipods
The above table indicates that the High Water Level (HWL)
sustains markedly high biomass which could be due to the presence of
brachyurans in high numbers. Mid Water Level (MWL) and Low Water
Level (LWL) reveals slight change in community structure with the
predominance of polychaetes (Table 5.3.10).
b) Subtidal The values of subtidal macrobenthic standing stock in terms of
biomass (0-2.8 g/m2 wet wt; av. 0.7 g/m2 wet wt), population (0-525/m2,
av. 262/m2) and faunal group (0-5, av. 3) indicated a wide variation in
Kandla Creek during present study (Table 5.3.11). Polychaete was the
dominant group followed by isopods, decapod larvae and amphipods.
The coastal water of Kandla exhibited lower values of biomass,
population and total group as compared to Kandla Creek. The overall
average values of subtidal macrobenthic standing stock recorded in
Kandla Creek during present study and earlier records are presented
below:
63
Kandla Creek
Biomass (g/m2; wet wt.)
Population(no/m2)
Faunal group(no)
Major group
December 2004 Upstream 0.0-3.2
(1.0) 0-550 (194)
0-5 (3)
Polychaetes Brachyurans Amphipods Nemertines
Middle 0.2-1.2 (0.6)
175-1366 (479)
3-6 (4)
Polychaetes Crustaceans Nemertines Amphipods
Lower 0.7* 75* 1* Brachyurans Towards offshore
1.5-1.5 (1.5)
75-75 (75)
1-1 (1)
Brachyurans
March 2010 Upstream - - - -
Middle 0.3-2.8 (1.3)
200-525 (376)
1-4 (3)
Polychaetes Isopods Brachyurans
Lower 0.0-0.3 (0.1)
0-500 (148)
0-5 (2)
Polychaetes Decapod larvaeAmphipods
Towards offshore
0.0-0.8 (0.3)
0-425 (95)
0-2 (1)
Decapod larvaeAmphipods
It is evident from the above table that the values of biomass,
population and total groups recorded present study are comparable with
the earlier records. Though, the polychaete being the major group, was
similar in middle segment of creek, the other groups were seen to be
different during the present study as compared to earlier records. The
offshore water sustained decapod larvae as a major fauna during March
2010 whereas during December 2004 there was a single group of
brachyurans.
Nakti Creek also revealed a natural variation in overall biomass
(0.02-1.5 g/m2 wet wt; av. 0.5 g/m2 wet wt), population (50-775/m2, av.
252/m2) and faunal group (1-4, av. 3) of subtidal macrobenthos and
indicated a normal standing stock in the region (Table 5.3.11). The
average values of present results and earlier information are shown
below:
64
Nakti Creek
Biomass (g/m2; wet wt.)
Population(no/m2)
Faunal group(no)
Major group
December 2004 Upstream 0.0-28.9
(8.1) 0-2150 (1038)
0-5 (2)
Brachyurans Polychaetes Amphipods
Middle 0.8-3.1 (2.2)
325-2075 (1056)
2-5 (3)
Polychaetes Amphipods Isopods
Lower - - - - Towards offshore
0.0-1.3 (0.6)
0-1325 (381)
0-4 (2)
Isopods Polychaetes
March 2010 Upstream - - - -
Middle 0.03-0.5 (0.2)
75-200 (131)
2-4 (3)
Polychaetes Amphipods
Lower 0.02-1.5 (0.7)
50-775 (372)
1-4 (2)
Polychaetes Mysids
Towards offshore
0.003-0.1 (0.03)
25-75 (38)
1-2 (1)
Decapod larvae
A slight increase in the macrobenthic standing stock was seen in
the middle segment of the creek. The major groups of macrobenthos
were similar in both middle and lower part of the creek. There was a
significant decline in subtidal macrobenthic standing stock towards
offshore as compared to creek system. There was also a significant
decline in biomass, population and total groups during present study in
the comparison of results of 2004 which could be due to seasonal impact
on macrobenthic standing stock. The dominance of polychaetes during
both earlier and present studies suggested no modification in the
community structure of macrobenthos over the period of 6 years in the
middle segment of Nakti Creek.
The pipeline corridor sustained noticeably high overall standing
stock in terms of biomass (0.8-7.0 g/m2 wet wt; av. 2.0 g/m2 wet wt),
population (300-800 /m2, av. 573 /m2) and faunal group (2-8, av. 5). The
average values of subtidal macrobenthic standing stock are presented
below:
65
Pipeline Corridor
Biomass (g/m2; wet wt.)
Population(no/m2)
Faunal group(no)
Major group
March 2010 Nearshore 0.9-2.6
(1.6) 300-800
(615) 4-8 (6)
Polychaetes Amphipods Oligochaetes
Towards offshore
0.8-2.2 (1.6)
325-650 (463)
2-5 (4)
Polychaetes Tanaids
Off (SPM) 1.1-7.0 (2.8)
425-775 (640)
3-7 (4)
Polychaetes Oligochaetes
The macrobenthic standing stock of nearshore water of pipeline
corridor was almost similar towards offshore water whereas the waters
near SPM revealed higher values of biomass and population. The
community structure remained similar throughout along the pipeline
corridor with the dominance of polychaetes (Table 5.3.12).
5.3.5 Fishery High tidal amplitude and high turbidity coupled with strong tidal
currents make trawling or gill netting difficult and risky in Kandla and
Nakti Creek and nearshore coastal water of Kandla. Evidently no active
commercial fishing exists in the region excepting some bag-netting,
shore netting or other traditional gears by local fishermen. Enquiries with
the local fishermen also confirm that the trawlers generally do not
operate in this region. The status of fisheries was assessed based on
some experimental trawling conducted around the project site.
The results of experimental trawling off Kandla Creek and off Nakti
Creek revealed a poor fish standing stock in the region. The catch rate of
experimental trawling conducted during present study is given below:
Station
Catch Rate
(Kg/h)
Major species
6 1.5 Fishes: Hemiramphus saltator, Chirocentrus dorab, Harpadon nehereus, Pampus argenteus, Coilia dussumieri, Clupea lile, Thryssa vitrirostris Prawns: Penaeus japonicus, Parapenaeopsis stylifera
7
1.6 Fishes: Hemiramphus saltator, Harpadon nehereus, Chirocentrus dorab, Clupea lile, Pampus argenteus, Coilia dussumieri Prawns: Parapenaeopsis stylifera, Penaeus japonicus, Nematopalemon tenuipes Crabs: Matuta lunaris, Charybdis annulata
66
The catch rate during experimental trawling was low associated
with high zooplankton standing stock indicating low fishery potential and
high secondary production. However, the quality fishes though in low
quantity such as Pampus argenteus, Harpadon nehereus, Coilia
dussumieri along with prawns viz. Penaeus japonicus and
Parapenaeopsis stylifera were obtained suggesting the region to be
conducive for quality fishes.
5.3.6 Mangroves Mangroves are salt tolerant forest ecosystem of tropical and
subtropical intertidal regions of the world. Where conditions are sheltered
and suitable, the mangroves may form extensive and productive forests,
which are the reservoirs of a large number of species of plants and
animals. The role of mangrove forests in stabilizing the shoreline of the
coastal zone by preventing soil erosion and arresting encroachment on
land by sea is well recognized thereby minimizing water logging and
formation of saline banks.
The middle and downstream of Kandla Creek was seen with
dense patches of mangroves with monotypic species of Avicennia
marina. The Nakti Creek sustained dense mangrove vegetation at both
the banks. The average density of plant was seen between 150-225
plants/ 100 m2 with the average height varying 0.5-3.5 m in Kandla and
Nakti Creek. The variation of seedling density was seen in the range of
18-40/ m2 in the area.
67
6 OIL SPILLS 6.1 Causes The various operations related to SPM and associated facilities
that would cause spillage of oil are listed below.
• Hose failure at SPM during to unloading of crude oil.
• Leakage from the sub-sea pipeline running from SPM to LFP.
• Collision/grounding of the tanker in the vicinity of SPM.
• Leakage on the land from the pipeline connecting to COT.
• Drifting and breaking away of the tankers from the SPM and
anchorages.
• Damage to the tanker due to high tidal waves, earthquakes,
tsunami etc.
Pipelines are designed, fabricated, laid and periodically inspected
as per standard codes. Hence, spillages due to corrosion, gauges etc
are rare during design life of the pipeline. Moreover, the operational
procedures are set on ‘No Leak’ philosophy under normal operating
conditions and occurrence of an oil spill is expected to be rare. However,
in a case of eventualities such as earth quake, fire, collision, grounding,
large oil spills can occur as on ‘unavoidable phenomenon’.
Generally small spills go unnoticed, though large oil spills are
recorded and reported. On the basis of data available for incidences of
oil spills worldwide during 1974 to 2007 following interferences can be
made:
The causes can be divided into operational, accidental and
other/unknown.
Most spills normally occur at ports/oil terminals.
The majority of oil spills amounting to 91% are lesser than 7 t.
Of the oil spills caused during the eventualities, 84% spills are in
excess of 700 t.
The spills are categorized as < 7 t, 7 to 700 t and > 700 t of which
causes are illustrated in Figure 6.1.1. It shows that smaller spills (< 7 t)
68
mostly occur during loading/discharging (37%) followed by
other/unknown (28%) and other operations (15%) while spills of 7 to 700
mostly cause during loading/discharging (27%), collision (25%) and
grounding (19%). The major cause of large spills (> 700 t) remains
grounding (34%) followed by collision (28%). Fire and explosion as well
as hull failures are responsible for 8.7 and 12.4% spills.
6.2 Spill quantities
Though probability of failure of state of art loading during the
operations is low, if it happens, at a pumping rate of 9550 m3/h and the
response time of 1 min (max), the expected spill is 158 t and is a very
rare incidence.
Failure during operations though low if it occurs, leakage from
sub-sea pipeline as well as that from LFP to COT can be controlled
within 30 sec. Hence at the pumping rate of 9500 m3/h, the spill quantity
is estimated at 79 t as a rare event.
In case of an eventuality, damage/rupture to the oil compartment
can occur though entire cargo compartments are protected by another
hull and cargo spillage due to collision/grounding is remote. The amount
of spill likely to occur during accidental causes is roughly estimated at
1000 t. This occurrence is considered as a extremely rare probability.
6.3 Composition of crude’s
Crude is a naturally occurring complex mixture of organic
compounds. It was formed from the partial decomposition of animal and
plant matters over a geological time. It is recovered by drilling wells in
the reservoirs in the earth. The physical properties and chemical
composition of crude from different producing regions and even from
different depths in the same well can vary markedly. Crude contains
thousands of different chemical compounds. Hence, its chemical
complexity probably resulted from a process of molecular scrambling
during the formation of these chemical compounds; the hydrocarbons
(aliphatic and aromatic) are most abundant. Other types are traces of
69
various compounds of nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen as well as traces of
organo-metallic compounds of mainly nickel and vanadium.
Obviously physical characteristics of the crude’s to be handled at
the SPM also vary largely. For instance specific gravity (at 15.56oC) of
the crude’s is highly varied from 0.8282 to 0.922 indicating that they are
lighter than water and categorized as light/medium. Their viscosity (cst
at 37.8oC) varies in a wide range i.e. 9.2, 20.1, 410.5, 3.28 and 77.9 for
Arab Medium, Arab Heavy, Doba, Bombay High and Maya crude’s
respectively indicating that Doba and Maya are highly viscous crude’s.
The pour points (oC) of Arab Medium, Arab Heavy, Doba, Bombay High
and Maya are -17.8, -17.8, -2.77, + 30 and -23 respectively. These
values reveal that Bombay High is the non-flowing thick liquid at 30oC
while other crude’s are flowing liquids at normal tropical temperatures.
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) which gives bad odour to a crude are
generally at non-detectable levels except for Doba crude which contain
the gas in < 1 ppm concentration. On the basis of sulphur content the
crudes are categorized as Arab medium and Arab Heavy: normal crude
(S 2 to 3%), Doba and Bombay High: sweet crude (S <0.5%) and Maya:
sour crude (S> 3%), Presence sulphur derivatives such as mercaptans
and thiols in a crude produce strongly unpleasant garlic smell.
General composition of crudes is as follows:
a) Aliphatic hydrocarbons
Crude oil contains a mixture of alkanes which are straight chain
saturated compounds, related to methane and ethane, and iso-alkanes,
which are branched chain compounds like isobutene and isooctane. The
compounds with 5 to 7 C atoms are liquids and those having higher
number are solids. The paraffins waxes (C22 - C30) and petroleum jelly
(C30 - C70) are the higher homologous of paraffins.
70
b) Alicyclic hydrocarbons
The alicyclic hydrocarbons are saturated (cycloalkanes) or
unsaturated (cycloalkenes) containing 5 to 6 C atoms arranged in a ring.
They are also known as naphthenes and comprise 30 to 60% of
petroleum with the dominance of saturated forms. Some naphthenic
hydrocarbons found in petroleum are cyclobutenes, limonenes,
cyclopentenes, cyclohexenes etc.
c) Aromatic hydrocarbons
Aromatic hydrocarbons which are one, two or polycyclic type,
comprise around 25% of the total crude oil. Some members of aromatic
hydrocarbons are benzene, toluene, naphthalene, biphenyl, 1, 8-
dimethyl phenanthrene, 3-methyl chrysene, 1-methyl pyrene, perylene,
3,4-banzo[a]pyrene, banz[a]anthracene, acenaphthene,
acenaphthylene, anthracene, fluorine, 2-methylnaphthalene etc.
d) Non-hydrocarbons
The major non-hydrocarbons in a crude oil are organic
compounds containing N, S and O (NSO) and metals like Ni, V, Cu, Zn
and Fe. Contributions of non-hydrocarbons to crude oil vary from 2 to
50% and origin of a crude oil largely influences the composition of these
constituents. The O compounds are generally in the form of phenols,
carboxylic acids, ketones, esters etc. The N compounds include
substituted pyrine and quinoline compounds, pyrroles, indoles,
carbozones and benzcarbazones. Most of the sulphur in crude oil is
present as methyl-ethyl sulphite, cycloalkyl thiol, n-pentyl mercapton etc.
Most abundant metals namely Ni and V are found in the form of
petroporphyrin complexes and occur in the range of 0.03µg/l to over 300
µg/l in crude petroleum.
6.4 Toxicity Toxicity of crude mostly falls in two general categories.
The first category includes effects associated with coating or
smothering of an organism with oil. Such effects are associated primarily
71
with the higher molecular weight, water-insoluble hydrocarbons. In the
event of a spill of crude oil, the various tarry substances that coat the
feathers of birds and cover intertidal organisms such as clams, oysters,
and barnacles belong to this variety. Although some organisms such as
tubeworms and barnacles are surprisingly little affected by such coatings,
the effect on organisms such as aquatic birds can be devastating. The
second category of toxicity involves disruption of an organisms
metabolism due to the ingestion of oil and the incorporation of
hydrocarbons into lipid or other tissues in sufficient concentrations to
upset the normal functioning of the organisms. This effect is due to the
cumulative effect of the individual constituents present in crude. It is
generally agreed that aromatic hydrocarbons are the most toxic, followed
by cycloalkanes, then olefins, and lastly alkanes. There is also a definite
tendency for toxicity to be positively correlated with the molecular size of
the hydrocarbons as illustrated in Figure 6.4.1 in which median tolerance
limits of some aromatic hydrocarbons for selected marine macro
invertebrates and fish are given.
Most toxic effects caused by ingestion of oil in water, however are
believed to be due to low molecular weight (C12 – c24) alkanes and low
molecular weight aromatics.
6.5 Weathering processes
Once the oil enters the sea, several processes start acting
simultaneously resulting in alteration in its physical and chemical
properties. These processes include spreading, drifting, evaporation,
dispersion, dissolution, emulsification, photo-oxidation, microbial
degradation and sedimentation (Figure 6.5.1). Though each process has
a typical effect, the resultant impact is generally a cumulative one.
Evaporation and dissolution are the two major processes, which are
mainly responsible for removing major fraction of spilled oil from marine
environment. They both together can remove more than 90% of
hydrocarbons lighter than n-C10 within few hours of an oil spill.
72
a) Spreading: Spreading of crude oil on the water surface begins as
soon as oil spills into the sea and largely depends upon volume of oil and
its physical characteristics namely density, viscosity and pour point. The
environmental factors such as wind velocity, current and temperature
also influence spreading. The four main physical forces influencing the
spreading on a calm seawater surface are gravitation force, surface
tension, inertia and frictional or viscous drag force. Aromatic and
aliphatic hydrocarbons with < 9 C atoms have greater tendency to spread
while compounds with higher molecular weights do not tend to spread on
water.
Spreading accelerates evaporation leading to increase in viscosity
and pour point of the residue. Presence of NSO compounds in
petroleum also facilitates dissolution and once soluble compounds are
lost, spreading decreases considerably.
b) Drift: Drift is a large-scale phenomenon that determines the
movement of an oil spill and is primarily controlled by wind, waves and
surface currents. Thus for instance, when the wind velocity is the
determinant force in drift movement, a slick can move at a rate of 3% of
the wind velocity in the same direction as that of the wind. However,
prediction of drift of a spill on the basis of wind pattern alone is difficult
because of the current and wave perturbations. This is compounded by
the fact that the most surface wave spectra are composed of a number of
different wave systems with varying periods and directions.
c) Evaporation: Evaporation is the major process that removes the low
boiling components of petroleum from the sea surface. The composition
of oil and its physical properties, wind velocity, air and sea temperatures,
turbulence and intensity of solar radiation and surface area of the spill, all
affect evaporation rates of hydrocarbons.
Evaporation rate for a specific hydrocarbon is a function of its
vapor pressure, which in turn is inversely related to the molecular weight.
The compounds with vapor pressure greater than that of n C18 do not
73
persist in a spill for longer period while those with lesser vapor pressure
do not evaporate appreciably. Under normal conditions losses of
aromatic hydrocarbons by evaporation are 100 times greater than losses
by dissolution and that the evaporation rate for aliphatics may be 10,000
times greater than their rate of dissolution. Loss of volatile
hydrocarbons, mostly by evaporation, increases the density and
kinematics viscosity of the residual oil resulting in break-up of the slick
into smaller patches. Agitation of these patches enhances incorporation
of water due to increased surface area resulting in water-in-oil emulsion
called as chocolate mousse.
d) Dissolution: Dissolution is another physical process in which, the low
molecular weight hydrocarbons as well as polar non-hydrocarbon
compounds are lost to the water column. Rate of dissolution for various
constituents of oil depends on several factors such as their properties
(molecular structure) and their relative abundance as well as the physico-
chemical characteristics of the environment (salinity, temperature,
turbulence etc). The water solubility of hydrocarbons drop drastically as
one goes to higher carbon numbers. Dissolved Organic Matter (DOM)
promotes the solubility of petroleum hydrocarbons in seawater.
Branched alkanes demonstrate greater solubilities for a given
carbon number than their straight chain counterparts. Ring formation
also enhances solubility for a given carbon number or molar volume.
The degree of saturation is inversely proportional to solubility for both
chain and ring structures. The solubility is also inversely related to the
molecular weight of the hydrocarbons within each group. The addition of
a second or third double bond increases the solubility proportionately and
the presence of a triple bond increases solubility to a greater proportion
than presence of two double bonds.
e) Dispersion and emulsification: Dispersion, mechanical action of
breaking waves and turbulence in the water flow cause the spilled oil to
break-up into small droplets which diffuse in the water column to form oil-
in-water emulsions. Oil begins dispersing immediately on contact with
74
water and the process is most significant during the first 10 h or so.
Once emulsion is formed, the particles continue to break further and by
100 h dispersion usually overtakes spreading. Although, such oil-in-
water emulsions are not very stable in the natural aquatic environment,
they are considerably stabilized by the suspended particles, natural or
added emulsifiers or dispersants. Unstabilised particles tend to
resurface and again form into a slick. The fate of oil-in-water emulsion
appears to be dispersion in the water column or association with solid
particulate matter or detritus and eventual biodegradation or
incorporation in bottom sediments.
Water-in-oil emulsion formed during weathering, particularly from
heavy asphaltic crude’s or residual oils tend to be more coherent
semisolid lumps called “Chocolate Mousse”. Experimental and limited
field studies have shown that these persistent emulsions contain roughly
80% water and bacteria or solid particulate matter do not seem to be
required for their formation. Also, the rate of formation of emulsions
under comparable conditions varies dramatically with the nature of crude
oil.
f) Photo-oxidation: Several petroleum hydrocarbons present in spilled
oil degrade in presence of sunlight and oxygen into polar hydroxyl
compounds such as aldehydes, alcohols, ethers and ketones and finally
to lower molecular weight carboxylic acids. As these products are
hydrophilic, they change the solubility behavior of the spill. Photo-
oxidation is inversely proportional to the film thickness and directly
proportional to the wave length of incident light. It is a slow process and
may take days to weeks to obtain significant results. Such reactions
occur more rapidly in aromatic and branched chain aliphatic
hydrocarbons than straight chain aliphatic hydrocarbons.
g) Biodegradation: Biodegradive processes influencing the fate of
petroleum in aquatic environment include microbial degradation,
ingestion by zooplankton and uptake by aquatic invertebrates and
vertebrates.
75
Microorganisms, capable of oxidizing petroleum hydrocarbons and
related compounds, are widely spread in nature. Over 200 species of
bacteria, yeast, and filamentous fungi are known to metabolize one or
more hydrocarbon compounds ranging in complexity from methane to
compounds of over 40 C atoms. Microorganisms utilize oil as a source
of carbon and energy, ultimately degrading oil to CO2 and water. The
rate of microbial degradation varies with chemical complexity of the
crude, microbial populations and environmental conditions. The
degradation by naturally occurring population of microorganisms in the
aquatic environment is generally slow and their impact on the oil spill
may be noticeable after some duration. However, 40 to 80% of a crude
oil spill can be biodegraded by microorganisms. Alkanes and
cycloalkanes degrade faster than Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
(PAHs). Thus, the concentrations of oxygenated compounds may
increase by 3 times after about 4 weeks of microbial reactions.
h) Sedimentation/agglomeration: Most crude oils when spilled
undergo processes of transport and weathering, which increase the
density of oil on the sea surface. Hence, heavier fractions of oil are more
likely to sink or remain suspended in the water column. Oil and sand
when mixed together by wave action causes the oil to sink by
incorporation of particulate matter and even by incorporation of high-
density organisms, such as barnacles. Some heavy crude’s are
however, denser than seawater and immediately sink to the bottom after
a spill.
Oil sinking offshore or in coastal waters is subject to movement
due to oceanic and coastal currents, tides, up-welling, down-welling,
density currents and littoral processes. Asphaltenes, the highest
molecular weight compounds, persist with little alteration to form tarry
residues that ultimately settle to the seafloor or become stranded along
coastlines or on adjacent beaches, after storms.
i) Other: Generally highly weathered residue (> C15) and sludge from
tanker washing which settles at the seabed in due course of time travels
76
along the seabed along with the current thereby forming tar balls that get
associated with sand and vegetation from the seabed. During upwelling
of sea in monsoon this residue would surface and wash ashore.
Birds and other pelagic animals that get entangled in the slick get
coated by oil and often result in high mortality in the initial stages.
Though major bioassimilated oil gets depurated, the some portion gets
incorporated with tissue and accumulates in the gut. The losses due to
these processes are considered to be negligible.
Photochemical oxidation and microbial degradation bring major
chemical changes in the composition of spill residue by converting the
hydrocarbons into polars. However, since these processes are slow and
predominant in stagnant water, their consequences are evident only in
the later stages of the oil spill.
6.6 Fate and behaviour The predictions have oil spill will be made on the basis of running
the software Hydrodyn-OILSOFT model for various hydrological,
meteorological and tidal conditions.
Two physical processes that start acting immediately as soon as
oil spills into sea begin spreading and drifting. Spreading is governed by
viscosity. Hence, crude’s having high viscosity namely Doba and Maya
would spread slowly. Drifting which is controlled by winds and currents
decides the course of the spill and its ultimate destination. Since these
two environmental parameters vary seasonally, behavior of the spill
would depend upon the prevailing season.
Other set of processes that would start acting simultaneously are
evaporation, dissolution and dispersion. The former which is responsible
for removal of low boiling constituents (≤ C15) is the upward movement in
the atmosphere while other two processes are responsible for downward
movement in the water column. The rate or evaporation basically
depends upon the contents of low boiling constituents in a crude i.e. the
77
low boiling crude would lose more materials by evaporation. Thus
Arabian Medium, Arabian Heavy, Maya crude’s would loose more
materials than predicted in the model while Bombay High and Maya
crude’s would loose comparatively less materials. For example, the
residual slick would be 56 and 48% after 2 and 3 days respectively in
case of Bombay High crude. Generally, it is expected that hydrocarbons
pertaining to C15 having boiling point up to 250oC would not be found in
the oil slick.
The atmospheric factors that accelerate evaporation are
temperature and wind which are seasonally variable. On the basis of the
model study the residues after evaporation of a spill are as follows:
Season Residue(%)
Premonsoon 42-55 Monsoon 34-47 Postmonsoon 34-47
Thus the residual slick would be higher during premonsoon and
for a large spill. It is possibly because the water-atmosphere interface
becomes saturated by the vapors reducing the evaporation rates.
As the crude’s major constituent i.e. hydrocarbon is sparingly
soluble and polars though soluble are in trace quantities, the percentage
loss of a spill by dissolution would be meagre. Moreover, dispersion
though high initially is a continuous process and most of the dispersed
portion resurfaces and available for evaporation resulting in a very small
portion remaining in the water column i.e. oil-in-water emulsion. About
3% loss mainly of low boiling hydrocarbons and polars would be caused
by dilution and dispersion.
The major physical change in a spill takes place after the loss of
low boiling constituents would be fragmentation of the spill into patches
which forms chocolate mousse i.e. water-in-oil emulsion because of
interaction with water. Longer residence time of the spill on the sea
78
surface would result in more stable form. On the basis of model
predictions a spill occurred during premonsoon would have more
residence time and also higher evaporation losses. Hence a chocolate
mousse is likely to form during these seasons.
A loss of low boiling constituents also would result in increase in
density of the spill which would eventually sink as soon as its density
becomes more than that of water has. This process is accelerated by
incorporation of spill particles with the suspended matter which generally
originate from the bed sediment.
The capacity of certain oil to sink as a function of their weathering
is also a function of the crude composition which determines the specific
gravity/density. Thus denser crude’s have more tendency to sink during
the weathering processes. Generally crude sinks after extensive
modifications which are the cumulative effect of all weathering
processes. Mostly the dispersed portion of the spill would initially
incorporate with suspended particles and would settle while chocolate
mousse would require more residence time to sink due to increase in
density.
Thus though a small portion of the spill would sink and a major
portion would possibly hit the shoreline after traveling maximum up to 30
km. Hence the coast would be the ultimate destination of the spills from
SPM and pipelines. The total length of intertidal area that would get
covered as soon as the spill would hit the coast and the effect would be
more severe during spring tides. Though it is expected that most of the
materials deposited on beach surface would wash back to the sea during
subsequent tides depending upon energy of the environment, that
stranded at the high tide mark and on the rocks would have longer
persistence. The portion that would penetrate in the loose sediment
under the berms and associated with the interstitial water however would
have longer residence time some times years. It is notable that any
accident taking place at LFP in the intertidal segment and close to the
shore the most feared area to be severely polluted immediately would be
79
the intertidal area around Kandla Port. Though a spill occurred during
postmonsoon may result in formation of chocolate mousse and get
fragmented further and dissipate, the spills occurred during premonsoon
and monsoon would result in tar lumps which would spread along the
shore area.
Coating of birds and fish that would get entangled with the slick
would be immediate threat to the biota in the spill area. Bioaccumulation
of the dispersed/dissolved portion is the major route that would affect the
biota negatively leading to high mortality in initial stages. Though most of
the ingested portion would be eliminated in the feces and would return to
the water column, part of it would associate with tissues and gut
permanently.
Photochemical oxidations and microbial degradation which are
responsible for converting the spill constituents into polars are slow
processes of which consequences would be evident only in the later
stages. Hence they are not discussed here.
The above discussion implies that (i) contamination of water
column; (ii) shore pollution and (iii) ingestion by biota and coating of
animals leading to mortality are the major areas of concern in a event of
spill taking place at SPM and pipeline.
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7 POTENTIAL MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS The proposed development for crude oil handling consists of
construction and operation of SPM, pipeline and COT. Hence marine
environmental implications due to the proposed development of crude oil
handling facility will be associated with the construction as well as
operational phases of the activity.
The detail is discussed as follows:
7.1 Construction phase
Potential marine environmental impacts during the construction
phase would arise due to following activities:
i) SPM : Piling for anchors for SPM and mooring of PLEM,
ii) Pipeline : Pipelaying and
iii) COT : Establishment of tank farm and associated
facilities, and axillary systems.
Consequently the negative impacts on the marine environment
would arise due to the following:
i) Movement and operation of construction machinery and boats,
ii) Handling of excavated spoils,
iii) Storage of materials,
iv) Movement of manpower,
v) Aesthetics and
vi) Noise levels
Obviously the adverse impacts arised may manifest physical
processes, water quality, sediment quality, and flora and fauna at the
project site and the adjoining areas.
They are described in detail as follows:
7.1.1 Physical processes The physical processes namely circulation and littoral transport
can suffer during the construction phase. However, since the
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construction operations are generally carried in number of stages, they
are conducted on a smaller scale and localized, resulting in the negative
impacts which are localized, smaller in severity and temporary. Thus,
these activities will not influence the physical processes largely and
impacts, if any, will be nullified as soon as the construction activities are
over.
7.1.2 Water quality The construction activities may impart negative influence on water
quality in respect of the following:
i) Increase in turbidity,
ii) Depletion in DO content,
iii) Increase in BOD levels,
iv) Increase in nutrient and pollutant concentrations, and
v) Increase in PHc levels
Movement of construction-machinery, piling, handling of
excavated spoil etc has the potential to enhance SS levels in the water
column thereby increasing turbidity of the water column. Receipt of
operational discharges and entry of degradable organic matter because
of operations and disturbance of bed as well as shore sediments may
enhance BOD load in the water column thereby increasing the BOD
levels and depleting DO content due to higher consumption of DO than
its replishment. The operations as well as disturbance of sediment may
release nutrients and pollutants entrapped resulting in the enhancement
of nutrient and pollutant levels in the overlaying water column.
Discharges of oily water from barges, spillage of lubricating oil and fuel
from barges, cranes and pumps have the potential to increase PHc
levels in the water column.
The waters in the study area are turbid due to existing SS.
Moreover, the construction operations are localized and at the smaller
scale at a time as per their schedule. Since sediment in study area
possesses low levels of Corg and lithogenic metal concentrations, the DO
and BOD contents are unlikely to be altered (Section 4.4). Additionally
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high flushing rate in the study area would aid to dilute and disperse the
enhanced contents efficiently and bring the contents to ambient levels
(Section 4.3) in a short time. Hence the adverse impacts on water
quality arised during construction phase would be localized, moderate
and temporary. Overall the water quality parameters would attain their
ambient levels as soon as the construction activity is completed.
7.1.3 Sediment quality Re-distribution of spoil excavated and disturbance of bed
sediment have the potential to alter texture and enhance metals, organic
carbon (Corg), and nutrients as well as other pollutant concentrations in
bed sediment. The adverse impact however will be minor since the
sediment in the study area is not contaminated in respect of Corg, PHc
and metals and possesses more or less similar texture. The negative
effect will also be localized, temporary and will be nullified as soon as the
construction activity is completed.
7.1.4 Flora and fauna The major impact during the construction phase will be on the
intertidal and subtidal benthic habitats which will be destroyed along the
pipeline route as well as at the foot prints of the piles driven for the SPM
mooring and the PLEM. The soil excavated and side-cast as well as the
left-over can spread on nearby segments thereby adversely affecting the
macrobenthic fauna. However the impact on flora and fauna during
construction phase can be discussed as follows:
a) Phytoplankton: The increase in SS, though locally, that is expected during
construction might marginally hamper photosynthesis locally.
Considering the prevailing turbidity in the water column as well as the
high dispersive potential of the Kandla and surrounding region, the
impact is expected to be minor and reversible and the recovery will be
fast once the construction phase is completed.
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b) Zooplankton An increase in SS is unlikely to have any serious impact on
zooplankton standing stock, although a localized and marginal change in
the community structure and population counts might result. Such
changes are temporary, highly reversible and unlikely to reflect in the
overall productivity of the coastal system off Kandla.
c) Macrobenthos The impact on the intertidal macrobenthos and other biota
depends on the alignment of the pipeline corridor. The total length of the
pipeline from SPM to LFP is 19 km including 3.25 km length of intertidal
region. Considering the width of 50 m corridor, the affected intertidal
area due to pipeline laying will be (3250 m x 50 m), 162500 m2. The
affected subtidal area of pipeline route will be (15750 m x 50 m), 787500
m2. The area of SPM which will be affected is considered to be (100 m x
100 m), 10000 m2. The loss of macrobenthos in the pipeline corridor due
to laying activities is calculated based on the results of macrobenthic
standing stock described in Section 5.3.4, which is as follows:
Segment Affected area
of pipeline/ SPM (hectare)
Loss of macrobenthos Biomass
(kg) Population (no x 106)
Intertidal 16.25 1413.8 222 Subtidal 78.75 1575.0 451
SPM 1.0 28.0 6
Thus, the total loss of macrobenthic standing stock due to laying
of pipeline activities is evident in above Table. As evident from above, a
total area of 96.0 ha of benthic habitat will be destroyed or disturbed due
to the proposed installation of SPM and associated pipeline. Out of
79.85 ha of subtidal habitat, about 11.96 ha will be lost (15%)
permanently due to the portion of pipeline laid on the seabed as of 240.5
kg of macrobenthic biomass permanently. The buried segment will
encounter temporary disturbance to the benthic habitat. This permanent
loss of macrobenthic standing stock is one time loss.
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Similarly, the estimated loss of benthic fauna due to the
construction of marine facilities is given below:
Faunal group Subtidal
(%) Intertidal
(%) Polychaetes 56.0 11.6 Oligochaetes 12.6 - Amphipods 11.7 10.2 Pelecypods 5.1 49.2
Tanaids 4.8 0.2 Anthozoans 3.2 -
Isopods 1.8 - Brachyurans 0.3 17.5 Gastropods 0.4 4.9
Mysids - 3.7 Others 4.1 2.7
As the fauna is mainly constituted by polychaetes, pelecypods,
amphipods and brachyurans in this Gulf segment, their populations
would be locally affected. However, actual impact would depend on the
construction period and duration.
d) Mangroves The LFP area of the pipelines is devoid of mangroves vegetation.
Thus, the loss due to pipeline laying activities to the mangroves around
LFP is negligible. However, the dense patches of mangroves strands
prevailing at Kandla and Nakti creeks may get affected in case of high oil
spill occurs during accident or natural disaster.
e) Corals The top layer of the nearshore subtidal areas are sandy and silty
clay and devoid of any sensitive habitats such as corals.
f) Fishery
The coastal area of Kandla is not a traditional fishing and gill-
netting zone. The fishing in the creek areas however, is insignificant
except some local shore based gill-netting and bag-netting.
These fishing activities will be hampered during the construction
phase not only in the vicinity of the SPM sites and pipeline corridor but in
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a few kilometers around since drift-nets used by fishermen are carried
over long distances depending on currents. The local fishermen though
less may get impacted by getting poor catch regulated due to
construction activities.
g) Reptiles and mammals Marine reptiles and mammals common to the region will not be
affected due to the construction activities since they tend to migrate
temporarily from such sites.
h) Birds
Since, the LFP area is devoid of mangroves and does not provide
congenial environment for migratory as well as resident birds. However,
some birds were seen along the shore of LFP point and increased noise
level during pipe laying and construction of COT etc may disturb the
population of these birds.
7.1.5 Miscellaneous A large number of work forces will be engaged during the
construction phase. In such projects general practice is to construct a
temporary colony for them nearby the project site. If proper sanitary
facilities are not made available to them, they, in all probability, will use
the intertidal area for their daily needs thereby causing localized
increase in BOD and pathogens.
Construction of the oil terminal will involve several contractors. If
proper coordination is not maintained among them, the construction
phase may be extended beyond the planned schedule. Since adverse
impact on marine environment will depend on duration of the
construction phase, the negative influence will enhance accordingly.
The construction and operations if not restricted to the pre-
determined corridor, the damage to the intertidal ecology would be
multiplied.
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It will be necessary to have shore establishments such as
fabrication yard, cabins, material storage spaces etc. If proper sites are
not selected to create these establishments, intertidal ecology, including
mangroves may suffer.
In a project of such a magnitude, considerable solid waste in the
form of metal scrap, pipe sections, left over concrete, machinery parts,
beams, bags, drums, wood, boxes, rags etc is generated. If these are
not cleared from the site, aesthetics of the area will deteriorate.
Aesthetics of the area will also decline due to the presence of vessels
and machinery that will be employed for trenching, pipelaying, piling etc.
Moreover, crowding of too many vessels, barges, machinery etc in a
relatively small area might lead to accidents which can result in release
of fuel and/or materials on board. Left-over materials after the
construction work is completed will continue to degrade aesthetics of the
area.
7.2 Operational phase
Potential negative impacts during the operational phase would
arise due to the following:
i) Ship related operational discharges of oily water and domestic
wastewater, release of solid waste.
ii) Minor spillages and leakages during crude oil loading-unloading
operations, and that in the pipeline and at COT and
iii) Major oil spills at VLCCs, SPM, pipeline and COT due to eventualities
such as fire, collision, earth quake, grounding etc.
7.2.1 Ship related wastes The major wastes generated onboard a VLCC due to day-to-day
operations include garbage, solid waste, sewage, oily ballast, bilge water
and bunker fuel bottoms. The common practice on ships is to store solid
waste in spaces between the hatches and garbage in closed containers
while oily wastes are accumulated in slop tanks. These wastes are then
off-loaded to a suitable reception facility. The sewage is treated in on-
board treatment units before release to the sea. Though under
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MARPOL 1973/78, the ships are prohibited from releasing solid and oily
wastes, some ships release them clandestinely either when at berth or
during voyage. Chronic release of such wastes in the Gulf is
undesirable and might result in environmental degradation in the long
run.
7.2.2 Minor leakages and spillages Ecosystems overwhelmed by more wastes than that can be
assimilated, lose the ability to absorb shocks and disturbances, and may
suddenly break down and/or settle into a different system with less
resilience. This implies that there are thresholds at which the levels of
stress can lead to disruption of the system. One of the concepts used to
understand whether these critical limits and thresholds are exceeded is
the carrying capacity.
In case of oil terminals it is PHc which is the critical parameter to
be considered for carrying capacity. Apart from the knowledge of
general environmental parameters for the Gulf, it is necessary to decide
on the level of PHc in water that should not exceed due to anthropogenic
perturbations as well as the likely minor leakages and spillages during
loading-unloading and transport of crude oil.
For modelling purpose the PHc concentration in water of the Gulf
off Kandla, the average value of PHc from the results of present studies
will be considered. MoEF has issued guidelines for the best-use
classification of marine areas. These guidelines stipulate that PHc in
water should not exceed 100 µg/l for SWI class or ecologically sensitive
areas. Gulf, being an ecologically sensitive domain, it is suggested in
this report that PHc concentration in the water of the Gulf should not
exceed 100 µg/l in the study area considering the high anthropogenic
activities related to crude oil handling. Hence, it is considered that minor
leakages and spillages which might lead to a PHc concentration up to 50
µg/l in water are generally acceptable.
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Present-day SPMs, designed constructed and operated as per
the internationally accepted codes and practices are generally safe and
leakages of crude oil during pumping are infrequent. However, for the
purpose of computing carrying capacity, it is presumed that the
operational discharge at SPM together is 600t/y. This is a large quantity
and is not expected at present-day SPMs. Nevertheless, such quantities
give an insight about probable concentrations of PHc in water when
consistent oil leaks at a slow rate over a long duration.
The knowledge of composition of crude oil and its fate when
spilled on seawater is essential to evaluate probable concentrations of
PHc in water. It is known that crude oil is a mixture of a variety of
hydrocarbons with each compound with its own physical and chemical
properties. These hydrocarbons are sparingly soluble in water and
about 3% of the crude oil spilled on water forms dissolved and dispersed
portion. Dissolved fraction is the main component to be considered for
carrying capacity because this oil remains in water for longer duration
and organisms are exposed to these concentrations. The oil that
remains on the sea surface partially evaporates and hits the beaches or
sunk to the bottom and thus removed from the water surface.
7.2.3 Discharges from COT Crude oil spilled and leaked during receipt, storage and dispatch
is collected in tanks where oil is separated in an API separator and
aqueous layer is treated in an ETP of MPSEZL to meet the norms of the
GPCB. The treated effluent containing 10 to 20 mg/l of PHc has to be
suitably disposed through a common effluent disposal pipeline of
MPSEZL. If released to nearby creeks it can deteriorate the inshore
marine environmental quality if adequate precautions are not taken. The
separated crude oil residue is collected and disposed suitably.
COT and related shore establishments will also generate
domestic wastewater which is also to be disposed off after treatment.
The floor washings containing oily water are treated in API separator. If
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released to the creeks without proper environmental studies their
ecological quality might deteriorate.
7.2.4 Discharges during pigging Pig launching operation is generally conducted before
commissioning a pipeline and also periodically to clean the pipeline as
well as to monitor its integrity by launching intelligent pigs. In a pig
launching operation for cleaning pipelines, a large volume of seawater
containing certain specialized chemicals is pumped into it to passivate
the pipeline. On launching the pig from the offshore side end the
seawater is forced out from the COT. The impact of this release on
marine ecology depends on the chemicals added to it and constituents
from the inner lining of the pipeline. The pigging operations however are
conducted only occasionally i.e. once in 2 years.
7.2.5 Ship traffic Ship collision, grounding, onboard fire, explosion etc often lead to
bulk releases of cargo to the marine environment. They often result from
out of control ship movement. Accidents involving ships are rare, but if
they occur, it can be disastrous to the local environment if the cargo
spilled is crude oil since large spills of these substances can cause
extensive damage to the biorich segments of the Gulf.
The traffic of VLCCs in the KPT area will be confined. The VLCCs
visiting SPMs may use this route.
The traffic of deep-sea ships at ports has also increased
substantially over the years. Thus for instance the number of ships
visiting the Kandla Port has increased from 1672 in 2001-02 to 2124 in
2005-06. The traffic in the surrounding areas can be seen as follows: Port Traffic (no)
Vadinar 80 Sikka 1100 Navlakhi 100 Kandla 2120 Mundra 380 Total 3780
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Hence, the total number of deep-sea ships other than VLCCs
visiting the Gulf can be considered as 3780 ships (7560 movements)
excluding the traffic at Okha Port which is at the mouth of the Gulf. With
an average 7% growth rate per year, the movements will increase
accordingly. Not all the vessel navigates through the DW Route. In fact,
the ships not requiring deep draft are advised to keep outside the DW
Route. However, the statistical information on number of ships using the
DW Route is not available. For estimating frequency of accidents it is
considered that 50% of the movements of deep-sea ships and all VLCCs
are through the DW Route.
a) Ship collision frequency The frequency of ship collision is governed by the frequency of
ship encounter and the probability of collision given an encounter. From
the records of accidents maintained at several major ports worldwide it
has been considered that collision frequency is proportional to the
square of the traffic density and is directly proportional to the number of
encounters. Casualty statistics maintained at UK ports indicate that
collisions involving ships account for 7% of all accidents and represent
0.024 for every 1000 ship movements. Such statistics however is not
available for the ports in India. Assuming that this statistics is applicable
to the Gulf and taking 7600 movements of deep-sea vessels in 2007, the
probability of an accident would be one in every 17.2 y for this traffic
projection.
The major environmental concern due to ship related accidents is
spillage of crude oil or petroleum products, if a VLCC is involved. Since
the VLCC traffic in the Gulf will constitute 7% of the total traffic, the
probability of a VLCC accident would be one in every 246 y. However,
not all accidents result in oil spills. International Tank Owners Pollution
Federation Limited (ITOPFL) which has maintained a database of oil
spills from tankers and other ships categorized spills by size (< 7 t, 7 -
700 t and > 700 t) on the basis of information for about 10000 accidents.
Their data-base indicates that the vast majority of spills (83%) fall in the
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smallest category (< 7 t) and < 3% of accidents result in large spills.
Hence, the probability of a large spill occurring in the Gulf is low.
b) Ship grounding frequency
Bulk release of oil can also result if a tanker goes a ground
rupturing cargo holds. The data-base of ITOPFL reveals that 34.4% and
28.9% of large spills (> 700 t) have occurred due to groundings and
collisions respectively. Channel length and width are the major factors
controlling grounding in inshore waters. The ships are vulnerable to
grounding in long and narrow channels particularly those which have
several bends. From grounding incidents at several ports it has been
considered that the channel length to width ratio gives a good indicting of
probability of encountering a grounding obstruction. Thus the grounding
frequency increases with increasing length of the channel and decreases
with increasing width for a given length.
The Grounding Frequency (GF) may therefore be expressed as:
GF = K x L/W
Where G = grounding frequency
L = channel length
W = effective channel width
K = constant (normally taken as 1x10-5 per
movement).
From Hydrographic Chart Nos 203 and 2055 it is evident that
except for a stretch of about 13 km off Paga Reef the channel width is
generally around 3 km. The width in 13 km segment near Paga reef
reduces to about 1.5 km. Hence this 13 km segment would be
dangerous with respect to collision or grounding of ships. With the traffic
density of 7600 movements per annum in 2007, the grounding
probability in this section of the channel would be as high as 1 in every
1.5 y. Since 7% of the traffic is expected to be of VLCCs, the danger of
an oil spill resulting from grounding of a VLCC would be one in every
21.4 y for this traffic density.
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When probability of occurrence of an oil spill is assessed, it is also
necessary to consider the traffic of tankers carrying petroleum products
since an accident involving a product tanker can be equally disastrous.
Even if it is presumed that 30% of the traffic in the Gulf is of crude oil and
petroleum products, the grounding frequency involving a tanker carrying
crude oil or petroleum products will be 1 in 5 y for the traffic density of
2007. However, as discussed earlier only <3% of accidents result in
large spills. Though the projections of the grounding frequencies
remained high, no accident has taken place in the past several years in
this region.
7.2.6 Water quality The water quality affected due to oil spill in the area of SPM and
pipeline route will be predicted by model after IInd phase of study.
The spilled crude oil releases several toxic constituents,
particularly light aromatic hydrocarbons in water. A considerable fraction
of N, S and O compounds also dissolves in water. The fine oil globules
dispersed in water do not remain stable and the particles surface forming
a fresh film which again disperses by prevailing turbulence and the
process of resurfacing and dispersion continues till the light fractions are
removed. The left-over residue eventually sinks or transported to the
shore. The impact area and concentrations mainly depend on various
physico-chemical properties of the crude as well as the environment at
the time of the spill and its life.
An accidental oil spill will be a one time spot release. Under
continuous movement of water mass induced by strong tide induced
currents in the Gulf, the water under the spreading slick would be
continuously replenished. Therefore, at a given location degradation in
water quality might persist over a relatively short period depending on the
persistence and weathering of the oil spill and ambient circulation. Since
there is absence of active monsoon in the Gulf, the impact area of a spill
is not expected to vary significantly, seasonally. Also, the temperature,
DO and nutrients, the major factors affecting the rate of biodegradation,
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are favourable in the Gulf all through the year. During naturally cleaning
process of the water column, decrease in aromatic hydrocarbons, the
potentially toxic constituent would be removed rather immediately since
the PHc levels would attain the ambient levels immediately.
As the oil slick would cover large surface area of the water
column, water temperature below the slick would increase. Another
water quality parameter that would be affected by the spill is DO. Since
air-water exchange would hamper resulting in lowering of DO levels in
the water column just below the slick. The impact would be severe in the
initial stage and it may act as a limiting factor for biota. However, since
DO in the region is high, it is expected that the ambient levels would
reach within a short time.
7.2.7 Sediment quality A portion of the weathered spill will be adsorbed by the suspended
particulate matter and these particles on settling may increase the load of
PHc in the sediment. Moreover, residues remaining after the lighter
fractions evaporate will be broken down into lumps which may sink to the
sea bed or deposited on the shores when the spill reaches shallow
coastal segments.
The residue may be transported over long distances by prevailing
currents and on sinking it will spread unevenly on the sea bed. Hence,
sediment levels of PHc might be highly abnormal in places. The residue
deposited on the bed will mix with sediment by natural physical
processes as well as by perturbation perhaps up to a depth of 5 to 10 cm
and may remain there for several months and even years. The oil will be
ultimately biodegraded by marine microbes. The microbial degradation
of oil is however, slow in the sediment since DO becomes a serious
limitation.
The severity of sediment contamination of intertidal areas
depends on the quantum spilled, the segment of the Gulf affected and
the nature of the sediment. In case of rocky or sandy substratum, the oil
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will be weathered and washed off more quickly. However, in case of
muddy areas the oil contamination may persist over a longer duration
and even for months. On heavily contaminated intertidal area, the
concentration of oil may vary from 100 to 2 x 104 µg/kg and the habitat
recovery might be slow and may take several years.
As recorded for several oil spills, there would be 100% cover at
the mean high water mark. The accumulation then would decline at a
logarithmic rate with the losses occurring most rapidly at the lower
intertidal levels on shores exposed to the heaviest wave action and most
slowly at higher tidal levels in sheltered locations. The residue stranded
in low energy zone would have minimum losses while that in high energy
zone would show significant reduction in aromatic materials and total
hydrocarbons. It would be concomitant increase in non-hydrocarbons
(asphaltenes, resins as well as NSO compounds). There would be
increase in specific gravity and viscosity due to further evaporative and
solubility losses. The high levels of PHc in intertidal sediment would be
maintained due to tidal exchanges on the beaches till the beach
accumulated residue is physically removed or washed away.
Residue from a major spill can result in asphalt pavements on the
intertidal sandy areas or on sheltered tidal flats and coral reef flats.
Thickness of such pavements may vary from 3 to 15 cm depending on
the quantum deposited and subsequent weathering. The oil deposited
on the shore can penetrate into sub-surface sediments up to a depth of
30 to 60 cm in coarse sandy and muddy regions. On muddy regions, the
oil will penetrate through animal burrows. The 'oil weeps' a situation in
which the oil rises from the subsurface to the surface on pavements
forming small pools of oil, might occur. The low energy regions like tidal
marsh and mud flats sheltered from wave action might reveal oil
contamination for decades as compared to wave exposed sandy shores
of the Gulf. Some model results indicate that a weathered mass
deposited on the beach might be reduced to 30 to 40% after about one
month.
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7.2.8 Flora and fauna Different life stages of species may show widely different
tolerances to oil depending on their phylogenetic, ecophysiological and
biochemical adaptations to varying environmental conditions. Usually
the egg, larval and juvenile stages are more susceptible than the adults.
Hence, the ecological impact of a petroleum spill on aquatic life vary from
mild to severe depending on the quantity spilled, the physical behaviour
of the spill, its chemical composition and levels to which organisms are
exposed apart from their ecological status. The type of water body and
the prevailing season also influence the damage caused to the aquatic
ecosystem. The end results however depend on the tolerance capacity
of organisms exposed to crude oil.
The immediate response of organisms is to avoid the spill zone.
The natural instinct to counteract against the stress results in the survival
and dominance of hardy and opportunistic populations which get adapted
to the altered environmental conditions, while others may be eliminated.
Often, a decrease in diversity followed by limited competition leads to
proliferation of tolerant organisms. In extreme cases, the entire
community is destroyed followed by rapid bacterial degradation and
subsequent regeneration. Many tropical marine species have very high
fecundity which provides a reservoir to compensate for any extreme
losses due to adverse local conditions. In course of time, the system
recovers and constitutes the natural community through fresh recruits.
Due to inherent heterogeneity within the community, complexity of
biological production mechanism and energy pathways from lower to
higher trophic levels, it is rather difficult to predict the time lag in
reestablishing the normal ecosystem. However, populations of animals
with long life and low fecundity rates may take extended period to
recover.
Available literature information indicates that contamination by
crude oil results in limited long term effects in a variety of aquatic
organism. Many organisms are endowed with special mechanisms to
96
detoxify and depurate the engulfed hydrocarbons and become normal in
course of time when the environmental conditions revive back to normal.
The prevailing physical characteristics in the tropics aid in faster
recovery of the aquatic system following petroleum spills. Relatively high
temperatures and prevailing winds facilitate rapid evaporation of
aromatics although solubility of these compounds is higher at higher
temperatures. However, the solubility of hydrocarbons is low in water
and does not contribute significantly towards its removal from the sea
surface. The rate of bacterial degradation and other processes of
weathering are more efficient at higher temperatures. In general, shorter
gestation times associated with higher metabolic requirements
characterize the tropical species many of which breed throughout the
year with wide ranging dispersal stages. Therefore, under tropical
conditions relatively short persistence of petroleum and higher
reproductive potential of the organisms, lead to low ecological effects
which are less prevalent.
In the dynamic Gulf environment, rapid dispersion of crude oil and
its soluble components leading to quick restoration of pre-spill water
quality is expected. The impact of a spill on the Gulf marine biota would
critically depend on location of the spill, the area affected and the nature
and the quantity of the oil spilled. However, it must be recognised that
the populations and community structure of marine biota of the Gulf are
subjected to considerable natural fluctuations due to changes in climatic
and hydrographic conditions and the availability of food, hence, it is
difficult to assess the effect of operational discharges or a small oil spill
from those due to natural variability, particularly on subtidal and pelagic
biota.
Small spills will have a temporary and limited adverse impact on
the pelagic and intertidal marine biota. The impact however might be
severe in case of large spills. The residue (70-4000 m3) transported to
the shore will contaminate the subtidal and intertidal benthic habitats of
about 1 to 4 km coastal length depending on the quantity of residue.
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Hence, the benthic fauna of these areas will suffer accordingly. The
corals of the southern coast of the Gulf will be vulnerable if the oily
residue is deposited on reefs during favorable winds. The recovery of
pelagic biota will be much faster as compared to benthic biota which
might take several years to attain pre-spill status.
a) Mangroves, seaweeds and algae Mangroves, seaweeds and algae show greater sensitivity to fresh
rather than weathered crude oil. Oil may however, block the openings of
pneumatophores and hamper the breathing mechanism of mangroves or
interfere with salt balance, killing the trees. Moreover, mangrove areas
at Kandla and Nakti Creek are invariably associated with rich fauna
which will suffer severe damage in case of major oil spill occurs due to
accident / eventualities.
Green algae are more sensitive to petroleum than diatoms, blue
green algae and flagellates. An oil spill can however cause immediate
and localized retardation of photosynthesis, though temporarily. The
community structure of phytoplankton may get altered due to major
accidental oil spill. The intertidal seaweeds, algae and mangroves will be
adversely affected if their habitats get oiled. The general impact of a spill
on the flora of the affected and will be temporary and reversible though
recovery might take 2 y or longer.
b) Zooplankton
An increase in concentrations of dissolved PHc in water
subsequent to a spill can lead to plankton kills. The recovery of plankton
will be however quick through repopulation of the community by fresh
recruits from adjacent areas not affected by oil. Eggs and larvae of
fishes, crustaceans and molluscs which are highly sensitive to even low
concentrations of PHc (10-100 µg/l) and aromatics (1 - 5 µg/l) in
particular will be severely affected. However, it is unlikely that any
localised losses of fish eggs and larvae caused by a spill will have
discernible effect on the size or health of future adult populations
.
98
c) Benthos
These organisms have limited movements and hence are more
vulnerable to oil spills. If the thick weathered oily mass spread on
intertidal areas, immediate mortalities of organisms in the zones of
physical contact are expected. Subtidal benthos of shallow waters might
also be killed or tainted if the sinking residue affects their habitats. If the
residue persists for longer time in the subtidal or intertidal segments due
to sluggish local circulation, the recovery will be delayed. Thus, the
benthic organisms of exposed shores will recover much faster than of
sheltered habitats like lagoons, mangrove swamps, marshes etc.
Similarly, benthic organisms of sandy habitats will recover faster as
compared to those of the muddy intertidal segments where oil might
penetrate into subsurface layers through animal burrows and might
remain there for decades due to very low natural weathering of oil in
such sheltered habitats. The asphalt pavement formation on heavily
oiled sandy beach or sheltered mud flat it occurs will delay the return of
burrowing fauna, a primary source of food for aquatic birds. Clams will
be killed in heavily oiled benthic habitats whereas polychaetes might
survive on moderately oiled sediment bottom. Benthic system might
recover back to normal in about 2 to 3y.
d) Corals
Coral reefs in the Gulf are usually submerged and get exposed
briefly during low tide. The oil floating above corals may not cause
severe damage but if it settles on them during exposed condition, they
may be severely affected if the spill reaches in the surrounding region.
Observations on oiled corals reveal several sub-lethal effects such as
interference with reproduction, abnormal behavior and reduced or
suspended growth may occur. However the study area is devoid of
corals.
e) Fishes
A large oil spill can temporarily reduce the fish catch from the area
as fish might migrate from the affected zone. Limited mortality may also
occur particularly when the oil concentrations in water go abnormally
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high. Fishes are sensitive to oil and tend to avoid petroleum. Often
fishes get tainted and unpalatable but become normal when the ambient
PHc level approaches the baseline which is expected within a few days.
The mangrove swamps being the breeding and nursery grounds for a
variety fish and shell fish, large scale mortality of eggs and larval stages
of several economically important groups may occur if oil is transported
to these habitats during major accidental oil spill. Local fishermen may
get affected by getting either contaminated fishes/crabs/larvae etc. or
poor catch but temporary.
f) Birds
The birds are highly sensitive to oil spills and get particularly
affected if their habitats are oiled. Many migratory birds use the intertidal
mudflats and mangrove swamps along the coasts of the Gulf during
certain seasons for spawning, breeding, nursing and feeding. The risk
factor will be more for the breeding populations and spawners. The
impact on the adult population will be minor in case of small spills but in
case of a major spill the bird population including adults will be affected.
Seabirds in general, have long lives delayed maturity and low rates of
reproduction because of which the recovery might be slow.
g) Turtles and mammals
Marine turtles and mammals are highly sensitive to oil spills and
might temporarily migrate from the spill site. Hence, no serious damage
to turtles and mammals due to an oil spill is expected. However, the spill
occurring in the nearshore region during summer may disturb the
breeding of turtles in the Gulf for a shorter duration.
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8 MITIGATION MEASURES It is important that certain environment protection measures are
conceptualized and strictly implemented at the planning and design
stages of the project itself so that the negative impacts during
construction and operational phases are reduced to a minimum in order
to protect the rich biodiversity of the Gulf, from avoidable anthropogenic
shocks.
8.1 Design considerations
Major environmental concern at an oil terminal is the accidental
spillage of petroleum in the sea. The technology available today is
inefficient to recover the oil once spilled and pollution of the marine area
invariably occurs. It may be noted that even under normal sea states the
recovery of spilled oil barely exceeds 15% of the volume spilled. Hence,
the best strategy is to prevent spillages of oil through proper designs and
dependable construction materials and components. Evidently, the
design and operating philosophy of the oil terminal must be "No Leak"
under normal operating situations which if deviates beyond the pre-set
norms, the pumping should stop automatically till normal conditions are
reset.
It should be ensured that internationally accepted codes and
practices are followed for designing the SPM, pipelines and COT. Their
compliance should be guaranteed through proper inspection, frequent
evaluation and intensive testing particularly for all critical components of
the SPM - pipeline - COT system. Similarly, the vulnerable units such as
hoses, fittings, valves, flanges, couplings etc should be rigorously tested
and certified for their reliability, before installing.
Occasional spills (1 - 100 t) that may occur at SPM are often
associated with leakages at hose couplings and butterfly valves as well
as hose bursts. It is therefore important that the state of the art surface
hoses with marine break-away couplings both tested above the
operating pressure are used at all times. Isolation valves should also be
provided in the pipeline design particularly at the submarine pipeline LFP
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location to prevent the inventory of the COT draining in the Gulf in the
event (though rare) of rupture in the sub-sea pipeline.
The Gulf and the surrounding region is seismically active. Hence,
the pipelines and foundations for structures should be designed for
specified seismic loads.
8.2 Construction phase
It is evident from Sections 3 and 4 that the Gulf is ecologically
sensitive and measurable marine environmental impacts are likely to
occur during the construction phase (Section 6.1). Hence, certain
precautions are warranted to minimise the impacts on the Gulf ecology.
Apart from the disturbance caused by the construction process
itself, the coastal ecology of the Gulf would suffer due to additional
stresses if the construction time is prolonged. This invariably is the case
when executing marine infrastructural projects, if not carefully planned
and if the activities are spread over a large area. Hence, the key factors
in minimising the adverse impacts are the reduction in construction
period and avoidance of activities beyond the specified geographical
project area (5 m corridor for pipe laying) which should be kept to a
minimum. Evidently, as a part of the management strategy, it is
important that various activities are well-coordinated and optimised to
avoid time over-runs and to complete the project within an agreed time
schedule. Thus for instance, rock blasting (if involved), pipeline
fabrication and lying; etc should be executed as a single integrated
project avoiding unjustifiable time-lags between the phases. This will
need advance planning and coordination between different agencies
executing the contracts.
Pre-treatment to the pipes such as coating, concreting etc and
other fabrication jobs should be undertaken in a yard on land located
sufficiently away from the HTL and the transfer of materials to the site
should be through a pre-decided corridor devoid of mangroves.
Similarly, the movement of construction barges, ships, machinery etc
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should be restricted to the pre-decided operational area. However, the
region should not be crowded with too many vessels and construction
machinery, to avoid accidents and subsequent spillages of materials and
fuel.
The pipeline in the intertidal area should be buried to a safe depth
and the depth of burial should be ascertained through reliable surveys to
guarantee their safety. The intertidal area should be restored to its
original status.
Considering that the Kachchh region is prone to occasional
cyclones with wind speeds of 150 km/h, the subsea pipeline segment
laid above the bed must be adequately designed and suitably weight-
coated to minimise wave induced disturbance that can weaken the
pipeline. The absence of spans should be confirmed through seismic
surveys. Also, methods of construction of SPM and laying of pipeline
should be carefully evaluated and those suitable for ecosensitive areas
only should be employed.
Temporary colonies of the work force etc should be established
sufficiently away from the HTL and proper sanitation including toilets and
bathrooms should be provided to the inhabitants to prevent abuse of the
intertidal area. Sewage and other wastes generated in these
settlements should not be released to the creeks. The workers should
be provided with fuel to discourage them from cutting mangroves.
The operational noise level should be kept to a minimum
particularly in the nearshore region through proper lubrication, muffling
and modernisation of equipment.
It should be ensured that the intertidal and supratidal areas are
restored to their original contours after the pipe-laying activities are
completed. General clean-up along the corridor, adjacent areas, and
intertidal and subtidal regions should be taken-up and extraneous
materials such as equipments, pipes, drums, sacks, metal scrap, ropes,
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excess sediment, make shift huts and cabins should be cleared from the
site.
It should be ensured as envisaged by KPT that fabrication yard
will be away from the shore and transport of materials will be done
through barges.
8.3 Operational phase
It is important to identify the risks involved during operations of
the oil terminal to take adequate measures in an event of an accident.
Hence, findings of the integrated comprehensive risk assessment study
of proposed installations which has been conducted be used to
formulate a disaster management plan.
The major concern during operations is the spillages of
petroleum. It is established beyond doubt that the human factor remains
to be the cause of about 90% of accidents leading to oil spillages.
Training people to work safely and efficiently is therefore vital. Mooring
officers, pilots, operators and crew of the SPM terminal, as well as the
COT must be trained rigorously in day-to-day operations as well as in
handling emergency situations. It must be impressed upon them that
each individual engaged in the operation of the terminal has a
responsibility for safety. Special emergency drills should be conducted
under the supervision of an expert SPM operator. Crisis exercises
should be designed and used in actual drills to ensure readiness of the
staff at any given emergency situation.
It must be ensured that detailed and unambiguous protocols for
operations of integrated set-up of berthing a tanker, hose connections,
pumping of crude oil, operations of valves etc are evolved well in
advance. Likewise, safety procedures and responses required if an
emergency arises should also be freely available to the operational staff.
Another consideration in preventing oil spills is the provision and
regular testing of not only emergency shut down devices but also the
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components vulnerable to fatigue or failure. Hence, it should be ensured
that valves, couplings, hoses, pumps, sub-sea pipelines etc are
periodically inspected for their integrity as per internationally accepted
norms, to guarantee their proper functioning in an emergency. Accurate
records of all inspections, unusual findings, actions taken etc must be
scrupulously maintained as a part of the overall record system, and
made available to concerned authority, when required.
Entire pumping operation should be continuously monitored for
which state-of-art electronic devices should be used. Pumping operation
should automatically stop if pre-set optimum conditions are exceeded
and commence only after the design conditions are reset. Provision for
an effective and reliable communication between the tanker, SPM, and
COT should be made to avoid ambiguities and time delays in reacting if
abnormal situation arises during pumping.
After the sub-sea crude oil pipeline is laid, a seismic survey of its
entire segment should be conducted to chart the routing accurately.
This route should be marked on relevant hydrographic charts as a no
anchorage zone.
Seawater effluent generated during pigging operation should be
tested for its non-toxicity before release.
During the period of pipeline laying activities in the intertidal area
the destruction of mangroves should be avoided or maintained to the
minimum loss. During the construction period the hindrance in the
activities of local fisherman should be avoided.
As a step towards improvement in marine environmental quality,
mangrove afforestation of intertidal mudflats should be encouraged
through adequate institutional support.
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8.3.1 Combating oil spills
Despite several precautions and safety measures taken at SPM,
accidental spillages of petroleum occasionally occur and a proper spill
response strategy is necessary to minimize impacts on marine
environment. Majority of oil spills at oil terminals result from routine
operations such as hose bursts, valve leakages, improper couplings etc.
These operational spills are generally small with over 90% involving
quantities of < 1 to 100 t. Rare but large accidental spills (> 100 t) can
occur when a tanker gets involved in an accident such as collision or
grounding. Hence, response at several levels is necessary for
combating oil spills of such variable quantity. A 3 tier system of
response is proposed for this purpose and is considered best suited for
the Gulf.
Careful planning is essential if an oil spill is to be fought
successfully. This is particularly important when a spill is large since
many agencies and organizations will be involved. Often, there is
considerable fear of environmental degradation, loss of fishery and
contamination of recreational areas as well as risk to public health and
safety. Such events are easier to resolve when a well-prepared and a
tested contingency plan is in force.
Combating an oil spill in the maritime zone of India is guided by
the National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan (NOS-DCP) which has
been updated recently (1999). Indian Coast Guard is the Central
Coordinating Agency for marine response and is engaged in gradually
building up response capability to deal with a major oil spill of the order
of 20000 t in the EEZ of India. This response capability is considered to
be ‘Tier 3 response’ in this report. NOS-DCP makes port authorities
responsible to respond to accidents within the port limits (Tier 1
response) though they can seek additional assistance through the
Regional Communication/Operational Centre of the Coast Guard.
Under Tier 1 response, all SPM operators in the Gulf should have
their oil spill contingency plan for responding to spills of up to 100 t.
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Hence, KPT should develop such a plan and put it into operation prior to
commissioning of the SPM. This plan which can be called as Local-OS-
DCP should be integrated with the contingency plans of other SPM
operators in the Gulf. The plan should be based on a quick response
strategy to minimize the ecological damage. Presuming that spill
combating equipment is available, the operations are often delayed in
absence of a suitable vessel that can be pressed into service without
delay. Hence, it will be necessary to maintain a pollution combating
vessel in readiness during unloading of a tanker at the SPM. Its
practicality and effectiveness should be ascertained through periodic
mock rehearsals.
If a major spill of ≥1000 t occurs in the Gulf, the equipment will
have to be provided by the Coast Guard. Immediate response however
may be hampered because of the time delay in transporting the
equipment to the site from their Response Centre. But, considering the
biosensitivity of the Gulf, behavior of spilled oil and its probable
movement response time of only a few hours will be available.
There are 6 SPMs presently operating in the Gulf and a few more
are under consideration. At present two refineries of 21 and 11 mtpa
capacities are operating near Sikka. Because of these refineries and
projected increase in handling of petroleum products at Kandla and
Mundra Ports, the traffic of crude oil and petroleum products will
increase substantially in future. As the traffic increases, the probability
of an accidental large spill will increase accordingly. It is, therefore,
essential that an adequately structured Regional-OS-DCP for the Gulf as
a whole is made with a quick response capability to combat atleast up to
5000 t of an oil spill as a Tier 2 level response. Such a plan should also
envisage predictive capability of oil spill movement based on long-term
environmental data required for accuracy of outputs of numerical
models. It will then be possible to identify vulnerable areas with a fair
degree of accuracy, to be protected if a spill occurs.
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While development of Tier 1 response (Local-OS-DCP) is the
responsibility of KPT, formulation of Regional-OS-DCP (Tier 2) will need
an external agency capable of not only assessing the requirements of
the plan including infrastructure and equipments, but also integrating the
Local-OS-DCP of individual SPM operator (Tier 1), Regional-OS-DCP
(Tier 2) and NOS-DCP (Tier 3).
Common practice to fight petroleum spills is to contain the oil by
deploying containment booms and recover the oil-water mixture using
skimmers. In calm periods the booms can be deployed to recover the
spilled oil to a certain extent. However, in rough weather it is generally
not feasible to deploy booms to surround a spill with the intention of
collecting it through skimmers since wave action and currents in excess
of 0.5 m/s reduces the efficiency of containment booms significantly.
Furthermore, a floating skimmer tends to suck more water than oil when
the sea is rough.
Sorbent booms or pads which cause the lighter hydrocarbons to
adhere to the fiber material filling of the boom, are the practical means
of removing small spills. Such booms have been tested with success in
the North Sea and are now used at several oil terminals. Curtain or
deflection booms can be also of help to minimize the entry of oil into
creek systems from a spill occurring in the main Gulf as well as to
prevent contamination of eco-sensitive areas such as coral reefs,
intertidal flats, mangrove swamps and salt pans. Adequate arrangement
is also required to collect the recovered oil-water mixture for subsequent
transport to the shore for separation of oil and its final disposal.
From Section 5.6, it is clear that if a spill occurs in the Gulf, the
intertidal segments will be invariably contaminated. Hence, a proper
strategy and response for shore clean-up will be required.
Chemical dispersants are often favored to disperse hydrocarbons
when containment and recovery is suspect. Although various types of
dispersants are available, concentrate or self-mix dispersants in alcohol
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or glycol solvents are usually preferred. However, it is absolutely
essential to test the toxicity of dispersants selected for storage and use
by choosing selected sensitive marine organisms from the Gulf. The
policy for use of dispersants also should be clearly defined particularly
considering the highly ecosensitive nature of the Gulf. The use of
dispersants is not normally advised close to shellfish beds, coral reefs,
mangrove areas or industrial water intake locations.
8.3.2 Spill movement forecasting A large volume transport of crude oil and petroleum products is
expected in the Gulf in the coming years. Hence, the probability of
occurrence of accidental oil spills will increase considerably in future.
When the spills are large, it will be impractical to protect all sensitive
segments by deploying deflection booms, because the coastline of the
Gulf vulnerable to oil contamination is long and intricate. It is therefore
necessary to identify the areas to be protected on priority vis-a-vis the
location of the spill. Prompt decisions in this respect, should a spill
occur, is vital if particular coastal ecology is to be protected. This is
effective only if accurate prediction of the movement of spilled oil and the
coastal stretch it would pollute is available with the decision maker.
Probable spill trajectories will be provided after modeling following
the results of the IInd phase during premonsoon.
8.3.3 Traffic management An area that needs serious regional attention is the management
of ship movements through the navigational channel (DW Route) of the
Gulf since the risk of ship to ship encounter and grounding will be
considerably enhanced due to the projected increase in the traffic
density. Available worldwide information indicates that the majority of
collisions and nearly all groundings of ships occur in channels and
coastal waters. Most of these accidents are caused by crossing,
overtaking, head on hitting stationary vessels, ship movement mistakes,
ship management mistakes, misreading traffic information etc.
Evidently, the prevailing traffic control management needs thorough
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review and introduction of state-of-art Vessel Traffic System (VTS)
should be considered. Such a system should be installed at the Kandla
Port.
Manual, listing detailed procedures for conducting ships
management operations at the SPMs should be prepared and made
available to the concern staff to avoid mishaps which can result in
spillage of crude oil.
Under MARPOL 1973/78, discharges of oil from tank washings,
ballast, bilge and bunker fuel bottoms by ships to marine environment is
prohibited. However, proper vigilance is necessary to enforce the
regulations as a part of the overall environment management strategy of
the Gulf.
The management of ship movements should be restricted through
the navigational channel and hindrance in the fishing activities of local
fishermen should be strictly avoided.
8.3.4 Disposal of wastes from land based sources
Shore-based terminal and COT will generate liquid as well as
solid wastes which should be properly treated and disposed wherever
required. The domestic wastewater can be treated in the treatment plant
along with the waste from other domestic sources and used for land
application.
The effluents from COT which is expected to contain high oil
content should be suitably treated to meet the norms of GPCB and
attempt should be made to reuse this treated effluent. If not feasible,
release to the Gulf will be inevitable. In that case, the release location
should be carefully identified so that the effluent is diluted fairly quickly
and the local ecology is not influenced adversely. The effluent should be
treated in ETP and then released through a common pipeline at a
suitable location suggested after study.
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Proper plan should be evolved to dispose off solid waste such as
sludge generated in waste treatment plants, and garbage.
8.3.5 Oil spill response plan
Oil spill response plan should be formulated as mentioned in
report ‘Oil spill risk analysis and oil spill contingency plan’.
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9 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN (EMP) Management strategy to prevent deterioration in the marine
environmental quality due to the establishment of SPM and related
facilities at Kandla are discussed in this section. Though of vital
importance, other management issues those encompass the whole Gulf,
such as Regional-OS-DCP and VTS which require a holistic approach,
are clearly beyond the scope of this section.
A vital issue that needs a holistic approach is to identify and notify
fishing zones. With the establishment of marine facilities, sites in the
Gulf are being increasingly declared as ‘No fishing zones’ thereby
traditional fishing areas are getting shrunk. With more developments
envisaged in future, the fishing zones will reduce further. Hence, an
agency such as the Department of Fisheries, and other connected
departments of the Government of Gujarat should be directed to
formulate a fishery plan for the Gulf clearly identifying fishing zones
where activities that will hamper fishing should not be allowed.
The preparation of these plans that requires holistic approach and
effective coordination with several agencies, industries and
organisations is beyond the scope of the study but the firm should
participate whenever such plans are envisaged.
Addressing the marine environmental issues directly related to the
operations at the SPM, KPT requires the preparation of (a) Local- OS-
DCP, (b) manuals for handling tankers at SPM and safe unloading
operations of crude oil including actions to be taken in emergencies, (c)
schedule for periodic refresher courses to the operational staff, (d)
protocols for inspection of marine facilities and (e) disaster management
plan etc. These manuals/plans/protocols should be available before the
SPM become operational and there should be provisions for updating
the manuals/plans/protocols based on actual operational experiences at
a later stage.
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In addition it will be necessary to (a) monitor construction activity
particularly in the intertidal area, (b) prepare plans for improving marine
ecology, such as through mangrove afforestation and, (c) evolve
strategy for periodic monitoring of the Gulf environment. Some of these
issues are discussed below.
9.1 Local-OS-DCP KPT should prepare a detailed contingency plan for combating
spills of about 100 t in collaboration with other agencies operating in the
area namely Kandla Port, Mundra Port, IOCL, Reliance Industries etc.
The document should explicitly and unambiguously address the issues
such as (a) the responsibility and scope of the plan, (b) the geographical
area covered by the plan, (c) the types of crude oils likely to be handled
and their physical properties, (d) the probable movement of oil spill
during every month and at different sites, (e) the locations of amenity
areas, ecologically sensitive zones, marine resources etc, in a series of
maps, (f) the inventory of combating equipment, location of their storage,
procedures for use of booms, skimmers, dispersants, shore clean-up,
disposal of recovered oil, termination of clean-up etc, (g) the on-scene
coordinator, his responsibilities and duties, (h) the functions of
communication centre, (i) the procedure for notification of a spill, officer
to whom the spill is to be reported and further actions to be taken by the
officer, and (j) the procedures for training, refresher courses and
mobilisation, deployment and maintenance of equipment from time to
time to ascertain their reliability.
The Local-OS-DCP should include adequate action plan to avoid
confusion if an emergency arises and to enable prompt actions should a
large spill due to a tanker disaster or pipeline burst, occurs.
9.2 Monitoring during construction phase
The pipeline between the LFP and the COTs though does not
pass through mangroves, certain segment having mangroves may
damage during oil spills. It is therefore necessary to minimise damage
to mangroves. Therefore the pipeline must be laid through already
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existing corridor of 20 m. It should be ensured through proper
monitoring that prevailing mangrove areas are maintained and the
activities do not spill-over outside the 20 m corridor during the
construction phase.
9.3 Monitoring of marine environment Ecological damage due to acute perturbations such as due to an
accidental oil spill is relatively easy to identify, however modifications in
ecology resulting from chronic interferences become evident only after a
lapse of time, typically a few years. It is, therefore, vital to monitor the
marine environment periodically, to identify the trends. This however
requires a dependable baseline that should be established for the KPT
area including the creeks prior to the construction phase of the marine
terminal against which the results of monitoring after the terminal
becomes operational can be compared.
9.3.1 Baseline quality
As a first important step towards the maintenance of health of the
marine ecology off Kandla and surrounding creeks, critical locations
should be carefully selected and designated as monitoring sites for
periodic health checks with respect to water quality, sediment quality and
flora and fauna. These should include open shore areas, intertidal
segments and creeks. The results presented in this report are adequate
to identify the monitoring sites. Like all natural ecosystems, the marine
environment also undergoes seasonal variations. To understand these
variations it is necessary to conduct periodic studies, ideally monthly, but
atleast seasonally. Further, many coastal areas which are under
profound tidal influence reveal diurnal changes, particularly in water
quality. Hence, selected stations should be sampled temporally during
each phase of the study. The parameters to be monitored are listed
below.
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a) Water quality: Water samples obtained from 2 levels in the vertical should be
studied for temperature, pH, salinity, DO, BOD, (or total organic carbon),
nitrate, nitrite, ammonia, dissolved phosphate, PHc and phenols.
b) Sediment quality: Sediment from subtidal and intertidal regions should be analysed
for texture, Corg, phosphorus, aluminium, chromium, nickel, copper, zinc,
cadmium, lead, mercury, arsenic and PHc.
c) Flora and fauna: Biological characteristics should be assessed based on primary
productivity, phytopigments, phytoplankton populations and their generic
diversity; biomass, population and group diversity of zooplankton;
biomass, population and group diversity of benthos; fish quality, density
and species diversity; and mangroves of designated experimental sites.
As a part of overall strategy for management of mangroves, the satellite
imageries should be used to quantify mangrove areas and mudflats
through proper ground-truth verification. Yearly assessment of
mangrove cover should be made to identify their status.
Till the proper baseline is evolved, the data presented in this
report can be used as an intermediate baseline. However, for proper
comparison, the future monitoring should be undertaken in the same
months.
9.3.2 Post-project monitoring
A comprehensive marine quality monitoring programme with
periodic investigations at predetermined locations (these should
preferably coincide with those used for baseline quality) by a specialised
agency is a practical solution to ensure quality data acquisition. This can
be a continuation of the study designed for baseline quality and the
same parameters listed above should be included in the post-project
monitoring programme. The post-project monitoring can be as follows:
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a) Just prior to the commencement of operations at the SPM.
b) After 6 months of commencement of operations.
c) Once a year from the commencement of operations.
The results of each monitoring should be carefully evaluated to
identify changes if any, beyond the natural variability identified through
baseline studies. Gross deviation from the baseline may require a
thorough review of operations at the SPM and COT to identify the
causative factors leading to these deviations and accordingly, corrective
measures to reverse the trend will be necessary.
9.4 Inspection of marine facilities A comprehensive protocol for inspection of SPM and pipeline
should be prepared as per the internationally accepted practices. The
records of all inspections including the deficiencies identified and
corrective action taken should be maintained as a part of the overall
record system. All these records should be available for scrutiny, if
required.
9.5 Institutional arrangement Institutional arrangements for management of the marine
environment fall under the broad categories of (a) petroleum spill control
and combating, (b) monitoring of the marine environment and (c)
periodic inspection of the oil terminal sub-systems.
For this purpose, KPT should establish an Environment
Management Cell (EMC) directly under the control of the Chief
Executive. In addition to other staff, EMC should have a group of
personnel well-trained in combating of oil spills up to 100 t. Since the
response to a spill should be immediate, the EMC should be manned
round the clock.
Marine environmental monitoring is a specialised field requiring
well trained marine scientists for meaningful and reliable results.
Implementation of a comprehensive monitoring programme as detailed
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above will require the services of scientists trained in marine chemistry,
marine biology, marine geology and physical oceanography. It may not
be practical for KPT to maintain trained scientific manpower for
monitoring as well as develop a well equipped oceanographic laboratory
with other infrastructural facilities such as boat, sampling gear and
survey equipments. It may therefore be appropriate to engage an
independent agency with proven expertise, in marine monitoring.
Likewise, detailed inspection of the SPM, pipeline, hoses, couplings
valves etc will also require external expertise. Apart from combating of
oil spills the EMC should be made responsible for arranging,
coordinating and overseeing marine environmental monitoring, periodic
inspections, training programmes, refresher courses, mock rehearsals
etc. The records of all these activities should be maintained as a part of
the overall record system.
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10 RECOMMENDATION The proposed SPM & allied facilities off Veera in the Gulf of
Kachchh for handling crude oil is recommended with the mitigation
measures and environment management plan for maintaining a healthy
marine ecology as suggested in the present report.
Table 5.3.1: Microbial counts in Surface water (CFU/ml) of Kandla Creek during February 2010 Type of Bacteria
Stations
ST-1 ST-2 ST-3 ST-4 ST-5 ST-6 ST-7 ST-8 ST-9 ST-10 Ebb Fld TVC 30 x 102 56 x 102 24 x 102 13 x 102 2 x 102 6 x 102 15 x 102 27 x 103 62 x 103 110 x 103 190 x 103 TC 240 280 150 230 520 300 500 160 600 400 510 FC ND 120 ND 110 ND 160 210 100 260 260 170 ECLO 100 70 110 60 200 90 120 40 100 370 150 SHLO ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND SLO ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND PKLO ND ND ND ND 60 ND ND ND ND ND ND VLO 20 30 20 120 1050 250 ND ND ND 100 1600 VPLO 20 10 20 ND ND ND ND 200 ND ND ND VCLO ND 20 ND 120 1050 250 ND ND ND 100 1600 PALO ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND SFLO ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND –Below Detectable Level
Table 5.3.1: Contd.1
Type of Bacteria Stations ST-11 ST-12 ST-13 ST-14
Ebb Fld TVC 60 x 103 13 x 103 3 x 102 12 x 102 6 x 102 TC 160 ND ND 30 50 FC 50 ND ND 10 20 ECLO 110 ND ND 10 ND SHLO ND ND ND ND ND SLO ND ND ND ND ND PKLO ND ND ND ND ND VLO ND 70 20 ND ND VPLO ND ND ND ND ND VCLO ND 70 20 ND ND PALO ND ND ND ND ND SFLO ND ND ND ND ND
ND –Below Detectable Level
Table 5.3.2: Microbial counts in sediment (CFU/g) of Kandla Creek during February 2010
ND –Below Detectable Level
Type of Bacteria
Stations
ST-1 ST-2 ST-3 ST-4 ST-5 ST-6 ST-7 ST-8 ST-9 ST-10 TVC 50 x 105 120 x 105 60 x 104 15 x 104 30 x 105 13.6 x 103 40 x 105 260 x 105 150 x 105 240 x 105
TC 3100 ND ND 4000 ND 4000 ND 7000 5000 10000 FC ND ND ND 2000 ND 1200 ND 3000 3000 7000 ECLO 2000 ND ND 1000 ND 1000 ND 2000 1000 4000 SHLO ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND SLO ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND PKLO ND ND ND ND ND 7000 ND ND ND ND VLO ND ND ND ND ND 48000 ND ND ND ND VPLO ND ND ND ND ND 42000 ND ND ND ND VCLO ND ND ND ND ND 40000 ND ND ND ND PALO ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND SFLO ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND ND
Table 5.3.2: Contd. 1
Type of Bacteria
Stations
ST-11 ST-12 ST-13 ST-14 TVC 56 x 105 28 x 105 10 x 104 32 x 105 TC 3000 ND ND ND FC 1000 ND ND ND ECLO 1600 ND ND ND SHLO ND ND ND ND SLO ND ND ND ND PKLO ND ND ND ND VLO ND ND ND ND VPLO ND ND ND ND VCLO ND ND ND ND PALO ND ND ND ND SFLO ND ND ND ND
ND –Below Detectable Level
Table 3.2.1: Details of cyclonic storms along North Gujarat coast (1893-1999)
Year Month Intensity Point of Origin
Track followed
1893 Nov Str-SStr Arabian Sea Veraval-Bhavnagar
1894 Oct SStr Arabian Sea Jafarabad-S.Gujarat
1896 Nov SStr Indian Ocean Off Jafarabad-Bhopal-Allahabad
1897 Jul Depr Arabian Sea Off Jafarabad-Veraval-Gulf of Kachchh
1897 Sep Depr Off Diu Veraval-Off Dwaraka-NW
1903 Jul Str Arabian Sea Off Jafarabad-Veraval-North
1909 Sep Depr Bay of Bengal Surat-Jafarabad-Kandla-NW
1920 Jun SStr Arabian Sea Veraval-Ahmedabad
1925 Jun Depr Arabian Sea Off Veraval-Kandla-Bhopal-Allahabad
1925 Jun Depr Arabian Sea Bharuch-Bhavnagar-Okha
1926 Sep Depr Off Veraval Veraval-N-W-N
1933 May Depr Arabian Sea Veraval-N
1934 Oct Depr Arabian Sea Dissipated Off Jafarabad
1935 Jun Depr Bay of Bengal Gulf of Khambhat
1944 Aug Str Bihar Ahmedabad-Kandla-Off Jafarabad-W
1944 Oct Depr Bay of Bengal Pune-Mumbai-Off Jafarabad-Ahmedabad
1947 Apr SStr Off Cochin Arabian Sea-Bharuch-along the West coast
1948 Sep SStr Bay of Bengal Mumbai-Off Diu-Porbandar
1954 Jul Depr Off Jafarabad Vadinar-Karachi
1959 Oct Depr-Str Arabian Sea Jafarabad-Veraval-across the Arabian Sea-Oman
1960 Jul Depr Off Veraval Off Dwarka-Mandwa
1962 Sep Depr Bay of Bengal Surat-Jafarabad-Dwarka-Mandwa
Table 3.2.1: Contd. 1
Year Month Intensity Point of Origin
Track followed
1964 Aug Str Arabian Sea Jafarabad
1969 Jun Depr Arabian Sea Jafarabad-Bhavnagar
1973 Jul Depr Off Diu Veraval-Porbandar-Vadinar-N
1975 Jun Depr Off Jafarabad Okha-W
1976 May-Jun SStr Arabian Sea Jafarabad-Ahmedabad
1982 Nov Depr Arabian Sea Veraval-Ahmedabad-NE
1983 Jun Depr Off Veraval Veraval-Rajkot
1985 Oct Depr Off Mumbai Jafarabad-W of Bhavnagar Jafarabad-Surat-NE
1989 Jun Depr Off Veraval Junagadh-Rajkot-Navlakhi-Vadinar-NW
1996 Jun SStr Kandla Kandla-Rajkot
1996 Oct SStr Arabian Sea Kandla-Veraval-Jafarabad
1998 June SStr Arabian Sea Porbandar-Jamnagar-Kandla
1999 June SStr Arabian Sea Porbandar-Dwarka-Jakhau Intensity (Wind speed) Depression (Depr) : Upto 61 km/h. Storm (Str) : 62-87 km/h. Severe Storm (SStr) : 89-117 km/h.
Table 3.3.1: Water quality of the Gulf during premonsoon (1993-2004)
Parameter Level Okha Salaya Vadinar Sikka Feb 1993 Mar 1995 Apr 2002 July
2004 Feb 1995 Apr 2002 Mar 1994 Mar 1996 Apr 1994 Apr 2002 Apr 2003
Temp (oC) S 25.5-26.5 25.3-25.5 24.9-27.5 31.0* 24.0-26.0 25.0-27.5 26.0-28.5 25.0-29.2 25.4-27.8 24.4-27.6 28.0-28.7 (26.0) (25.4) (26.2) (25.0) (26.2) (27.0) (27.1) (26.8) (26.0) (28.4) B 25.8-26.5 24.9-25.0 24.9-27.5 30.4* 23.0-25.0 25.9-26.3 26.0-27.5 24.6-29.3 25.3-27.8 24.0-27.5 26.9-27.0 (26.1) (25.0) (26.2) (24.0) (26.3) (27.0) (26.8) (26.6) (25.8) (27.0)
pH S 8.0-8.3 8.0* 8.0-8.2 8.1* 7.9-8.2 8.2-8.4 7.8-8.0 8.0-8.3 8.0-8.1 8.0-8.4 8.1-8.1 (8.2) (8.1) (8.1) (8.3) (7.9) (8.0) (8.0) (8.2) (8.1) B 8.2-8.3 8.0* 8.2-8.2 8.1* 8.0-8.3 8.3-8.4 7.8-8.0 8.0-8.3 8.0-8.1 8.2-8.4 8.2-8.2 (8.3) (8.2) (8.2) (8.3) (8.0) (8.2) (8.1) (8.3) (8.2)
SS (mg/l) S 27-31 17* 16-29 78 19-38 15-33 18-35 9-17 18-29 14-17 18-22 (29) (23) (28) (24) (22) (13) (23) (16) (20) B 31* 16* 16-35 84 21-46 16-56 22-26 8-20 19-32 16-50 6-18 (26) (33) (36) (24) (13) (21) (33) (12)
Salinity (ppt) S 37.2-38.5 36.2* 37.5-38 35.7* 36.1-37.5 37.6-38.4 37.4-38.6 36.6-37.4 37.1-37.7 36.9-38.5 39.2-39.4 (37.9) (37.7) (36.8) (38.0) (37.9) (37.0) (37.3) (37.7) (39.3) B 36.8-38.5 36.8* 37.5-38.0 35.6* 36.2-37.5 37.9-38.4 37.3-38.3 36.4-37.8 36.9-37.5 37.4-38.5 39.4-39.4 (37.7) (37.7) (36.8) (38.1) (37.9) (37.2) (37.2) (37.9) (39.4)
DO (ml/l) S 2.9-3.6 4.0-4.3 2.2-5.2 4.1* 4.3-5.4 1.8-5.6 3.4-5.3 3.8-5.3 3.2-4.8 1.8-5.6 4.6-4.8 (3.3) (4.1) (2.3) (4.8) (3.7) (4.6) (4.6) (4.4) (3.7) (4.7) B 2.9-3.3 4.6 2.5-5.8 4.4* 2.9-5.0 1.8-5.6 3.8-4.9 4.0-5.5 3.4-4.8 1.6-5.4 4.6-4.8 (3.1) (4.6) (4.1) (3.9) (3.7) (4.4) (4.7) (4.3) (3.5) (4.7)
BOD (mg/l) S 1.4-3.7 1.5* 0.2-3.5 3.8* 1.1-4.3 1.0-4.3 1.7-3.3 1.0-1.7 2.7-3.8 1.0-4.1 - (2.5) (1.8) (2.7) (2.6) (2.5) (1.4) (3.2) (2.5) B 0.2* - 0.3-4.2 3.0* 0.3-0.6 <0.2-1.9 0.2-0.7 0.3-1.3 2.0-2.1 <0.2-3.4 0.6-0.9 (2.2) (0.5) (1.0) (0.5) (0.8) (2.1) (1.8) (0.8)
PO4
3--P (µmol/l)
S 0.3-1.7 0.6-0.9 0.3-1.6 0.4* 0.7-1.4 0.4-1.1 ND-2.9 1.0-2.8 0.2-4.1 0.6-0.8 0.2-0.4
(1.0) (0.7) (0.9) (1.1) (0.7) (0.5) (1.7) (0.8) (0.7) (0.3) B 0.5-2.2 0.6-1.4 0.6* 0.7-1.4 0.9-1.3 0.3-3.1 1.4-2.8 0.6-1.1 0.3-1.2 1.0-1.0 (1.3) (1.0) (1.1) (1.1) (0.8) (2.1) (0.7) (0.7) (1.0)
Table 3.3.1: Contd. 1
Parameter Level Okha Salaya Vadinar Sikka Feb 1993 Mar 1995 Apr 2002 July2004 Feb 1995 Apr 2002 Mar 1994 Mar 1996 Apr 1994 Apr 2002 Apr 2003 PTotal (µmol/l) S - - - - - - 0.8-3.2 - - - - (2.0) B - - - - - - 1.4-3.2 - - - - (2.3)
NO3--N (µmol/l) S 1.2-4.4 6.9-7.9 4.2-10.7 13.0* 1.1-3.6 0.7-6.0 0.1-1.4 1.4-8.4 4.0-7.6 0.1-4.3 0.3-1.3
(2.8) (7.4) (7.4) (2.3) (3.3) (0.6) (4.3) (5.3) (2.2) (0.8) B 1.4-4.1 5.4-6.1 3.3-6.8 11.8* 1.1-4.1 1.1-5.4 0.1-1.4 2.4-7.8 4.0-6.3 0.1-2.3 1.2-1.5 (2.8) (5.8) (5.0) (2.6) (3.2) (0.9) (4.1) (5.1) (1.2) (1.4)
NO2
--N (µmol/l) S 0.1-0.4 0.5-0.6 0.2-0.7 0.8* 0.1-0.6 0.1-0.5 0.1-0.3 ND-0.4 0.2-0.5 0.1-0.2 0.2-0.2 (0.3) (0.5) (0.4) (0.4) (0.3) (0.2) (0.3) (0.3) (0.1) (0.2) B 0.2-0.4 0.2-0.4 0.2-0.9 0.9* 0.1-0.6 0.2-0.4 0.1-0.6 ND-0.4 0.1-0.5 0.1-0.2 0.2-0.2 (0.3) (0.3) (0.5) (0.4) (0.3) (0.3) (0.3) (0.3) (0.1) (0.2)
NH4
+-N (µmol/l) S ND-2.9 0.1-0.4 0.1-0.2 2.4* ND-10.5 0.1-0.1 0.5-0.9 0.1-0.9 0.1-1.2 0.1-0.2 0.9-2.0 (1.5) (0.3) (0.1) (5.2) (0.1) (0.7) (0.5) (0.4) (0.1) (1.5) B ND-2.0 ND-0.2 0.1-0.1 2.2* ND-5.0 0.1-0.1 0.5-0.9 ND-2.9 0.1-0.6 0.1-0.1 ND (1.0) (0.1) (0.1) (2.5) (0.1) (0.7) (1.2) (0.4) (0.1)
NTotal (µmol/l) S - - - - - 13.4-26.6 - - - - (20.0) B - - - - - 13.8-15.9 - - - - (14.9)
PHc (µmol/l) 1m - 13.3* 1.0-5.7 54.2* - 0.8-2.3 3.9-5.7 3-12 8-18 2.0-2.0 0.4-0.7 (3.3)
(1.5) (4.8) (7) (10) (2.0) (0.6)
Phenols (µmol/l) S - - 134-190 89* - 68-132 9-20 31-48 5-13 61-168 24.5-32.6 (163)
(100) (15) (39) (9) (114) (28.6)
Table 3.3.1: Contd. 2
Parameter Level Bedi Navlakhi Kandla Mundra Mar 1997 Mar 1996 Apr 2002 Feb 1998 Apr 2002 Mar 1997 Feb 1999 Mar 2000 Apr 2002 June 2003Temp (oC) S 21.5-24.5 25.9-26.5 27.8-30.5 22.5-24.0 27.0-29.0 22.9-24.0 23.3-28.5 22.0-25.5 25.3-27.5 28.4-29.8 (23.0) (26.0) (28.7) (23.1) (27.9) (23.6) (24.7) (24.1) (26.9) (29.3) B 22.0-23.9 25.0-25.9 26.0-29.5 22.5-25.5 26.5-29.0 22.8-23.5 23.2-25.8 22.0-25.5 24.0-29.8 28.7-29.7 (23.0) (25.5) (28.5) (23.4) (27.7) (23.1) (24.2) (23.6) (27.0) (29.2)
pH S 8.1-8.3 8.1-8.2 8.0-8.3 7.8-8.0 8.0-8.2 8.1-8.2 7.7-8.2 8.1-8.3 8.2-8.2 7.9-8.0 (8.2) (8.2) (8.2) (8.0) (8.1) (8.2) (8.2) (8.3) (8.2) (8.0) B 8.0-8.3 8.1-8.2 8.1-8.3 7.9-8.0 8.0-8.2 8.1-8.2 8.1-8.2 8.2-8.3 8.1-8.2 8.0-8.0 (8.2) (8.2) (8.2) (8.0) (8.1) (8.2) (8.2) (8.3) (8.2) (8.0)
SS (mg/l) S 21-45 30-41 75-275 105-214 80-366 25-33 22-32 20-72 16-25 178-190 (27) (36) (149) (149) (162) (30) (25) (32) (24) (184) B 18-45 47-204 80-385 101-272 115-410 19-98 30-54 24-118 17-35 260-440 (28) (126) (214) (184) (217) (53) (40) (61) (27) (350)
Salinity (ppt) S 37.5-38.6 39.3-40.1 41.0-44.4 37.5-38.0 38.4-39.9 35.8-38.6 35.9-38.1 37.4-38.3 37.6-38.2 37.7-38.6 (38.1) (39.7) (42.7) (37.8) (39.4) (37.6) (37.3) (37.9) (38.0) (38.4) B 37.3-38.6 38.5-40.1 41.5-45.0 37.4-37.9 38.4-40.2 36.1-38.5 36.0-38.2 37.6-39.0 37.5-38.3 37.7-38.6 (38.0) (39.3) (43.3) (37.6) (39.4) (37.9) (37.5) (38.0) (38.0) (38.3)
DO (ml/l) S 4.2-5.3 2.9-5.0 1.8-4.5 2.5-5.0 1.6-5.2 4.1-5.3 1.8-5.7 1.7-5.1 2.5-6.0 1.5-4.6 (4.6) (3.9) (3.1) (4.0) (3.6) (4.9) (3.9) (3.6) (3.9) (3.8) B 4.3-5.0 4.3-5.0 2.0-4.7 2.5-4.8 1.8-4.9 3.7-5.1 1.8-5.7 1.7-5.3 4.0-5.9 1.9-4.4 (4.5) (4.6) (3.5) (3.9) (3.7) (4.9) (4.3) (4.0) (4.2) (3.8)
BOD (mg/l) S 1.0-3.1 <0.1-1.8 0.3-1.2 - 0.2-4.4 0.9-1.9 <0.1-4.4 0.8-3.4 0.6-3.4 2.1-2.7 (1.9) (0.9) (0.7) (2.7) (1.3) (2.3) (1.8) (2.9) (2.4) B 0.3-2.3 0.2-1.2 0.3-3.5 - 0.4-3.5 <0.1-1.8 <0.1-3.8 0.9-3.1 0.1-5.1 1.5-1.8 (1.6) (0.7) (2.0) (2.2) (0.8) (1.8) (1.2) (4.9) (1.7)
PO4
3--P (µmol/l) S 1.0-2.7 0.3-1.8 0.6-4.1 3.8-8.5 0.4-1.9 0.7-2.7 0.4-4.4 0.8-11.7 0.2-0.5 1.1-3.0
(1.8) (1.2) (2.0) (6.7) (1.2) (1.3) (1.8) (1.9) (0.3) (1.8) B 0.9-3.2 1.6-2.7 1.0-3.5 2.8-8.5 1.5-2.2 1.2-1.9 0.6-3.2 0.9-3.1 0.2-0.7 1.6-2.8 (1.8) (2.1) (2.4) (6.1) (1.8) (1.5) (1.6) (2.0) (0.4) (2.0)
Table 3.3.1: Contd. 3
Parameter Level Bedi Navlakhi Kandla Mundra Mar1997 Mar1996 Nov2002 Feb1998 Apr2002 Mar1997 Feb 1999 Mar2000 Apr 2002 June 2003PTotal (µmol/l) S 1.7-4.0 - - - - 1.6-2.0 0.7-1.5 - - 2.0-2.9 (2.6) (1.8) (1.2) (2.5) B 1.8-5.4 - - - - 1.7-1.8 1.1-1.7 - 2.4-2.5 (3.0) (1.7) (1.5) (2.5)
NO3
--N (µmol/l) S 3.2-15.1 0.6-4.3 3.3-7.3 8.0-10.7 5.5-12.1 1.4-6.9 ND-3.4 1.1-4.9 18.0-18.5 1.0-5.1 (6.7) (2.4) (5.3) (9.4) (7.7) (4.0) (2.1) (2.8) (18.3) (3.1) B 3.6-12.9 ND-1.0 3.4-8.7 7.4-9.9 5.0-8.3 2.7-5.4 0.3-6.6 1.3-5.4 5.0-20.2 1.2-4.6 (6.1) (0.5) (5.9) (8.6) (7.1) (3.7) (2.0) (3.0) (19.0) (3.0)
NO2
--N (µmol/l) S 0.2-0.6 0.1-0.4 0.3-0.7 0.4-0.6 0.5-0.9 0.2-0.9 0.1-0.9 0.2-0.9 ND-0.2 0.2-0.5 (0.4) (0.3) (0.5) (0.5) (0.7) (0.4) (0.4) (0.5) (0.1) (0.4) B 0.2-0.5 0.4-1.1 0.2-0.6 0.4-0.9 0.2-0.4 0.3-0.8 0.1-0.6 0.3-1.3 ND-0.3 0.2-0.4 (0.4) (0.7) (0.4) (0.6) (0.3) (0.5) (0.5) (0.5) (0.2) (0.4)
NH4
+-N (µmol/l) S 0.1-1.2 0.9-1.2 0.2-0.5 0.2-0.9 0.2-1.9 0.5-1.7 0.4-6.4 ND-0.6 0.1-0.2 ND-1.9 (0.6) (1.1) (0.3) (0.6) (0.5) (1.0) (1.9) (0.4) (0.2) (0.8) B 0.1-1.2 0.6-1.9 0.1-0.8 0.5-0.9 0.2-2.1 0.3-2.8 0.4-1.5 0.1-0.7 0.1-0.5 0.2-2.8 (0.4) (1.2) (0.4) (0.7) (0.5) (1.4) (1.0) (0.5) (0.3) (1.4)
NTotal (µmol/l) S 3.2-16.7 - - 16.4-59.3 - 7.1-8.0 52.4-60.4 - - 7.8-11.1 (6.9) (29.6) (7.8) (55.9) (9.5) B 3.3-16.4 - - 17.1-82.9 - 5.6-8.6 37.6-57.1 - - 7.3-8.5 (7.1) (35.7) (7.0) (51.1) (7.9)
PHc (µmol/l) 1m 1.5-4.8 1.0-2.1 1.9-5.9 2.6-3.5 1.4* 2-3 0.7-4.4 1.3-9.9 3.3-4.1 4.5-4.7 (2.7)
(1.6) (3.9) (2.9) (2) (1.8) (3.3) (3.7) (4.6)
Phenols (µmol/l) S 7-29 1-25 16-114 39-60 73* ND-23 ND-176 ND-92 1.9-3.5 20-23 (17) (13) (37) (49) (15) (83) (35) (2.7) (22)
Average given in parenthesis ND: Not Detected * Single value
Table 3.3.2: Water quality of the Gulf during postmonsoon (1993-2004)
Parameter Level Okha Vadinar Sikka Nov 1995 Nov 1999 Nov 2002 Jan 2004 Nov1994 Nov1995 Jan 2000 Jan 2004 Dec1993 Oct 1996 Nov2002 Temp (oC) S 25.0-25.1 26.0-26.0 25.5-28.8 23.6-23.6 28.8-29.0 24.0-30.0 22.5-22.5 22.0-22.0 25.1-25.9 29.0-29.8 25.0-27.4 (25.1) (26.0) (26.7) (23.6) (29.0) (26.8) (22.5) (22.0) (25.3) (29.4) (26.2) B 25.0-25.2 26.0-26.0 25.2-27.5 23.7-23.7 29.0-29.2 24.0-29.9 22.5-22.5 21.7-21.7 24.6-25.7 29.0-29.2 26.0-26.8 (25.1)
(26.0) (26.5) (23.7) (29.1) (26.7) (22.5) (21.7) (25.1) (29.1) (26.4)
pH S 8.1-8.1 8.0-8.0 8.1-8.3 8.2-8.2 8.1-8.2 8.0-8.3 8.2-8.3 8.2-8.2 8.1-8.3 8.1* 8.2-8.3 (8.1) (8.0) (8.3) (8.2) (8.1) (8.2) (8.3) (8.2) (8.2) (8.2) B 8.0-8.1 8.0-8.1 8.2-8.3 8.2-8.2 8.0-8.2 8.0-8.3 8.2.-8.3 8.2-8.2 8.2-8.3 8.1* 8.3-8.3 (8.1)
(8.0) (8.3) (8.2) (8.1) (8.1) (8.3) (8.2) (8.3) (8.3)
SS (mg/l) S 7-25 59* 4-10 22* 16-29 13-21 25-25 22* 15-23 40* 10-34 (16) (7) (22) (16) (25) (19) (22) B 14-24 68* 6-308 90* 18-29 8-16 23-24 58* 17-24 36* 20-36 (19)
(69) (24) (12) (24) (21) (22)
Salinity (ppt) S 35.4-35.7 36.8-36.9 37.1-38.4 36.0-36.2 34.3-34.6 36.2-37.8 37.4-38.0 37.0-37.0 37.1-38.5 36.3* 37.1-38.6 (37.6) (36.8) (37.6) (36.1) (34.6) (36.9) (37.7) (37.0) (38.0) (37.8) B 37.4-37.7 36.7-36.8 37.1-38.2 35.7-35.9 34.3-34.6 36.6-37.4 37.4-39.6 37.0-37.0 35.5-37.8 36.5* 37.0-38.7 (36.8)
(36.8) (37.6) (35.8) (34.6) (37.0) (38.0) (37.0) (36.9) (37.8)
DO (mg/l) S 6.1-6.7 5.1-5.4 3.6-7.0 6.4-6.4 5.9-6.9 5.7-7.9 7.6-8.1 6.4-6.9 5.1-7.7 6.1-6.4 3.7-6.7 (6.4) (5.3) (6.0) (6.4) (6.1) (6.9) (7.7) (6.7) (6.0) (6.3) (5.1) B 6.1-6.7 4.6-5.4 3.9-6.9 6.4-6.8 6.1-7.1 5.7-7.6 7.1-7.6 6.9-7.1 5.0-7.9 6.1-6.4 3.0-6.3 (6.3)
(5.0) (6.0) (6.7) (6.3) (6.6) (7.4) (7.0) (5.9) (6.3) (4.6)
BOD (mg/l) S 1.0-4.0 - 0.1-2.5 2.9* 1.5-2.5 0.8-1.8 2.9-3.6 1.0* 2.0-2.4 4.8* <0.2-1.5 (3.0) (0.8) (2.0) (1.2) (3.0) (2.2) (0.8) B 0.3-1.5 - 0.1-1.5 2.9* 0.3-1.0 0.5-2.2 2.3-2.6 1.6* 0.7-1.6 2.6* <0.2-1.1 (0.9)
(0.9) (0.7) (1.0) (2.5) (1.1) (0.5)
PO43--P
(µmol/l) S 1.2-1.3 1.8-1.8 0.9-2.2 1.1-1.1 1.0-2.4 0.6-1.7 1.4-1.7 1.2-1.2 0.7-4.0 0.9-1.2 0.8-2.8
(1.3) (1.8) (1.9) (1.1) (1.4) (1.1) (1.6) 1.2 (1.6) (1.1) (1.8) B 1.3-1.3 2.1-2.2 0.8-2.3 1.1-1.1 0.1-2.7 0.7-2.3 1.7-1.8 1.2-1.4 1.2-1.8 1.9* 1.5-2.3 (1.3) (2.2) (1.9) (1.1) (0.5) (1.5) (1.7) 1.3 (1.5) (1.9)
Table 3.3.2: Contd. 1
Parameter Level Okha Vadinar Sikka Nov 1995 Nov 1999 Nov 2002 Jan 2004 Nov 1994 Nov1995 Jan 2000 Jan 2004 Dec1993 Oct 1996 Nov2002 PTotal (µmol/l) S - - - - - - - - - - - B - - - - - - - - - - - NO3
--N (µmol/l)
S 3.6-6.6 3.4-9.5 7.9-13.0 4.8-8.7 3.1-7.9 2.1-10.6 7.7-8.7 2.9-3.3 4.4-8.1 17.1-18.1 8.0-12.3 (5.1) (9.0) (9.5) (6.8) (5.5) (6.7) (8.2) (3.1) (6.5) (17.6) (10.1)
B 4.6-7.2 (5.9)
9.3-9.7 7.1-12.1 6.5-6.9 3.3-7.3 4.2-11.1 7.2-10.0 2.7-3.6 3.7-8.1 16.5-18.9 7.5-11.5 (9.5) (9.2) (6.7) (4.6) (8.0) (8.9) (3.2) (6.1) (17.7) (9.5)
NO2--N
(µmol/l) S 0.6-0.7 0.3-0.4 0.4-0.5 0.3-0.3 0.4-1.1 0.1-0.5 0.3-0.3 0.3-0.3 0.2-1.1 0.2-0.6 0.2-0.4 (0.7) (0.4) (0.4) (0.3) (0.8) (0.3) (0.3) (0.3) (0.4) (0.4) (0.3)
B 0.6-0.7 0.2-0.2 0.4-0.6 0.2-0.3 0.6-0.9 0.1-0.4 0.3-0.4 0.2-0.3 0.1-2.8 0.4-0.6 0.1-0.7 (0.7)
(0.2) (0.5) (0.3) (0.8) (0.3) (0.4) (0.3) (0.4) (0.5) (0.4)
NH4+-N
(µmol/l) S ND 0.8-1.7 0.3-1.8 0.8-2.1 0.3-2.8 0.1-1.5 0.2-0.5 1.0-1.3 2.0-7.8 0.3-0.5 0.3-1.0
(1.3) (0.6) (1.5) (1.1) (0.6) (0.3) (1.2) (3.7) (0.4) (0.6) B - 0.6-0.8 0.2-7.8 ND-0.2 0.4-4.9 ND-1.2 0.1-0.2 ND-1.2 1.6-4.8 0.5 0.1-0.8 (0.7)
(1.2) (0.2) (1.3) (0.6) (0.2) (0.6) (3.2) (0.4)
NTotal (µmol/l) S - 56* - - 38.1-100.5 - - - - - - (69.3) B - 62* - - 80.5-124.9 - - - - - - (102.7)
PHc (µg/l) 1m 0.5-0.7 1.8* 0.7-1.5 - 2-5 4-5 0.1-0.3 - 5-7 2.3* 0.9-1.7 (0.6) (1.2) (4) (5.0) (0.2) (6) (1.3) Phenols(µg/l) S 10-19 37* 1-15 - 28-34 18-42 11-31 - 19-22 18* ND-21 (15) (8) (31) (31) (21) (21) (21)
Table 3.3.2: Contd. 2
Parameter Level Bedi Salaya Navlakhi Kandla Mundra Oct 1997 Nov 2002 Nov1994 Nov2002 Oct 1996 Nov 2002 Jan 2004 Sep1999 Nov2002 Oct 2003 Dec2004 Temp (oC) S 28.0-30.1 23.0-27.9 25.5-26.1 23.0-27.5 29.5-29.5 24.8-30.0 20.1-20.1 28.5-31.0 24.0-27.0 28.5-30.0 24.0-24.0 (29.2) (25.4) (25.8) (25.7) (29.5) (27.2) (20.1) (29.9) (25.5) (28.8) (24.0) B 28.0-30.9 23.0-26.4 24.7-26.5 24.0-27.0 29.5-30.5 24.9-29.0 19.9-19.9 28.5-31.6 23.2-26.9 28.0-29.9 23.5-23.5 (29.1)
(24.7) (25.2) (25.6) (30.0) (26.9) (19.9) (30.1) (25.5) (28.7) (23.5)
pH S 8.2-8.4 8.1-8.3 7.8-7.9 8.3-8.6 8.0-8.2 7.9-8.3 8.2-8.2 7.9-8.3 8.0-8.3 8.1-8.2 8.4-8.4 (8.3) (8.2) (7.9) (8.5) (8.1) (8.2) 8.2 (8.2) (8.1) (8.1) 8.4 B 8.2-8.4 8.2-8.3 7.9* 8.3-8.6 8.0-8.1 8.1-8.3 8.2-8.2 7.9-8.3 8.1-8.3 8.1-8.2 8.4-8.4 (8.3)
(8.2) (8.5) (8.0) (8.2) (8.2) (8.2) (8.2) (8.2) 8.4
SS (mg/l) S 32-63 28-304 698* 16-1100 156-336 28-104 164* 49-170 30-162 38-86 44* (44) (166) (742) (244) (60) (108) (96) (62) B 26-136 208-490 689* 80-190 252-373 42-94 178* 70-207 108-214 72-166 60* (78)
(349) (126) (312) (72) (128) (161) (95)
Salinity(ppt) S 36.3-37.8 41.2-46.3 32.1-32.8 37.3-39.0 40.0-40.4 36.5-40.1 38.2-38.2 36.9-39.2 40.7-42.4 36.5-37.0 37.2-37.8 (37.1) (43.7) (32.4) (38.1) (40.2) (38.3) (38.2) (38.2) (41.5) (36.7) (37.5) B 36.3-37.8 41.6-45.8 32.1-32.1 37.5-39.0 40.2-40.2 37.4-40.1 38.0-38.0 37.1-39.0 41.0-42.3 36.2-37.0 37.4-37.6 (37.3)
(43.7) (32.1) (38.0) (40.2) (38.4) (38.0) (38.2) (41.6) (36.7) (37.5)
DO (mg/l) S 5.3-7.0 4.3-7.3 6.9-6.9 6.9-10.9 6.1-6.7 8.7-11.1 6.4-6.4 2.1-8.1 3.1-7.1 5.4-7.7 7.9-7.9 (6.1) (5.7) (6.9) (8.8) (6.4) (9.8) (6.4) (5.1) (5.1) (6.4) (7.9) B 5.0-6.7 3.7-7.1 6.8-7.1 5.1-10.8 6.7-6.7 8.3-11.4 6.4-6.8 2.8-7.3 3.1-7.6 4.1-7.4 6.7-7.0 (5.9)
(5.4) (6.9) (8.1) (6.7) (10.0) (6.7) (5.0) (5.3) (5.8) (6.8)
BOD (mg/l) S 2.2-6.3 0.9-1.4 2.0* 0.1-2.5 3.9-4.1 0.2-5.9 0.6* <0.1-4.1 0.8-1.3 2.3-4.8 2.6* (4.9) (1.2) (0.8) (4.0) (2.1) (1.4) (1.0) (3.6) B 0.7-4.7 0.5-1.5 <0.1* 0.1-1.5 3.2-3.5 0.2-4.5 0.6* <0.1-4.0 0.9-2.0 0.9-2.3 1.7* (2.5) (1.0) (0.9) (3.4) (1.6) (0.9) (1.4) (1.6)
Table 3.3.2: Contd. 3
Average given in parenthesis, ND: Not Detected, * Single value
Parameter Level Bedi Salaya Navlakhi Kandla Mundra Oct 1997 Nov 2002 Nov1994 Nov2002 Oct 1996 Nov2002 Jan 2004 Sep1999 Nov2002 Oct2003 Dec2004 PO4
3--P(µmol/l) S 1.0-3.0 0.2-2.0 1.5-2.0 0.9-2.2 0.8-1.3 0.4-3.1 1.8-1.8 0.5-2.5 1.0-1.6 0.5-1.3 1.3-1.4 (2.1) (1.1 (1.7) (1.9) (1.1) (1.7) (1.8) (1.4) (1.3) (0.9) (1.4) B 1.3-5.2 1.2-4.1 2.0-2.1 0.8-2.3 1.2-1.6 1.9-2.6 2.0-2.1 0.7-3.0 1.6-2.1 0.8-1.3 1.5-1.7 (2.9)
(2.6) (2.0) (1.9) (1.4) (2.2) (2.1) (1.7) (1.8) (1.1) (1.6)
PTotal (µmol/l) S 1.6-3.8 - - - - - - - - - - (2.7) B 1.8-5.7 - - - - - - - - - - (4.2)
NO3--N (µmol/l) S 2.9-16.7 6.9-15.2 25.4-38.4 8.8-12.3 7.3-9.9 5.4-18.7 10.5-12.1 0.7-10.0 6.9-28.6 1.3-3.7 4.3-5.4
(7.4) (11.0) (31.9) (10.6) (9.6) (10.4) (11.3) (4.3) (17.7) (2.5) (4.9) B 2.4-15.1 8.1-12.2 30.4-30.8 8.0-12.3 10.9-11.5 5.9-18.4 12.6-12.7 0.3-7.1 17.0-25.9 0.2-3.3 3.1-4.2
(8.9)
(10.1) (30.6) (9.8) (11.2) (10.4) (12.7) (4.0) (21.4) (2.0) (3.7)
NO2--N (µmol/l) S 0.1-1.5 0.3-0.7 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.3 0.8-0.9 0.1-0.5 ND-0.1 0.1-0.9 0.3-0.6 0.2-0.6 0.3-0.3
(0.9) (0.5) (0.1) (0.2) (0.9) (0.3) (0.1) (0.4) (0.4) (0.4) (0.3) B 0.3-1.6 0.2-0.9 0.1-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.6-0.9 0.2-0.5 ND 0.2-1.0 0.2-0.8 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.3 (1.1)
(0.5) (0.1) (0.2) (0.8) (0.3) (0.4) (0.5) (0.2) (0.3)
NH4+-N (µmol/l) S 0.4-2.1 0.5-2.4 0.8-3.0 0.3-1.5 0.5-1.1 0.2-1.3 2.1-2.6 ND-3.6 1.1-5.4 0.2-3.9 0.5-1.3
(1.2) (1.4) (1.9) (0.6) (0.8) (0.7) (2.4) (0.6) (3.2) (1.6) (0.9) B 0.4-3.9 ND-3.1 1.1-1.3 0.2-1.0 0.5-0.9 0.2-1.1 2.3-2.7 ND-2.1 0.7-2.1 0.1-1.4 0.1-0.2 (2.1)
(1.5) (1.2) (0.6) (0.7) (0.5) (2.5) (0.5) (1.4) (0.5) (0.2)
NTotal (µmol/l) S 3.7-17.9 - - - - - - - - 8.7-12.8 - (10.0) (10.8) B 7.1-17.1 - - - - - - - - 6.1-8.0 - (13.3)
(7.1)
PHc (µmol/l) 1m 1.2-8.0 1.3-3.0 - 0.9-1.4 1.6-2.0 0.7-1.9 - 0.3-2.5 1.3-4.6 8.6-19.4 26.3* (5.1)
(2.1) (1.1) (1.8) (1.1) (1.1) (2.9) (14.0)
Phenols(µmol/l) S 6-32 ND-53 9-13 11-16 ND-44 - ND-133 4-23 2-10 57* (20) (27) (15) (14) (31) (38) (13) (6)
Table 3.3.3: Subtidal sediment quality of the Gulf during premonsoon (1994-2005)
Constituents
Premonsoon Okha Vadinar Sikka Bedi
Mar 1999 Apr 2002 Apr 1994 Mar 1996 Apr 1994 Mar 1997 Apr 2002 Apr 2003 Mar 1997Al (%) 0.8-2.0 1.8-8.1 3.7-9.6 5.0-6.2 - 1.5-5.7 4.7 0.4-8.4 2.9-6.6 (1.6) (4.9) (7.0) (5.5) (3.4) (5.2) (4.4) Cr (µg/l) 12-39 20-112 30-87 41-59 27-127 28-112 68 6-51 48-189 (20) (67) (63) (47) (48) (75) (23) (133) Mn (µg/l) 257-1696 425-726 517-1229 287-512 443-936 408-987 590 508-3065 493-775 (639) (580) (802) (399) (633) (692) (1450) (664) Fe (%) 0.9-1.1 0.8-4.4 1.4-4.3 3.6-4.9 2.0-6.1 1.0-4.6 2.3 0.1-9.8 2.0-5.2 (1.0) (2.5) (3.2) (4.1) (3.0) (3.2) (3.3) (3.8) Co (µg/g) 20-29 1-29 24-44 2-78 37-65 11-36 9 12-47 28-53 (24) (10) (36) (44) (38) (25) (26) (41) Ni (µg/g) 11-17 10-60 31-61 59-70 21-75 11-67 29 32-112 24-67 (15) (33) (47) (64) (34) (51) (68) (51) Cu (µg/g) 8-16 5-34 32-70 41-51 24-90 9-52 19 11-97 16-72 (12) (16) (51) (44) (32) (34) (44) (40) Zn (µg/g) 17-25 13-92 44-134 48-94 39-101 15-84 23 109-401 39-122 (22) (43) (92) (77) (59) (50) (227) (72) Hg (µg/g) 0.04-0.12 0.009-0.04 - - - 0.09-0.40 0.009 ND-0.26 0.1-0.3 (0.07) (0.02) (0.17) (0.07) (0.2) Pb (µg/g) - - 1-12 17-21 ND-5 - - - - (7) (20) (1.2) C (%) 0.1-0.8 0.2-0.7 - - - 0.1-0.8 0.4 0.2-1.0 - (0.3) (0.7) (0.4) (0.6) P (µg/g) 425-736 349-545 - - - 580-832 470 210-953 - (646) (455) (731) (525) PHc (µg/g) ND-3.1 0.7-1.4 0.2-2.3 0.2-0.4 0.3-1.0 0.08-0.33 0.7 0.1 0.3-1.0 (1.2) (1.0) (0.6) (0.3) (0.5) (0.20) (0.1) (0.4)
Table 3.3.3: Contd. 1
Constituents
Premonsoon Kandla Mundra Salaya Navlakhi
Mar 1996 Feb 1998 Apr 2002 Mar 1999 Mar 2000 Apr 2002 Jun 2003 April 2002 Apr 2002Al (%) 1.7-6.9 1.7-7.9 7.5 0.5-9.3 2.4-8.5 8.7 1.4-9.6 6.8 7.3 (4.6) (5.4) (5.7) (4.6) (4.9) Cr (µg/l) 9-103 26-76 98 7-175 26-139 140 27-123 87 113 (63) (45) (110) (86) (73) Mn (µg/l) 594-1321 428-757 623 431-900 316-837 681 536-1182 677 808 (985) (597) (700) (603) (767) Fe (%) 0.9-4.7 1.2-6.2 3.6 1.1-5.0 1.5-46 5.0 1.3-5.1 3.7 5.0 (2.9) (4.1) (3.5) (38) (3.6) Co (µg/g) 9-31 16-32 18 15-70 15-39 27 ND-20 20 24 (23) (26) (35) (29) (8) Ni (µg/g) 15-58 9-60 45 ND-68 15-59 64 7-59 48 65 (41) (38) (39) (38) (35) Cu (µg/g) 11-45 6-51 31 6-47 6-44 54 5-44 29 50 (28) (32) (24) (26) (19) Zn (µg/g) 18-89 12-77 50 14-106 33-92 76 31-151 61 74 (60) (58) (62) (70) (87) Hg (µg/g) 0.13-0.26 0.07-0.13 0.04 0.07-0.66 0.19-0.76 0.02 ND-0.05 0.05 0.05 (0.18) (0.11) (0.62) (0.34) (0.03) Pb (µg/g) 6.8-17.2 - - - - - - - - (12.3) C (%) - - 0.7 0.1-0.9 0.1-0.7 0.9 ND-0.8 0.5 0.8 (0.5) (0.4) (0.4) P (µg/g) - - 417 341-882 493-755 589 465-1822 581 629 (607) (633) (751) PHc (µg/g) 0.2-21.6 0.1-0.4 <0.1 0.1-2.8 0.7-1.7 0.2 ND-0.4 0.6 1.0 (3.0) (0.2 (1.8) (1.3) (0.2)
Dry wt basis except PHc which is wet wt basis,
ND : Not Detected, Average in parenthesis
Table 3.3.4: Subtidal sediment quality of the Gulf during postmonsoon (1993-2004)
Constituents
Postmonsoon Okha Vadinar Sikka
Nov 95 Nov 99 Nov 2002 Nov 2004 Nov 94 Nov 95 Nov 2004 Dec 93 Oct 96 Nov 2002 Al (%) 0.8-3.4 1.6-4.3 0.4-5.1 3.7-6.1 4.1-9.6 4.7-5.8 2.1-11.0 - 4.8-5.2 5.0-7.8 (2.2) (2.5) (2.8) (4.5) (6.9) (5.2) (6.9) (5.0) (6.4) Cr (µg/g) 18-49 ND-55 9-92 36-68 30-69 38-65 40-118 29-104 80-137 154-197 (31) (19) (51) (48) (52) (49) (94) (68) (102) (176) Mn (µg/g) 340-700 290-470 607-610 365-497 743-1222 720-1010 210-1103 497-900 1117-1539 817-1054 (592) (389) (609) (415) (924) (815) (596) (775) (1258) (936) Fe (%) 1.5-3.0 0.9-2.6 0.3-3.3 1.4-2.1 1.4-3.5 1.9-3.6 0.8-5.6 2.0-6.5 4.1-4.7 4.7-5.8 (2.4) (1.5) (1.8) (1.7) (2.7) (2.7) (3.8) (4.8) (4.7) (5.3) Co (µg/g) 7-27 21-38 ND-8 4-96 24-44 20-70 6-23 37-65 31-48 ND-18 (19) (30) (4) (35) (34) (45) (17) (54) (37) (9) Ni (µg/g) 13-29 10-28 ND-34 14-28 38-61 33-50 35-73 21-75 65-86 58-67 (20) (17) (17) (19) (49) (38) (55) (58) (70) (63) Cu (µg/g) 8-26 5-24 5-43 20-21 33-70 36-65 7-59 27-90 50-85 64-92 (16) (12) (24) (21) (52) (48) (41) (73) (62) (78) Zn (µg/g) 21-32 15-44 62-69 27-63 79-134 69-131 63-154 39-101 88-93 83-85 (28) (25) (66) (41) (110) (101) (126) (75) (91) (84) Hg (µg/g) 0.01-0.10 - 0.06-0.09 0.05-0.17 - - ND-0.02 - - 0.09-0.11 (0.04) (0.07) (0.09) (0.01) (0.10) Pb (µg/g) 2-15 - - - 6-12 6-10 - ND 3.5-11.8 - (10) (9) (8) (8.5) C (%) - 0.1-1.6 0.2-0.6 0.4-0.7 - - - - - 0.5-0.8 (0.5) (0.4) (0.6) (0.7) P (µg/g) - 410-709 626-688 594-738 694-815 - 76-985 - - 650-704 (555) (657) (657) (771) (701) (677) PHc (µg/g) ND-0.3 0.3-0.8 - 0.4-1.0 ND-0.9 0.2-1.0 0.2-1.0 0.3-1.0 0.3-0.5 - (0.1) (0.4) (0.7) (0.4) (0.3) (0.4) (0.6) (0.4)
Table 3.3.4: Contd. 1
Constituents
Postmonsoon Bedi Navlakhi Kandla Mundra Salaya
Oct 97 Nov 94 Nov 2002
Oct 96 Nov 2002
Sep 99 Nov 2002
Oct 2003 Dec 2004 Nov 2002
Al (%) 2.9-6.6 - 6.6 2.9-6.3 7.0 2.5-6.7 0.4 1.3-4.8 1.4-9.6 5.9 (4.4) (4.4) (5.6) (3.1) (4.3) Cr (µg/g) 48-189 75-194 94 50-103 83 18-80 12 18-41 27-123 86 (133) (100) (69) (53) (30) (73) Mn (µg/g) 493-775 549-1188 834 797-1321 838 361-832 353 312-490 536-1182 611 (664) (944) (1033) (684) (401) (766) Fe (%) 2.0-5.2 1.4-3.6 3.8 1.6-3.4 3.5 1.5-4.7 0.5 0.8-2.4 1.3-5.1 3.3 (3.8) (2.4) (2.6) (3.8) (1.6) (3.6) Co (µg/g) 28-53 34-39 7 14-29 10 11-34 ND 2-8 ND-20 8 (41) (36) (23) (28) (5) (8) Ni (µg/g) 24-67 37-63 47 20-58 41 15-59 ND 6-21 7-59 39 (51) (51) (40) (46) (14) (35) Cu (µg/g) 16-72 24-46 36 11-36 34 3-39 7 10-16 5-44 41 (46) (34) (25) (27) (13) (20) Zn (µg/g) 39-122 33-157 96 34-88 93 13-79 15 20-48 31-151 68 (72) (78) (61) (61) (34) (87) Hg (µg/g) 0.1-0.3 ND-0.40 0.11 0.13-0.26 0.08 0.3-0.69 0.08 - ND-0.01 0.12 (0.2) (0.20) (0.18) (0.44) (0.01) Pb (µg/g) - 7.0-11.0 - 8.6-17.2 - - - - - (10.0) (12.9) C (%) - - 0.7 - 0.6 0.1-0.8 0.1 0.1-0.2 ND-0.2 1.0 (0.6) (0.2) (0.1) P (µg/g) - - 786 - 703 337-1402 327 102-275 469-1822 1049 (1027) (189) (812) PHc (µg/g) 0.3-1.0 0.2-1.2 - 0.7-1.4 - 0.1-0.4 - - ND-0.2 - (0.4) (0.5) (1.0) (0.3) (0.1)
Dry wt basis except PHc which is wet wt basis, ND: Not Detected, Average in parenthesis
Table 3.3.5: List of algae recorded along the intertidal zone of the Gulf
Name Status*
Chlorophyceae
Boodlea composita C
Bryopsis indica C
B. plumose C
B. ramulosa C
Caulerpa crassifolia C
C. cupressoides C
C. racemosa C
C. scalpelliformis C
C. sertularioides C
C. taxiformes C
C. verticillata C
Chaetomorpha indica C
Chamaedoris auirculata C
Cladophora glomerata C
C. prolifera C
Codium decorticatum R
C. dwarkensis C
C. elongatum C
Dictyosphaeria cavernosa C
Enteromorpha intenstinalis C
Halideda tuna C
Pseudobryopsis mucronata R
Spongomorpha sp. C
Udoea indica C
Ulva fasciata C
U. lactuca C
U. reticulata R
Valonia utricularis R
Valloniopsis spachynema R
Table 3.3.5: Contd. 1
Name Status*
Valonia utricularis R
Valloniopsis spachynema R
Phaeophyceae
Colpomenia sinuosa C
Cystoceira indica C
Dictyota atomaria C
D. bartayrisiana R
D. cervicornis R
D. ciliolate C
D. dichotoma C
D. divaricata R
Dictyopteris australis C
D. woodwardii C
Ectocarpus sp. C
Hinskia mitchelle C
Hormophysa triquetra R
Hydroclathrus clathratus R
Iyengaria stellata C
Myriogloea sciurus R
Nemacystus decipiens R
Padina gymnospora R
P. tetrastromatica C
Pocockiella sp. C
Rosenvingia intricata R
Sargassum johnstonii C
S. tenerrimum C
S. plagiophyllum R
S. swartzii C
S. wisghtii R
Spathoglossum asperum R
S. variabile C
Table 3.3.5: Contd. 2
Name Status*
Stoechospermum marginatum C
Spathoglossum asperum R
S. variabile C
Stoechospermum marginatum C
Turbinaria ornata R
Rhodophyceae
Acanthophora delilei C
A. specifera R
Amphiroa fragilissima R
Asparogopsis taxiformis C
Botroycladia leptapoda C
Calaglossa bombayance R
Ceramium sp. C
Champia indica C
Chondria ornata R
C.dasyphylla R
Coelarthrum opuntia C
Corallina officinalis C
Corynomorpha prismatica R
Cryptopleur sp. R
Dasya sp. R
Desmia hornmanni R
Gastroclonium iyengarii R
Galaxaura oblongata C
Gelidiella acerosa C
Gelidiospsis gracilis C
Gigartina sp R
Gracilaria corticata R
G. pygmaea C
Gastroclonium iyengarii R
Galaxaura oblongata C
Gelidiella acerosa C
Table 3.3.5: Contd. 3
Name Status*
Gelidiospsis gracilis C
Gigartina sp R
Gracilaria corticata R
G. pygmaea C
G. verrucossa R
Grateloupia inica C
G. felicina R
Haloplegma sp. R
Halymenia floresia R
H. porphyroides C
H. venusta C
Helminthocladia clayadosii C
Heterosiphonia muelleri C
Hypnea cervicornis C
H. musciformis C
Hypoglossum spathulatum R
Laurencia papillosa C
L. pedicularioides C
Liagora cerenoides R
Lophocladia lallemandi R
Neurymenia fraxinifolia R
Polysiphonia sp. C
Rhodymenia australis C
R. palmate C
Scinaia indica C
S. furcellata R
Sebdenia polydactyla C
Spyridia alternans C
Soleria robusta C *C: common; R : rare Source: Saurashtra University (1991)
Table 3.3.6: Biological characteristics of the Gulf during premonsoon (1981-2005)
Parameter Okha
April 1981 March 1995 March 1999 April 2002 April 2003 Phytoplankton
Chlorophyll a (mg/m3)
1.1-6.9 (4.3)
0.5-1.1 (0.7)
0.5-1.1 (0.6)
0.5-2.7 (1.1)
0.1-0.2 (0.2)
Phaeophytin (mg/m3)
- 0.4-1.3 (0.7)
0.4-1.3 (0.7)
0.1-0.6 (0.2)
0.5-0.8 (0.6)
Cell counts (nox103/l)
- 36.6-45.6 (41.1)
49.2-775.2 (412.2)
16.5-116.5 (48.5)
15.3-24.0 (20.5)
Total genera (no)
- 8-8 (8)
7-8 (8)
14-21 (17)
15-19 (18)
Zooplankton
Biomass (ml/100m3)
0.3-0.6 (0.5)
0.4-0.7 (0.5)
6.9-7.2 (7.0)
0.3-7.5 (2.7)
1.5-4.5 (3.2)
Population (nox103/100m3)
- 0.2-0.4 (0.3)
0.4-1.0 (0.7)
2.0-29.3 (14.1)
6.5-13.0 (8.5)
Total groups (no)
- 6-8 (7)
10-11 (11)
9-20 (15)
12-13 (13)
Macrobenthos
Biomass (g/m2; wet wt)
- 0.1 <0.1 0.1 2.2-3.7 (3.2)
Population (no/m2)
2700 200 13 341 375-1250 (828)
Total groups (no)
9 4 1 9 3-8 (7)
Table 3.3.6: Contd. 1
Parameter Vadinar April 1994 March 1996 April 2002 May 2005
Phytoplankton Chlorophyll a (mg/m3)
1.1-1.1 (1.1)
1.1-2.7 (1.3)
0.5-1.6 (0.8)
0.2-0.6 (0.3)
Phaeophytin (mg/m3)
0.8-1.6 (1.0)
0.1-3.8 (1.5)
0.2-1.3 (0.8)
0.1-1.7 (0.5)
Cell counts (nox103/l)
47.2 (47.2)
15.8-42.8 (29.4)
2.5-29.6 (11.9)
6.1-71.2 (21.8)
Total genera (no)
25 (25)
9-11 (10)
8-21 (13)
10-22 (17)
Zooplankton Biomass (ml/100m3)
12.1-18.9 (15.5)
3.0 (3.0)
<0.1-3.7 (1.2)
0.9-12.5 (4.6)
Population (nox103/100m3)
12.8-16.8 (14.8)
1.6 (1.6)
0.2-23.9 (6.2)
1.6-36.3 (12.3)
Total groups (no)
13-15 (14)
11 (11)
12-20 (16)
6-19 (16)
Macrobenthos Biomass (g/m2; wet wt)
6.1 3.0 10.3 3.1
Population (no/m2)
2725 1392 3693 739
Total groups (no)
9 8 17 6
Table 3.3.6: Contd. 2
Parameter Sikka April
1994 March 1997
May 2001
April 2002
April 2003
February 2005
April 2005
Phytoplankton Chlorophyll a (mg/m3)
1.1-2.7 (1.6)
0.5-1.1 (0.8)
0.5-4.8 (1.6)
0.5-1.1 (0.6)
0.1-0.2 (0.2)
0.2-0.4 (0.3)
0.2-0.4 (0.2)
Phaeophytin (mg/m3)
0.3-3.1 (1.2)
0.1-0.6 (0.3)
0.1-6.2 (1.0)
0.2-1.3 (0.8)
0.5-0.8 (0.6)
0.5-1.2 (0.7)
0.1-0.7 (0.3)
Cell counts (nox103/l)
35.0-61.0 (58.0)
25.2-41.2 (33.2)
0.5-719 (122)
6.2-28.0 (14.6)
15.3-24.0 (20.5)
10.8-51.6 (28.4)
4.0-54.4 (10.1)
Total genera (no)
4-18 (9)
6-7 (7)
5-21 (18)
12-23 (18)
15-19 (18)
11-16 (14)
8-20 (12)
Zooplankton Biomass (ml/100m3)
0.8-13.3 (3.3)
1.5-1.5 (1.5)
1.8-28.2 (8.4)
0.3-8.5 (4.1)
1.5-4.5 (3.2)
0.1-10.0 (2.0)
0.3-22.8 (6.8)
Population (nox103/100m3)
1.9-44.8 (9.9)
3.4-4.7 (4.1)
6.9-118 (31.9)
1.9-49.3 (22.8)
6.5-13.0 (8.5)
0.2-28.8 (5.6)
2.4-13.2 (19.1)
Total groups (no)
7-14 (12)
10-14 (12)
11-15 (14)
11-20 (16)
12-13 (13)
4-15 (12)
6-16 (10)
Macrobenthos Biomass (g/m2; wet wt)
25.5 116.0 <0.1-3.04 (0.75)
2.7 (2.7)
2.2-3.7 (3.2)
0.1-4.11 (1.7)
0.2-19.2 (7.2)
Population (no/m2)
2525 8050 50-834 (292)
1782 (1782)
375-1250 (828)
100-1850 (918)
50-2925 (1138)
Total groups (no)
11 10 1-5 (3)
10 (10)
3-8 (7)
3-9 (6)
2-8 (6)
Table 3.3.6: Contd. 3
Parameter Bedi Navlakhi
March 1997 February 1987 April 2002
Phytoplankton Chlorophyll a (mg/m3)
0.5-5.9 (1.5)
0.5-3.8 (1.6)
0.5-1.1 (0.7)
Phaeophytin (mg/m3)
0.1-7.6 (1.5)
0.1-0.8 (0.4)
0.2-1.3 (0.8)
Cell counts (nox103/l)
38.0-936.0 (159.0)
- 1.7-13.5 (7.2)
Total genera (no)
7-15 (10)
- 7-19 (11)
Zooplankton Biomass (ml/100m3)
0.5-25.5 (6.4)
18.8-95.0 (53.3)
0.5-3.2 (1.9)
Population (nox103/100m3)
1.6-220.0 (48.1)
59.0-192.0 (117.3)
2.8-34.1 (16.9)
Total groups (no) 5-15
(10)
- 11-20 (15)
Macrobenthos Biomass (g/m2; wet wt)
7.8 <0.1 <0.1
Population (no/m2)
2944 72 25
Total groups (no)
9 - 1
Table 3.3.6: Contd. 4
Parameter Kandla February
1987 March 1996
February 1998
April 2002
Phytoplankton Chlorophyll a (mg/m3)
0.1-0.5 (0.4)
0.5-0.5 (0.5)
0.5-2.1 (1.1)
0.5-2.1 (1.1)
Phaeophytin (mg/m3)
0.1-1.7 (1.0)
0.2-0.6 (0.3)
0.1-1.7 (1.0)
0.3-1.3 (0.8)
Cell counts (nox103/l)
4.6-170.0 (67.7)
30.2-45.1 (36.2)
8.4-22.4 (14.5)
Total genera (no)
7-15 (11)
6-8 (7)
9-19 (13)
Zooplankton Biomass (ml/100m3)
17.0-56.3 (37.0)
4.4-18.5 (11.5)
3.8-24.1 (14.3)
1.6-6.3 (3.2)
Population (nox103/100m3)
31.0-98.5 (67.0)
4.2-18.7 (11.4)
13.7-117.1 (42.4)
11.8-139 (40.0)
Total groups (no)
- 10-11 (11)
7-13 (10)
11-17 (14)
Macrobenthos Biomass (g/m2; wet wt)
6.4 0.4 <0.2 <0.1
Population (no/m2) 264 978 26 143 Total groups (no)
3 8 2 5
Table 3.3.6: Contd. 5 Parameter Mundra
March 1997 March 1999
March 2000
April 2002
June 2003
Phytoplankton Chlorophyll a (mg/m3)
0.3-1.1 (0.8) 0.5-2.7 (0.9)
0.5-1.6 (0.8)
0.5-1.6 (0.9)
0.2-4.1 (1.0)
Phaeophytin (mg/m3)
0.2-0.8 (0.4) 0.1-1.7 (0.6)
0.1-0.6 (0.4)
0.1-1.3 (0.7)
0.1-1.6 (0.5)
Cell counts (nox103/l)
62.4-293.0 (189.4)
33.6-133.2 (79.6)
14.0-196.0 (57.0)
16.6-82.8 (45.8)
12.9-427 (90.8)
Total genera (no)
7-14 (12)
6-14 (10)
8-14 (11)
20-26 (24)
8-13 (10)
Zooplankton Biomass (ml/100m3)
0.4-72.7 (32.0)
0.8-8.0 (4.3)
0.2-28.2 (6.4) 0.2-25.3 (9.1)
0.9-9.6 (2.7)
Population (nox103/100m3)
1.6-144.1 (74.8)
2.1-40.4 (19.6)
1.9-145.1 (25.0)
2.2-156 (45.5)
7.7-58.9 (18.7)
Total groups (no)
9-16 (12)
6-16 (12)
6-17 (10)
9-21 (15)
12-18 (15)
Macrobenthos Biomass (g/m2; wet wt)
4.4 0.2-2.0 (0.8)
0.1-43.1 (4.3) 12.8 0-4.5 (0.4)
Population (no/m2)
5700 302-515 (380) 100-20600 (2100)
3494 0-1300 (240)
Total groups (no)
7 5-5 (5)
2-7 (4)
15 0-6 (3)
Average given in parenthesis
Table 3.3.7: Biological characteristics of the Gulf during postmonsoon (1984-2004)
Parameter Okha December
1981 November
1995 November
1999 November
2002 January
2003 January
2004 Phytoplankton
Chlorophyll a (mg/m3)
2.7-4.3 (3.5)
1.1-1.1 (1.1)
1.1-1.1 (1.1)
0.5-1.6 (0.7)
0.5-0.5 (0.5)
0.2-0.4 (0.3)
Phaeophytin (mg/m3)
- 0.2-0.6 (0.3)
0.1-0.4 (0.2)
0.1-1.4 (0.6)
0.2-1.0 (0.5)
0.1-0.3 (0.2)
Cell counts (nox103/l)
- 27.0-54.8 (41.8)
68.0-80.0 (74.0)
- 1.2-54 (21.0)
3.1-60.0 (19.0)
Total genera (no)
- 13-16 (15) 10-11 (11) - 9-19 (12)
10-17 (12)
Zooplankton Biomass (ml/100m3)
0.5-0.9 (0.7)
0.4-0.8 (0.6)
0.4-1.0 (0.7)
0.2-2.6 (1.6)
2.2-8.2 (4.6)
1.0-56.9 (25.2)
Population (nox103/100m3)
- 0.5-0.5 (0.5)
6.9-7.2 (7.0)
0.6-22.8 (8.3)
26.1-86 (54.9)
20.5-69.4 (45.8)
Total groups (no)
- 7-14 (12) 10-11 (11)
10-19 (16) 15-21 (16)
12-20 (15)
Macrobenthos Biomass (g/m2; wet wt)
- <0.1 0.5 1.89 0.5-24.9 (15.2)
0.2-5.2 (3.3)
Population (no/m2)
775 89 352 1963 600-2025 (1307)
213-2900 (1597)
Total groups (no)
5 3 4 10 2-6 (5)
2-6 (4)
Table 3.3.7: Contd. 1
Parameter Vadinar November
1994 November
1995 January
2000 November
2002 January
2003 January
2004 November
2004
Phytoplankton Chlorophyll a (mg/m3)
0.5-0.5 (0.5)
0.5-1.1 (0.7)
0.5-1.1 (0.8)
0.5-1.6 (0.6)
0.5-0.5 (0.5)
0.2-0.2 (0.2)
0.2-0.2 (0.2)
Phaeophytin (mg/m3)
0.2-1.0 (0.6)
0.1-0.6 (0.4)
0.1-0.6 (0.4)
0.1-1.3 (0.4)
0.2-1.0 (0.6)
0.1-0.2 (0.2)
0.2-1.0 (0.5)
Cell counts (nox103/l)
- 9.4-32.7 (17.1)
17.2-28.8 (22.0)
3.8-26.4 (9.9)
9.6-70.0 (36.6)
2.0-20.1 (11.7)
2.0-36.0 (7.6)
Total genera (no)
- 10-12 (11)
8-13 (11)
10-18 (14)
9-21 (14)
11-18 (15)
7-18 (12)
Zooplankton Biomass (ml/100m3)
2.1-6.4 (4.6)
1.6 (1.6)
0.6-7.3 (4.0)
0.4-2.5 (1.3)
4.2-11.9 (8.2)
0.1-1.9 (1.0)
0.3-6.7 (1.7)
Population (nox103/100m3)
3.7-52.7 (23.7)
7.2 (7.2)
8.7-41.1 (24.9)
2.5-12.2 (7.4)
23.4-125 (66.5)
0.2-9.6 (6.8)
1.4-37.1 (12.5)
Total groups (no)
11-15 (13)
10 (10)
7-8 (8)
9-20 (16)
20-23 (22)
8-12 (9)
11-17 (14)
Macrobenthos Biomass (g/m2; wet wt)
- 1.2 0.2 1.26 0.0-35.5 (10.0)
<0.1-7.2 (2.6)
2.0
Population (no/m2)
- 339 126 1163 0-7425 (2581)
25-1826 (471)
570
Total groups (no)
- 3 3 9 0-9 (5)
2 5
Table 3.3.7: Contd. 2
Parameter Sikka December
1993 December
2000 November
2002 November
2003 Phytoplankton
Chlorophyll a (mg/m3)
0.5-4.3 (1.8)
0.5-3.7 (1.3)
0.5-1.1 (0.6)
0.2-0.6 (0.3)
Phaeophytin (mg/m3)
0.1-2.8 (0.9)
0.1-1.5 (0.6)
0.2-1.0 (0.4)
0.1-1.0 (0.6)
Cell counts (nox103/l)
4.0-252 (90.0)
8.0-267 (85.4)
- 3.6-59.2 (21.4)
Total genera (no)
4-12 (7) 8-13 (11)
- 7-10 (9)
Zooplankton Biomass (ml/100m3)
3.9-29.9 (11.0)
5.0-32.4 (20.7)
0.5-5.7 (2.5)
2.4-11.4 (7.8)
Population (nox103/100m3)
1.93-71.3 (44.5)
12.8-83.4 (43.3)
2.3-37.0 (13.5)
27.8-91 (67.5)
Total groups (no)
10-13 (12) 13-19 (16)
11-20 (16) 13-17 (15)
Macrobenthos Biomass (g/m2; wet wt)
12.8 0.02-2.1 (1.0)
14.4 2.2-3.7 (3.2)
Population (no/m2)
10914 150-777 (483)
544 375-1250 (828)
Total groups (no)
11 2-9 (4)
8 3-8 (6)
Table 3.3.7: Contd. 3 Parameter Bedi Navlakhi
October 1997
November 2002
November 1986
November 1994
November 2002
Phytoplankton Chlorophyll a (mg/m3)
0.5-1.6 (1.0)
0.5-1.6 (1.0) 1.1-4.6 (2.2) 0.5-1.6 (0.9)
0.5-1.6 (0.6)
Phaeophytin (mg/m3)
1.3-1.6 (1.4)
0.1-0.5 (0.4) 0.1-1.9 (1.0) 0.1-0.8 (0.4)
0.1-0.8 (0.4)
Cell counts (nox103/l)
0.2-14.8 (7.5)
3.8-56.1 (22.5)
- 9.0-18.9 (13.1)
6.0-31.4 (14.5)
Total genera (no)
6-7 (7)
10-16 (13)
- 7-9 (8)
8-20 (13)
Zooplankton Biomass (ml/100m3)
1.8-7.5 (4.6)
3.9-8.9 (6.6)
13.2-55.2 (30.4)
1.8-13.5 (5.6)
0.8-5.4 (3.5)
Population (nox103/100m3)
9.9-14.9 (12.4)
12.8-24.5 (19.4)
2.0-13.0 (6.8) 4.4-31.4 (14.5)
5.5-38.3 (15.1)
Total groups (no)
10-11 (11) 16-19 (17)
- 10-15 (12)
12-19 (16)
Macrobenthos Biomass (g/m2; wet wt)
0.1 5.7 0.1-43.1 (4.3) 0.1 <0.1-0.1
Population (no/m2)
125 1125 100-20600 (2100)
60 13-125 (82)
Total groups (no)
1 12 2-7 (4)
15 0-6 (3)
Table 3.3.7: Contd. 4
Parameter Kandla November
1986 October
1996 November
2002 January
2003 December
2004 January
2004 Phytoplankton
Chlorophyll a (mg/m3)
0.5-1.1 (0.8)
2.1-4.3 (3.2)
0.5-1.1 (0.8)
0.5-1.1 (0.9)
0.2-0.2 (0.2)
0.2-0.2 (0.2)
Phaeophytin (mg/m3)
0.1-1.3 (0.6)
0.1-0.6 (0.8)
0.2-1.9 (0.6)
1.2-2.3 (1.6)
0.2-1.0 (0.6)
0.1-0.5 (0.3)
Cell counts (nox103/l)
- 25.2-37.5 (30.4)
3.6-28.1 (17.6)
37.4-138.4 (103.0)
0.8-45.2 (31.8)
3-11.2 (6.0)
Total genera (no)
- 5-9 (7)
5-14 (10)
9-11 (10)
2-14 (7)
8-12 (11)
Zooplankton Biomass (ml/100m3)
8.2-13.7 (11.8)
1.8-5.2 (3.5)
3.1-9.9 (5.2)
3.3-6.1 (4.7)
2.1-8.8 (5.9)
1.2-1.7 (1.5)
Population (nox103/100m3)
21.0-32.9 (25.5)
1.2-63.6 (32.4)
16.6-102.1 (40.7)
61.0-63.7 (62.4)
4.5-89.0 (42.6)
4.1-6.7 (5.4)
Total groups (no)
- 8-12 (10)
12-21 (18)
17-17 (17)
14-19 (17)
9-10 (10)
Macrobenthos Biomass (g/m2; wet wt)
0.2 0.4 0.1 0.1 1.2 0.1-1.1 (0.6)
Population (no/m2)
60 276 6.9 75 177 100-138 (119)
Total groups (no)
2 3 4 2 2 3-5 (4)
Table 3.3.7: Contd. 5
Parameter Mundra September
1999 November
2002 January
2003 October
2003 January
2004 Phytoplankton
Chlorophyll a (mg/m3)
1.1-3.7 (2.6)
0.5-1.1 (0.5) 0.5-1.6 (1.0)
0.2-3.4 (1.0)
0.2-0.2 (0.2)
Phaeophytin (mg/m3)
0.4-2.8 (1.3)
0.2-0.6 (0.3) 0.1-4.2 (1.8) 0.1-1.5 (0.4)
0.1-0.8 (0.3)
Cell counts (nox103/l)
96.0-169.0 (150.0)
4.2-24.1 (11.2)
13-148 (53.8)
26-337 (111)
3.7-34.0 (14.6)
Total genera (no)
6-12 (9)
7-17 (11)
12-18 (15)
9-22 (15)
12-18 (14)
Zooplankton Biomass (ml/100m3)
0.1-2.5 (0.8)
4.5-15.4 (7.2) 4.0-6.8 (5.7)
1.1-21.8 (5.2)
0.8-3.0 (1.8)
Population (nox103/100m3)
0.1-11.0 (2.7)
7.5-60.6 (29.3)
58.2-150.3 (84.3)
11.7-81.5 (38.1)
6.3-22.0 (13.6)
Total groups (no)
9-19 (12)
13-19 (15)
16-17 (17)
12-17 (15)
8-14 (10)
Macrobenthos Biomass (g/m2; wet wt)
0.6 0.3 0.1-15.5 (4.6)
1.4 1.4-2.7 (2.0)
Population (no/m2)
713 325 125-1425 (652)
350 550-1450 (750)
Total groups (no)
2 8 2-6 (4)
2 4-6 (5)
Average given in parenthesis
Table 3.3.8: Mangrove areas and status of occurrence of major species of Gujarat
District 1992 1998
Mangroves areas (km2) Kachchh 601.8 938.0 Jamnagar 13.12 98.3 Junagad 0.8 0.3 Bhavnagar 14.5 6.2 Bharuch 10.9 17.1 Surat 7.8 5.0 Valsad - 5.0 Total 767.0 1066.9
Status of occurrence of major species
Species 1950 1998 Avicennia sp Common Common Rhizosolenia Common Vulnerable Aegiceras sp Common Endangered Ceriops tagal Common Vulnerable Sonneratia apetala Common Vulnerable Bruigeria sp. Common Absent * Based on satellite data
Table 3.3.9: Distribution of corals in the Gulf
Species 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Esammocora digitata - - - - - - - + - - - - - - -
Acropora humilis - - + + - - + + - - - - - - -
A.squamosa - - - + - - - - - - - - - - -
Montipora explanata + - + + - + + - + + + + + + +
M.venosa - - - + - - + - - - - - - - -
M.turgescons - - - - - - + - - - - - - - -
M.hispida + + - + + - + + + + + - - - +
M.foliosa - - - + - - + - - - - - - - -
M.monasteriata - - - + - - + - - - - - - - -
Coscinaraea monile + + + + + + + + + - - - - - +
Siderastrea savignyana + - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Pseudosiderastrea tayami + - - - - - + + + + + + + + +
Goniopora planulata + + - - + + + - + + - + - - +
G.minor - - - + - - + - - - - - - - +
G.nigra + + - + + + + - - + - - - - +
Porites leutea + + + + - - + - - - - + - - +
P.lichen + - - - - - + - + - - + - + +
P.compressa + + - - - - - - - - - - - - +
Favia speciosa - - - - - - - - - - - - - - +
F.favus + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Favites complanata + + + + + + + - - + - - - + +
Table 3.3.9: Contd. 1
Species 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
F.melicerus + - + - - - - - + - - - - + +
Goniastrea pectinata + + + + + + + - + + + - + + +
Platygyra sinensis + + + + - - - - - + - - - + +
Hydnophora exesa + + + + - - - - - + - - + - +
Plesiastrea versipora - + - - - - + - - - - - - - -
Leptastrea purpurea - - - - - - - - - - - Sikka point
Cyphastrea serailia + + + + + + + + + + - - + + +
Symphyllia radian - + - + - + - - + - - - - - -
Acanthastrea simplex + + + + - - - - + + - - - - +
Mycedium elephantotus
- - - + - - - - - - - - - - -
Paracyathus stokesi + - - - - - - - - - - - - 10 m
Polycyathus verrilli + - + - - - + - - - - - - - -
Tubastraea aurea + + + + + - - - + + - - - - -
Turbinaria crater + + - + - - + - - - - - - - +
T.peltata - + + + + + + - - + - - + + + 1 : Okha 2 : Dholio Gugar 3 : Dona 4 : Boria 5 : Mangunda 6 : Savaj 7 : Paga 8 : Manmarudi Langamarudi 9 : Ajad 10 : Bural reef 11 : Dhani 12 : Kalumbhar reef 13 : Narara reef 14 : Goose reef 15 : Pirotan island
Source: Pillai, C.S.G. and M.I. Patel (1988)
Table 3.3.10: List of water birds in the Gulf
English name Scientific name Status in habitat Salt pans Gulf
Podicipedidae Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus LM - Blacknecked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis M - Pelecanidae White Pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus LM LM Dalmatian Pelican Pelecanus crispus M M Phalacrocoracidae Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo LM LM Indian Shag Phalacrocorax fuscicolli LM LM Little Cormorant Phalacrocorax niger LM R Darter Anhinga rufa LM R Ardeidae Grey Heron Ardea cinerea LM R Purple Heron Ardea purpurea LM - Little Green Heron Ardeola striatus LM R Pond Heron Ardeola grayii LM R Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis - LM Large Egret Ardea alba LM R Smaller Egret Egretta intermedia LM - Little Egret Egretta garzetta LM - Indian Reef Heron Egretta gularis LM R Night Heron Nycticorax mycticorax LM R Ciconiidae Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala LM R Blacknecked Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaficus LM LM Threskiornithidae White Ibis Threskiornis aethiopica LM R Black Ibis Pseudibis papillasa - R Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia LM R
Table 3.3.10: Contd. 1
English name Scientific name Status in habitat Salt pans Gulf
Phoenicopteridae Flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus LM LM Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconatas minor LM R Anatidae Ruddy Shel duck Tadorna ferruginea - M Pintail Anas acuta M M Common Teal Anas crecca M - Spotbill Duck Anas poecilorhyncha LM LM Shoveller Anas clypeata M - Accipitridae Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus LM R Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus M M Osprey Pandian haliaetus M M Gruidae Common Crane Grus grus M M Demoiselle Crane Anthropoides virgo M M Rallidae Coot Fulica atra LM LM Jacanidae Pheasant - tailed Jacana Hydrophasianus chirurgus LM - Haematopodidae Oystercatcher Haematopus stralegus M M Charadriidae Redwattled Lapwing Vanellus indicus R R Grey Plover Pluvialis sugotarola M M Eastern Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica - M
Table 3.3.10: Contd. 2
English name Scientific name Status in habitat Salt pans Gulf
Large Sand Plover Charadrius leschenaultii M M Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula R - Kentish plover Charadrius alexandrinus R R Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius mongolus M M Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus M M Curlew Numenius arquata M M Blacktailed Godwit Limosa limosa M - Bartailed Godwit Limosa lapponica M M Spotted Redshank Tringa erythropus M M Common Redshank Tringa totanus M M Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis M M Greenshank Tringa nebularia M M Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus M M Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola M - Terek Sandpiper Tringa terek M M Common Sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos M M Turnstone Arenaria interpres M M Knot Calidris carutus - M Eastern Knot Calidris tenuirostris - V Sanderling Calidris alba - M Eastern Little Stint Calidris ruficollis - V Little Stint Calidris minuta M M Dunlin Calidris alpina M M Curlew-Sandpiper Calidris testacea M M Broadbilled Sandiper Limicola falcinellus M M Ruff and Reeve Philomachus pugnax M M Rednecked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus M M Recurvirostidae Blackwinged Stilt Himantopus himantopus R - Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta LM -
Table 3.3.10: Contd. 3
English name Scientific name Status in habitat Salt pans Gulf
Dromadidae Crab Plover Dromas ardeola M M Burhinidae Great Stone Plover Esacus magnirostris LM R Laridae Herring Gull Larus argentatus M M Lesser Blackbacked Gull Larus fuscus M M Blackheaded Larus ichthyaetus M M Brownheaded Gull Larus brunnicephalus M M Blackheaded Gull Larus ridibunds M M Slenderbilled Gull Larus genei M M Whiskered Tern Chiildonias hybrida M M Whitewinged Black Chiildonias leucopterus M M Tern Gullbilled Tern Gelochelidon nilotica M M Caspian Tern Hdroprogne caspia LM LM Common Tern Sterna hirunda M M Whitecheeked Tern Sterna repressa M M Brownwinged Tern Sterna anaethetus M M Little Tern Sterna albitrons M M Saunders Little Tern Sterna saundersi LM R Large Crested Tern Sterna bergii M M Indian Lesser Crested Tern Sterna bengalenis M M Sandwich Tern Sterna sandvicensis M M Indian skimmer Rynchops albicollis LM LM
Table 3.3.10: Contd. 4
English name Scientific name Status in habitat Salt pans Gulf
Alcedinidae Common Kingfisher Alcedo atthis LM LM Whitebreast Halcyon smyrnensisq LM LM Blackcapped kingfisher Halcyon pileata M M
R : Resident, has been recorded breeding during the study. LM : Local migrant, has not been recorded breeding during the study, but is known to nest within the state. M : Migrant, does not breed in this area, spends the winter here
and also sometimes the summer. V : Not normally found in the area, one to few records only.
Source : Saurashtra University (1991).
Table 5.1.14: Water quality at station 14
Parameter Level February 2010 Min Max Av
Temperature S 21.5 23.0 22.3 M 21.5 22.4 22.0 B 21.5 23.0 22.3 (21.5) (23.5) (22.4)
pH S 8.5 8.5 8.5 M 8.5 8.5 8.5 B 8.5 8.5 8.5
SS(mg/l) S 19 25 22 M 16 21 19 B 18 21 20
Salinity (‰)
S 37.7 38.8 38.3 M 37.7 38.9 38.3 B 38.0 38.9 38.6
DO(mg/l) S 6.3 7.8 7.1 M 2.5 8.5 7.0 B 3.1 8.5 7.0
BOD (mg/l)
S 1.9 2.5 2.2 M 0.9 1.6 1.3 B 0.9 0.9 0.9
PO4 (µmol/l) S 0.3 0.6 0.5 M 0.6 0.7 0.7 B 0.3 0.8 0.6
TP(µmol/l) S 1.3 1.4 1.3 M - - - B 0.8 1.3 1.1
NO3 (µmol/l) S 0.4 3.5 2.7 M 2.2 3.5 3.0 B 1.7 3.5 2.7
NO2 (µmol/l) S ND 0.1 ND M ND 0.1 ND B ND 0.1 0.1
NH4 (µmol/l) S ND 0.5 0.2 M ND 0.6 0.4 B ND 0.5 0.3
TN(µmol/l) S 450 601 526 M - - - B 338 585 461
PHc (µg/l) S 40 102 71 Phenols(µg/l) S 50 101 76
Air temperature in parenthesis
Table 5.1.13: Water quality at station 13
Parameter Level February2010 Min Max Av
Temperature S 23.0 23.0 23.0 M 22.0 22.0 22.0 B 23.3 23.3 23.3 (25.3) (25.3) (25.3)
pH S 8.5 8.5 8.5 M 8.5 8.5 8.5 B 8.5 8.5 8.5
SS (mg/l)
S - - 23* M - - 47* B - - 60*
Salinity (‰)
S 38.7 39.2 38.9 M 38.9 39.0 39.0 B 39.0 39.2 39.1
DO(mg/l) S 7.5 7.5 7.5 M 7.2 7.5 7.4 B 7.2 7.5 7.4
BOD(mg/l) S - - 1.3* M - - 1.3* B - - 0.9*
PO4(µmol/l) S 0.7 1.1 0.9 M 1.0 1.1 1.1 B 1.0 1.1 1.1
TP(µmol/l) S - - 1.5* M - - - B - - 2.1*
NO3(µmol/l) S 1.5 2.3 1.9 M 2.1 2.2 2.2 B 2.2 2.3 2.3
NO2(µmol/l) S 0.2 0.3 0.3 M 0.3 0.3 0.3 B 0.3 0.3 0.3
NH4(µmol/l) S 0.3 0.7 0.5 M 0.6 0.7 0.7 B 0.2 0.7 0.5
TN(µmol/l) S - - 716* M - - - B - - 640*
PHc(µg/l) S - - 32* Phenols(µg/l) S - - 57*
*single observation Air temperature in parenthesis
Table 5.1.12: Water quality at station 12
Parameter Level February 2010 Min Max Av
Temperature S 22.5 22.5 22.5 M 22.5 22.5 22.5 B 22.4 22.4 22.4 (24.5) (24.5) (24.5)
pH S 8.5 8.5 8.5 M 8.5 8.5 8.5 B 8.5 8.5 8.5
SS (mg/l)
S - - 37* M - - 56* B - - 69*
Salinity (‰)
S 39.0 39.2 39.1 M 39.2 39.2 39.2 B 39.4 39.6 39.5
DO(mg/l) S 7.2 7.2 7.2 M 6.9 7.2 7.1 B 6.9 7.2 7.1
BOD(mg/l) S - - 0.6* M - - 0.6* B - - 0.9*
PO4(µmol/l) S 0.9 0.9 0.9 M 1.2 1.3 1.3 B 1.2 1.3 1.3
TP(µmol/l) S - - 25* M - - - B - - 20*
NO3(µmol/l) S 2.0 2.1 2.1 M 2.7 2.8 2.8 B 2.8 3.2 3.0
NO2(µmol/l) S 0.3 0.4 0.4 M 0.3 0.4 0.4 B 0.4 0.5 0.5
NH4(µmol/l) S 0.9 3.2 2.1 M 0.5 0.6 0.6 B 0.9 1.0 1.0
TN(µmol/l) S - - 615* M - - - B - - 590*
PHc(µg/l) S - - 103* Phenols(µg/l) S - - 55*
*single observation Air temperature in parenthesis
Table 5.1.11: Water quality at station 11
Parameter Level February 2010 Min Max Av
Temperature S 24.5 24.5 24.5 M - - - B - - - (25.0) (25.0) (25.0)
pH S 8.4 8.4 8.4 M - - - B - - -
SS (mg/l)
S - - 1913* M - - - B - - -
Salinity (‰)
S 41.0 41.0 41.0 M - - - B - - -
DO (mg/l)
S 6.7 6.7 6.7 M - - - B - - -
BOD (mg/l)
S - - 1.0* M - - - B - - -
PO4(µmol/l) S 2.8 3.1 3.0 M - - - B - - -
TP(µmol/l) S - - 1.4* M - - - B - - -
NO3(µmol/l)
S 6.4 7.1 6.8 M - - - B - - -
NO2(µmol/l)
S 0.8 1.2 1.0 M - - - B - - -
NH4(µmol/l)
S 7.7 7.8 7.8 M - - - B - - -
TN(µmol/l)
S - - 625* M - - - B - - -
PHc (µg/l) S - - ND* Phenols(µg/l) S - - 32*
*single observation Air temperature in parenthesis
Table 5.1.10: Water quality at station 10
Parameter Level February 2010 Min Max Av
Temperature S 24.5 24.5 24.5 M - - - B - - - (23.5) (23.5) (23.5)
pH S 8.4 8.4 8.4 M - - - B - - -
SS(mg/l)
S - - 386* M - - - B - - -
Salinity(‰)
S 40.3 40.3 40.3 M - - - B - - -
DO(mg/l)
S 7.0 7.0 7.0 M - - - B - - -
BOD(mg/l)
S - - 0.6* M - - - B - - -
PO4(µmol/l)
S 1.5 1.6 1.6 M - - - B - - -
TP(µmol/l) S - - 1.9* M - - - B - - 1616*
NO3(µmol/l)
S 6.4 6.8 6.6 M - - - B - - -
NO2(µmol/l)
S 0.9 0.9 0.9 M - - - B - - -
NH4(µmol/l)
S 3.5 4.0 3.8 M - - - B - - -
TN(µmol/l)
S - - 1616* M - - - B - - -
PHc(µg/l) S - - 39* Phenols(µg/l) S - - 59*
*single observation Air temperature in parenthesis
Table 5.1.9: Water quality at station 9
Parameter Level February 2010 Min Max Av
Temperature S 25.0 25.0 25.0 M - - - B - - - (25.0) (25.0) (25.0)
pH S 8.4 8.4 8.4 M - - - B - - -
SS(mg/l)
S - - 258* M - - - B - - -
Salinity(‰)
S 40.0 40.3 40.2 M - - - B - - -
DO(mg/l)
S 6.7 7.3 7.0 M - - - B - - -
BOD(mg/l)
S - - 1.0* M - - - B - - -
PO4(µmol/l)
S 1.3 1.7 1.5 M - - - B - - -
TP(µmol/l)
S - - 1.1* M - - - B - - -
NO3(µmol/l)
S 25.4 37.1 31.3 M - - - B - - -
NO2(µmol/l)
S 0.5 0.7 0.6 M - - - B - - -
NH4(µmol/l) S 2.8 3.2 3.0 M - - - B - - -
TN(µmol/l) S - - 600* M - - - B - - -
PHc(µg/l) S - - 39* Phenols(µg/l) S - - 41*
*single observation Air temperature in parenthesis
Table 5.1.8: Water quality at station 8
Parameter Level February 2010 Min Max Av
Temperature S 25.0 26.0 25.2 M - - - B - - - - - -
pH S 8.4 8.4 8.4 M - - - B - - -
SS(mg/l) S - - 1730* M - - - B - - -
Salinity(‰) S 38.3 39.8 38.8 M - - - B - - -
DO(mg/l) S 6.8 7.4 7.1 M - - - B - - -
BOD(mg/l) S - - <0.2* M - - - B - - -
PO4(µmol/l)
S 1.1 2.1 1.6 M - - - B - - -
TP(µmol/l) S - - 1.6* M - - - B - - -
NO3(µmol/l) S 7.8 14.0 10.0 M - - - B - - -
NO2(µmol/l) S 0.4 0.9 0.7 M - - - B - - -
NH4(µmol/l) S 0.2 0.4 0.3 M - - - B - - -
TN(µmol/l) S - - 155* M - - - B - - -
PHc(µg/l) S - - 18* Phenols(µg/l) S - - 41*
*single observation Air temperature in parenthesis
Table 5.1.7: Water quality at station 7
Parameter Level February 2010 Min Max Av
Temperature S 26.0 26.0 26.0 M 25.3 25.3 25.3 B 25.5 25.5 25.5 (26.0) (26.0) (26.0)
pH S 8.4 8.4 8.4 M 8.5 8.5 8.5 B 8.4 8.4 8.4
SS(mg/l) S - - 1400* M - - 185* B - - 189*
Salinity(‰) S 40.0 40.0 40.0 M 39.8 40.3 40.0 B 39.8 40.0 39.9
DO(mg/l) S 7.0 7.0 7.0 M 7.0 7.3 7.2 B 7.0 7.3 7.2
BOD(mg/l) S - - 0.2* M - - <0.2* B - - 0.3*
PO4(µmol/l) S 0.7 1.7 1.2 M 1.6 1.6 1.6 B 1.6 1.7 1.7
TP(µmol/l) S - - 1.8* M - - - B - - 1.3*
NO3(µmol/l) S 17.2 21.8 18.5 M 22.6 25.2 23.9 B 18.0 20.4 19.2
NO2(µmol/l) S 0.6 0.6 0.6 M 0.4 0.5 0.5 B 0.4 0.5 0.5
NH4(µmol/l) S 0.4 0.4 0.4 M 0.3 0.6 0.5 B 0.3 0.5 0.4
TN(µmol/l) S - - 0.2* M - - - B - - 2.8*
PHc(µg/l) S - - 82* Phenols(µg/l) S - - 49*
*single observation Air temperature in parenthesis
Table 5.1.6: Water quality at station 6
Parameter Level February 2010 Min Max Av
Temperature S 24.5 24.5 24.5 M 23.5 23.5 23.5 B 24.0 24.0 24.0 (25.0) (25.0) (25.0)
pH S 8.3 8.4 8.4 M 8.4 8.4 8.4 B 8.4 8.5 8.5
SS(mg/l) S - - 178* M - - 310* B - - 241*
Salinity(‰) S 40.5 40.5 40.5 M 40.5 40.7 40.6 B 40.5 40.7 40.6
DO(mg/l) S 7.0 7.3 7.2 M 7.0 7.3 7.2 B 7.0 7.3 7.2
BOD(mg/l) S - - 2.2* M - - 0.3* B - - 0.6*
PO4(µmol/l) S 1.1 1.1 1.1 M 1.6 1.7 1.7 B 1.7 1.7 1.7
TP(µmol/l) S - - 1.8* M - - - B - - 1.4*
NO3(µmol/l) S 14.8 17.8 15.8 M 20.1 21.9 21.0 B 15.9 18.6 17.3
NO2(µmol/l) S 0.3 0.8 0.6 M 0.3 0.4 0.4 B 0.3 0.3 0.3
NH4(µmol/l) S 0.4 0.5 0.5 M 0.2 1.1 0.7 B 0.5 0.5 0.5
TN(µmol/l) S - - 614* M - - - B - - 579*
PHc(µg/l) S - - 34* Phenols(µg/l) S - - 18*
*single observation Air temperature in parenthesis
Table 5.1.5: Water quality at station 5
Parameter Level February 2010 Min Max Av
Temperature S 23.5 23.5 23.5 M 22.5 22.5 22.5 B 23.0 23.0 23.0 (25.0) (25.0) (25.0)
pH S 8.5 8.5 8.5 M 8.5 8.5 8.5 B 8.5 8.5 8.5
SS(mg/l) S - - 106* M - - 127* B - - 134*
Salinity(‰) S 40.5 40.6 40.6 M 40.5 40.6 40.6 B 40.3 40.6 40.5
DO(mg/l) S 7.3 7.3 7.3 M 7.3 7.9 7.6 B 7.3 7.6 7.5
BOD(mg/l) S - - 2.8* M - - 3.4* B - - 2.5*
PO4(µmol/l) S 1.5 1.6 1.6 M 1.8 1.8 1.8 B 1.8 2.0 1.9
TP(µmol/l) S - - 1.2* M - - - B - - 1.8*
NO3(µmol/l) S 7.6 9.0 8.3 M 7.9 7.9 7.9 B 7.6 7.6 7.6
NO2(µmol/l) S 0.6 0.6 0.6 M 0.4 0.7 0.6 B 0.4 0.5 0.5
NH4(µmol/l) S 1.2 2.5 1.8 M 0.9 2.2 1.6 B 0.8 1.0 0.9
TN(µmol/l) S - - 339.0* M - - - B - - 540*
PHc(µg/l) S - - 64* Phenols(µg/l) S - - 45*
*single observation Air temperature in parenthesis
Table 5.1.4: Water quality at station 4
Parameter Level February 2010 Min Max Av
Temperature S 24.5 24.5 24.5 M 23.5 23.5 23.5 B 23.5 23.5 23.5 (28.5) (28.5) (28.5)
pH S 8.5 8.5 8.5 M 8.5 8.5 8.5 B 8.5 8.5 8.5
SS(mg/l) S - - 111* M - - 246* B - - 169*
Salinity(‰) S 40.1 40.7 40.4 M 40.3 40.5 40.4 B 39.6 40.3 40.0
DO(mg/l) S 7.3 7.9 7.6 M 7.3 7.6 7.5 B 7.0 7.0 7.0
BOD(mg/l) S - - 3.5* M - - 1.3* B - - 1.0*
PO4(µmol/l) S 1.7 1.8 1.8 M 2.0 2.1 2.1 B 2.0 2.0 2.0
TP(µmol/l) S - - 1.7* M - - - B - - 1.5*
NO3(µmol/l) S 46.0 50.2 48.1 M 45.7 45.7 45.7 B 38.2 52.3 45.3
NO2(µmol/l) S 0.6 0.6 0.6 M 0.6 0.7 0.7 B 0.6 0.7 0.7
NH4(µmol/l) S 2.0 2.4 2.2 M 2.5 2.7 2.6 B 2.2 3.1 2.6
TN(µmol/l) S - - 540* M - - - B - - 480*
PHc(µg/l) S - - 164* Phenols(µg/l) S - - 35*
*single observation Air temperature given in parenthesis
Table 5.1.3: Water quality at station 3
Parameter Level February 2010 Min Max Av
Temperature S 23.0 23.0 23.0 M 22.5 22.5 22.5 B 23.0 23.0 23.0 (23.5) (23.5) (23.5)
pH S 8.4 8.5 8.5 M 8.5 8.5 8.5 B 8.5 8.5 8.5
SS(mg/l) S - - 131* M - - 175* B - - 163*
Salinity(‰) S 39.6 40.5 40.0 M 40.1 40.3 40.2 B 40.1 40.3 40.2
DO(mg/l) S 7.3 7.3 7.3 M 7.3 7.6 7.5 B 7.3 7.6 7.5
BOD(mg/l) S - - 2.5* M - - 3.2* B - - 2.2*
PO4(µmol/l) S 1.6 3.9 2.8 M 1.8 1.9 1.9 B 1.9 3.6 2.8
TP(µmol/l) S - - 1.8* M - - - B - - 2.1*
NO3(µmol/l) S 6.5 8.3 7.4 M 5.6 10.0 7.8 B 5.8 6.9 6.4
NO2(µmol/l) S 0.6 0.7 0.7 M 0.5 0.6 0.6 B 0.6 0.6 0.6
NH4(µmol/l) S 2.2 2.8 2.5 M 3.3 5.5 4.4 B 1.5 4.1 2.8
TN(µmol/l) S - - 461* M - - - B - - 546*
PHc(µg/l) S - - 27* Phenols(µg/l) S - - 29*
*single observation Air temperature in parenthesis
Table 5.1.2: Water quality at station 2
Parameter Level February 2010 Min Max Av
Temperature S 23.4 24.2 23.6 M 23.6 24.0 23.7 B 23.5 24.2 23.7 (24.5) (25.9) (25.3)
pH S 8.3 8.4 8.4 M 8.4 8.5 8.4 B 8.4 8.5 8.4
SS(mg/l) S 250 362 306 M 283 291 287 B 201 430 315
Salinity(‰) S 40.4 41.3 41.1 M 40.6 41.3 41.2 B 40.6 41.3 41.2
DO(mg/l) S 6.6 6.9 6.7 M 6.3 7.2 6.7 B 6.3 6.9 6.6
BOD(mg/l) S 0.9 2.2 1.6 M <0.2 0.3 1.5 B 0.3 0.6 0.5
PO4(µmol/l) S 1.7 2.1 1.9 M 1.4 2.1 1.9 B 1.6 2.1 1.8
TP(µmol/l) S 1.7 1.7 1.7 M - - - B 1.7 1.7
NO3(µmol/l) S 8.0 38.3 14.5 M 8.9 22.1 15.4 B 10.9 32.1 16.9
NO2(µmol/l) S 0.3 2.0 0.7 M 0.3 0.9 0.6 B 0.5 0.9 0.6
NH4(µmol/l) S 1.4 3.4 2.5 M ND 5.9 2.5 B 1.1 2.6 1.8
TN(µmol/l) S 437 494 466 M - - - B 440 503 472
PHc(µg/l) S 40 43 42 Phenols(µg/l) S 21 52 37
Air temperature in parenthesis
Table 5.1.1: Water quality at station 1
Parameter Level February 2010 Min Max Av
Temperature S 23.0 23.0 23.0 M 23.4 23.4 23.4 B 23.0 23.0 23.0 (22.3) (22.3) (22.3)
pH S 8.4 8.4 8.4 M 8.4 8.4 8.4 B 8.4 8.4 8.4
SS(mg/l) S - - 290* M - - 354* B - - 362*
Salinity(‰) S 41.3 41.3 41.3 M 40.4 41.3 40.9 B 40.8 41.2 41.0
DO(mg/l) S 7.0 7.0 7.0 M 6.3 6.7 6.5 B 6.7 6.7 6.7
BOD(mg/l) S - - 1.3* M - - <0.2* B - - <0.2*
PO4(µmol/l) S 1.5 1.7 1.6 M 2.0 2.1 2.1 B 2.1 2.2 2.2
TP(µmol/l) S - - ND M - - - B - - ND
NO3(µmol/l) S 10.9 12.6 11.8 M 10.1 10.7 10.4 B 9.6 10.6 10.1
NO2(µmol/l) S 0.9 0.9 0.9 M 0.5 0.6 0.6 B 0.5 0.5 0.5
NH4(µmol/l) S 1.7 1.9 1.8 M 1.8 2.5 2.2 B 1.9 2.1 2.0
TN(µmol/l) S - - - M - - - B - - -
PHc(µg/l) S - - 34* Phenols(µg/l) S - - 25*
*single observation Air temperature in parenthesis
Table 5.2.1: Subtidal sediment quality around KPT area during March 2010
Stn Sand
(%)
Silt
(%)
Clay
(%)
Al
(%)
Mn
(µg/g)
Fe
(%)
Co
(µg/g)
Ni
(µg/g)
Cu
(µg/g)
Zn
(µg/g)
Hg
(µg/g)
Corg
(%)
P
(µg/g)
PHc
(µg/g)
1 23.7 72.1 4.2 5.4 520 3.0 14 37 34 96 0.06 1.01 677 0.3
2 6.1 88.5 5.4 6.4 747 4.3 19 52 37 136 0.08 1.3 744 0.4
3 98.6 0 1.4 0.7 124 0.1 2 4 2 37 0.01 0.3 196 0.2
4 96.2 1.8 2.0 2.1 361 0.9 3 14 7 46 0.01 0.5 567 0.2
5 21.0 72.1 6.2 4.0 519 1.9 8 30 12 462 0.03 0.5 486 0.1
7 95.0 2.8 2.2 5.8 718 4.1 9 56 45 548 0.05 0.9 770 0.1
9 8.2 77.2 14.6 6.1 790 4.0 17 55 43 73 0.05 0.2 844 0.2
10 84.8 13.0 2.2 5.5 641 3.1 17 46 22 204 0.04 0.8 579 0.3
11 20.6 74.2 5.2 5.9 709 4.2 19 67 43 82 0.07 1.0 727 0.4
12 26.4 68.6 5.0 6.0 658 3.9 18 62 43 241 0.04 0.8 731 0.2
13 23.7 71.1 5.2 5.0 418 2.1 5 20 17 159 0.06 0.5 406 0.3
14 37.8 57.2 5.0 5.2 565 3.1 14 50 30 1022 0.07 0.6 600 0.5
Table 5.2.2: Intertidal sediment quality around KPT area during March 2010
Tr Sand
(%)
Silt
(%)
Clay
(%)
Al
(%)
Mn
(µg/g)
Fe
(%)
Co
(µg/g)
Ni
(µg/g)
Cu
(µg/g)
Zn
(µg/g)
Hg
(µg/g)
Corg
(%)
P
(µg/g)
PHc
(µg/g)
i 17.8 77.4 4.8 5.9 501 3.2 13 37 36 1307 0.32 1.5 663 0.2
iii 5.0 89.2 5.8 5.7 565 4.3 17 52 40 1055 0.06 2.6 683 0.7
iv 29.0 65.0 6.0 7.0 608 3.3 13 32 26 978 0.09 0.5 655 0.1
vi 36.4 58.4 5.2 5.1 582 2.9 11 7 23 936 0.04 0.3 731 0.5
vii 69.2 25.0 5.8 5.8 712 3.0 9 19 20 1005 0.07 0.2 932 0.2
Table 5.3.3: Range and average (parenthesis) of phytopigments at different stations for KPT during March 2010
Station Date Chlorophyll a
(mg/m3) Phaeophytin
(mg/m3) Ratio of Chl a
to Phaeo S M B S M B S M B
1 02/03/2010 1.4-1.7 (1.6)
1.3-1.4 (1.4)
1.7-1.8 (1.8)
0.9-1.2 (1.1)
1.0-1.0 (1.0)
1.3-1.3 (1.3)
1.2-1.9 (1.6)
1.3-1.4 (1.4)
1.3-1.4 (1.4)
2 02/03/2010 1.3-6.3 (3.8)
1.2-7.3 (4.3)
1.5-5.2 (3.4)
0.2-3.5 (1.9)
0.3-3.2 (1.6)
1.0-3.8 (2.4)
1.3-6.5 (3.9)
1.3-5.1 (3.2)
1.4-1.6 (1.5)
3 26/02/2010 1.5-2.3 (1.9)
1.6-2.3 (2.0)
2.2-2.2 (2.2)
1.0-1.1 (1.1)
0.9-1.0 (1.0)
0.5-1.0 (0.8)
1.3-2.2 (1.8)
1.7-2.3 (2.0)
2.2-4.5 (3.4)
4 26/02/2010 2.1-2.2 (2.2)
1.6-1.9 (1.8)
1.8-2.1 (2.0)
0.5-0.8 (0.7)
0.8-0.9 (0.9)
0.8-0.9 (0.9)
2.6-4.5 (3.6)
2.0-2.1 (2.1)
2.0-2.6 (2.3)
5 26/02/2010 1.5-1.6 (1.6)
1.7-2.3 (2.0)
1.5-1.5 (1.5)
0.4-0.5 (0.5)
0.7-0.7 (0.7)
0.7-1.2 (1.0)
3.1-3.9 (3.5)
2.4-3.1 (2.8)
1.2-2.1 (1.7)
6 28/02/2010 1.3-1.5 (1.4)
1.4-1.9 (1.7)
0.8-1.3 (1.1)
0.7-0.9 (0.8)
0.7-1.0 (0.9)
0.4-0.9 (0.7)
1.6-1.7 (1.7)
1.5-2.6 (2.1)
1.5-1.9 (1.7)
7 28/02/2010 2.1-2.6 (2.4)
2.1-2.3 (2.2)
1.8-2.0 (1.9)
0.8-1.0 (0.9)
0.9-1.1 (1.0)
1.0-1.2 (1.1)
2.5-2.8 (2.7)
2.1-2.4 (2.3)
1.5-1.9 (1.7)
8 06/03/2010 1.4-2.3 (1.9) - - 0.3-1.2
(0.8) - - 1.7-6.8 (4.3) - -
9 06/03/2010 1.6-1.7 (1.7) - - 0.8-0.8
(0.8) - - 2.0-2.1 (2.1) - -
10 06/03/2010 1.1-1.2 (1.2) - - 0.8-0.9
(0.9) - - 1.3-1.4 (1.4) - -
11 06/03/2010 2.3-2.5 (2.4) - - 0.9-1.3
(1.1) - - 1.8-2.8 (2.3) - -
12 25/02/2010 2.9-3.0 (3.0)
2.4-2.5 (2.5)
1.8-1.8 (1.8)
0.5-0.5 (0.5)
0.7-0.8 (0.8)
0.6-0.7 (0.7)
5.8-6.0 (5.9)
3.0-3.6 (3.3)
2.6-3.0 (2.8)
13 25/02/2010 1.6-1.7 (1.7)
1.6-1.6 (1.6)
0.6-1.6 (1.1)
0.4-1.0 (0.7)
0.4-0.5 (0.5)
0.4-0.6 (0.5)
2.3-4.3 (3.3)
3.2-4.0 (3.6)
1.5-2.7 (2.1)
14 26/02/2010 0.6-1.8 (1.2)
0.4-1.7 (1.1)
0.8-1.7 (1.3)
0.3-0.8 (0.6)
0.3-0.7 (0.5)
0.4-0.6 (0.5)
1.8-3.6 (2.7)
2.0-3.2 (2.6)
1.1-3.4 (2.3)
Table 5.3.4: Range and average of phytoplankton population at different stations for KPT during March 2010
Station Date Cell count (no x 103/l)
Total genera (no) Major genera
S M B S M B S M B
1 02/03/2010 56.3* 48.2* 72.0* 15* 15* 18*
Thalassiosira Coscinodiscus ThalassionemaCampyloneis
Thalassiosira Nitzschia Fragillaria Peridinium
Thalassiosira Peridinium Melosira Coscinodiscus
2 02/03/2010 47.2-108.5 (77.9)
45.6-65.7
(55.7)
52.0-60.3
(56.2)
9-13
(11)
10-15
(13)
9-16
(13)
Peridinium Fragillaria Coscinodiscus Melosira
Peridinium Navicula Fragillaria Coscinodiscus
ThalassionemaThalassiosira Coscinodiscus Fragillaria
3 26/02/2010 80.0* 60.8* 45.6* 21* 16* 17*
Thalassiosira Fragillaria Melosira Navicula
Thalassiosira Navicula Fragillaria Coscinodiscus
Thalassiosira Navicula Coscinodiscus Nitzschia
4 26/02/2010 89.8* 57.6* 56.8* 13* 15* 12*
Thalassiosira Oscillatoria Bacteriastrum Coscinodiscus
Thalassiosira Navicula Melosira Thalassiothrix
Thalassiosira Coscinodiscus Cyclotella Leptocylindrus
5 26/02/2010 48.2* 75.0* 45.6* 15* 8* 12*
ThalassionemaNavicula Fragillaria Guinardia
Thalassiosira Navicula Cyclotella Fragillaria
Thalassiosira Navicula Cyclotella Nitzschia
6 28/02/2010 52.8* 41.6* 41.5* 15* 16* 9*
Navicula Thalassiosira Skeletonema Thalassionema
Thalassiosira Coscinodiscus ThalassionemaMelosira
Coscinodiscus Nitzschia Thalassiosira Navicula
*Single value
Table 5.3.4: contd. 2
Station Date Cell count (no x 103/l)
Total genera (no) Major genera
S M B S M B S M B
7 28/02/2010 67.0* 61.6* 45.6* 25* 22* 12*
Chaetoceros Thalassiosira Bacteriastrum Thalassionema
Thalassiosira Leptocylindrus Bacteriastrum Gyrosigma
Biddulphia Coscinodiscus Thalassiosira Nitzschia
8 06/03/2010 148* - - 14* - -
Thalassiosira Guinardia Navicula Biddulphia
- -
9 06/03/2010 79.2* - - 19* - -
Thalassiosira Navicula Coscinodiscus Melosira
- -
10 06/03/2010 46.9* - - 11* - -
Thalassiosira Navicula Coscinodiscus Leptocylindrus
- -
11 06/03/2010 76.8* - - 13* - -
Fragillaria Thalassiosira Nitzschia Coscinodiscus
- -
12 25/02/2010 105.9* 127.3* 68.8* 17* 17* 15*
Thalassiosira Navicula Melosira Nitzschia
Thalassiosira Guinardia Navicula Coscinodiscus
Navicula Thalassiosira Nitzschia Surirella
*Single value
Table 5.3.4: contd. 3
Station Date Cell count (no x 103/l)
Total genera (no) Major genera
S M B S M B S M B
13 25/02/2010 72.4* 69.7* 74.4* 20* 11* 24*
Peridinium LeptocylindrusMeuniera Thalassiosira
Bacteriastrum Thalassiosira Coscinodiscus Thalassionema
ThalassionemaNavicula Nitzschia Fragillaria
14 26/02/2010 10.4-27.2 (19)
41.6-93.6 (68)
15.2-93.8 (55)
7-15
(11)
15-20
(18)
10-19
(15)
LeptocylindrusThalassiosira CoscinodiscusNavicula
Nitzschia Skeletonema Thalassiosira Hemiaulus
Thalassiosira Navicula Leptocylindrus Straptotheca
*Single value
Table 5.3.5: Percentage composition of phytoplankton population at different stations around Kandla Creek during March 2010
Algal Genera Station
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Actinastrum 0.6 0.8 1.0 Amphiprora 0.8 1.0 0.8 1.3 0.6 0.3 Amphora 1.0 0.6 2.0 2.6 0.5 Bacteriastrum 1.7 0.9 1.0 7.0 0.8 1.2 2.3 5.1 1.0 5.7 3.7 9.0 4.2 Bacillaria 1.0 3.2 0.4 Biddulphia 3.2 6.0 1.7 7.2 1.2 3.7 9.4 2.9 6.3 3.9 3.2 1.1 Campyloneis 3.5 0.9 6.8 1.2 1.7 6.1 0.5 Ceratirum 1.0 2.3 2.7 2.9 0.4 0.6 2.4 Ceratoulina 0.3 1.0 Chaetoceros 4.0 3.0 1.3 1.4 22.1Closterium 1.1 2.4 Corethron 1.7 Coscinodiscus 14.0 10.0 2.3 8.1 6.3 13.8 12.0 8.1 11.4 11.4 18.8 4.7 7.4 2.6 Cyclotella 2.4 3.0 1.1 3.0 0.8 4.0 1.7 4.1 5.7 3.1 2.3 0.4 0.6 Diploneis 0.6 1.6 2.7 0.4 0.6 Distephanus 1.4 0.6 Ditylium 0.6 1.7 1.3 2.5 4.1 2.0 0.3 0.4 0.5 Eucampia 0.5 7.1 1.3 0.3 Fragilaria 2.7 14.0 6.9 0.7 6.1 18.8 3.9 5.4 0.3 Gramatophora 1.1 3.2 1.3 Guinardia 0.8 4.6 2.0 1.0 6.8 3.1 5.4 3.7 Gyrosigma 1.1 0.5 1.7 0.3 0.6 Hemiaulus 1.6 2.1 Leptocylindrus 3.2 0.6 3.2 2.7 5.7 3.1 2.2 6.7 11.1Lithodesmium 2.3 1.7 0.3 Melosira 7.3 0.7 2.9 4.0 1.7 13.8 5.2 0.3 Navicula 4.8 9.0 5.7 5.6 25.0 2.0 19.0 12.1 34.2 6.3 16.8 6.1 5.5 Nitzschia 6.6 5.0 5.7 3.4 6.5 2.3 5.4 8.1 2.9 12.5 5.8 13.2 10.1Naduloria 19.8 Neodenticula 0.3 Oscillatoria 0.7 8.8 0.7 1.3 1.3 Pediastrum 4.0 Peridinium 12.6 10.0 4.6 1.6 1.3 1.3 6.8 2.9 3.1 6.3 5.5 0.9 Phytoconis 0.8 Planktonella 0.8 1.1 1.7 2.7 1.3 1.1 0.9 Planktospheria 1.8 0.9 1.6 Pleurosigma 2.6 0.6 3.4 3.0 1.6 1.3 1.0 3.0 1.5 2.1 2.4 Prorocentrum 0.5 1.0 0.8 Rabdonema 0.5 Rhizosolenia 1.0 1.0 0.7 1.3 1.0 3.1 2.7 2.5 3.5 Scenedesmus 6.0 3.1 Skeletonema 4.0 1.7 1.8 7.3 Spirulina 1.1 Streptotheca 0.5 0.8 0.7 1.8 1.0 1.3 Surirella 2.0 2.0 0.4 3.1 1.7 1.4 1.0 5.7 6.2 1.1 2.2 0.8 Thalassionema 5.3 8.0 1.6 30.0 5.0 10.0 12.0 2.7 7.0 1.1 Thalassiosira 20.0 15.0 55.4 36.0 2.0 14.0 29.3 23.0 15.4 20.0 12.5 25.2 13.7 10.0Thalassiothrix 2.3 6.0 2.0 2.4 1.7 2.0 3.1 1.2 1.0
Table 5.3.6: Range and average of zooplankton standing stock at different stations in the coastal water off Kandla, Gulf of Kutch during March 2010
Station (Date)
Biomass (ml/100 m3)
Population (no x 103/100 m3)
Total groups
(no) Major group
(%)
1 (2.3.10)
10.4-12.4 (11.4)
62.9-70.8 (66.8)
9-11 (10)
Decapod larvae (2.4) Copepods (18.7) Mysid (4.5) Fish larvae (3.3) Chaetognaths (1.3) Lamellibranchs (0.1) Others (0.1)
2 (2.3.10)
2.7-22.5 (9.7)
24.7-265.0 (136.3)
11-13 (12)
Decapod larvae (69.7) Copepods (22.1) Chaetognaths (2.3) Mysids (2.3) Lamellibranchs (1.7) Gastropods (1.6) Fish larvae(0.2) Others (0.1)
3 (26.2.10)
7.8-8.6 (8.2)
40.1-65.5 (52.8)
10-14 (12)
Decapod larvae (47.4) Copepods (42.7) Chaetognaths (5.3) Lamellibranchs (2.2) Gastropods (1.2) Mysids (0.6) Fish larvae (0.5) Others (0.1)
4 (26.2.10)
0.7-8.7 (4.7)
8.7-55.3 (32.0)
7-12 (10)
Copepods (50.9) Decapod larvae (39.6) Chaetognaths (4.7) Lamellibranchs (2.1) Gastropods (0.9) Mysids(0.8) Fish larvae (0.4) Siphonophores (0.1) Others (0.1)
Table 5.3.6: Contd. 1
Station (Date)
Biomass (ml/100 m3)
Population (no x 103/100 m3)
Total groups (no)
Major group (%)
5 (26.2.10)
2.4-11.1 (6.8)
58.1-101.5 (79.8)
12-13 (13)
Copepods (50.9) Decapod larvae (39.6) Chaetognaths (4.7) Lamellibranchs (2.1) Gastropods (0.9) Mysids (0.8) Fish larvae (0.4) Medusae(0.4) Siphonophores(0.1) Others (0.1)
6 (28.2.10)
2.8-10.3 (6.6)
23.2-147.4 (85.3)
13-18 (16)
Copepods (65.3) Decapod larvae (27.3) Chaetognaths (3.8) Lamellibranchs (1.5) Gastropods (0.8) Medusae(0.5) Fish eggs (0.4) Fish larvae (0.2) Others (0.2)
7 (26.2.10)
3.2-4.3 (3.8)
24.4-69.3 (46.8)
12-14 (13)
Copepods (74.5) Decapod larvae (22.4) Chaetognaths (1.4) Lamellibranchs (0.6) Gastropods (0.2) Fish larvae (0.2) Ctenophores(0.1) Fish eggs (0.1) Medusae(0.1) Others (0.1)
8 6.3.10
11.2-18.6 (14.9)
168.0-220.7 (194.4)
9-13 (11)
Copepods (63.0) Decapod larvae (25.9) Mysids (9.3) Lamellibranchs (0.8) Gastropods (0.5) Chaetognaths (0.3) Fish larvae (0.1) Others (0.1)
9 7.3.10
15.9-26.7 (21.3)
210.4-701.5 (455.9)
12-14 (13)
Copepods (73.0) Decapod larvae (20.5) Gastropods (1.7) Mysids (1.6) Chaetognaths (1.6) Lamellibranchs (1.4) Fish larvae (0.1) Others (0.1)
Table 5.3.6: Contd. 2 Station (Date)
Biomass (ml/100 m3)
Population (no x 103/100 m3)
Total groups (no)
Major group (%)
10
6.3.10
12.8-28.6
(20.7)
460.6-714.7
(587.7)
11-11 (11)
Copepods (81.8) Decapod larvae (8.7) Mysids (7.6) Lamellibranchs (0.9) Chaetognaths (0.6) Gastropods (0.2) Fish larvae (0.1) Others (0.1)
11 8.3.10
14.2-16.6 (15.4)
210.1-277.9 (244.0)
11-12 (12)
Copepods (87.7) Decapod larvae (6.5) Mysids (2.1) Chaetognaths (1.8) Lamellibranchs (1.2) Gastropods (0.6) Others (0.1)
12 25.2.10
3.5-5.3 (4.4)
44.7-222.8 (133.7)
12-14 (13)
Copepods (96.1) Decapod larvae (2.0) Lamellibranchs (0.7) Chaetognaths (0.5) Gastropods (0.4) Medusae(0.1) Mysids (0.1) Others (0.1)
13 25.2.10
20.9-28.4 (24.7)
360.3-845.4 (602.8)
13-13 (13)
Copepods (99.3) Chaetognaths (0.3) Decapod larvae (0.2) Medusae(0.1) Others (0.1)
14 26.2.10 2.3-32.5(11.3) 18.7-164.7
(81.1) 11-15 (13)
Copepods (74.5) Decapod larvae (22.4) Chaetognaths (1.4) Lamellibranchs (0.6) Gastropods (0.2) Fish larvae (0.2) Ctenophores(0.1) Fish eggs (0.1) Medusae(0.1) Others (0.1)
Table 5.3.7: Abundance of zooplankton at different stations around Kandla Creek April 2010
Faunal group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Foraminiferans 0.017 0.003 0.017 0.003 0.005 0.003 0.003 - 0.002 0.002 - 0.004 - 0.004 Siphonophores - 0.005 0.012 - 0.088 0.027 0.023 0.001 0.001 0.003 - 0.004 0.001 0.042 Medusae - 0.003 0.027 0.019 0.368 0.483 0.051 0.002 0.004 0.001 0.001 0.128 0.082 0.043 Ctenophores 0.002 0.009 - 0.019 - 0.039 0.100 - 0.003 - 0.0002 0.036 0.018 - Chaetognaths 1.295 2.334 5.304 2.280 4.700 3.808 1.390 0.312 1.561 0.597 1.831 0.497 0.326 3.481 Polychaetes - 0.001 0.003 - - 0.002 - - - - - 0.008 0.001 0.069 Cladocerans - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Ostracods - 0.001 0.002 - 0.001 0.002 0.006 - - - - 0.001 - 12.881 Copepods 18.735 22.108 42.717 50.974 50.921 65.295 74.537 63.0303 73.035 81.831 87.703 96.145 99.295 53.898 Cumaceans - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Amphipods 0.004 0.001 0.002 0.016 0.002 0.004 0.003 0.005 0.001 0.0004 - - 0.0002 - Euphausids - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Mysids 4.500 2.319 0.583 1.713 0.779 0.032 0.059 9.330 10.578 7.584 2.100 0.084 0.001 0.939 Lucifer sp - 0.001 - 0.009 0.001 0.004 - - - - - - 0.0001 0.002 Decapod larvae 72.011 69.700 47.400 38.956 39.648 27.328 22.400 25.950 20.500 8.727 6.500 1.950 0.200 21.636 Stomatopods - - - - - - - - 0.0001 - - - - 0.005 Heteropods - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Pteropods - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Cephalopods - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Gastropods 0.009 1.599 1.203 2.426 0.898 0.048 0.399 0.516 1.703 0.200 0.582 0.425 0.001 3.730 Lamellibranches 0.060 1.667 2.212 3.346 2.085 1.455 0.566 0.781 1.406 0.908 1.191 0.720 0.004 3.300 Appendicularians - - 0.001 - -0.005 - - - - - 0.001 0.002 - Doliolum - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Salps - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Fish eggs 0.005 0.003 0.002 - 0.003 0.442 0.127 0.001 0.003 0.0003 0.001 - 0.001 0.004 Fish larvae 3.290 0.175 0.464 0.226 0.431 0.219 0.201 0.071 0.133 0.085 0.016 0.004 0.0002 0.006 Isopods - 0.001 - - - 0.001 - 0.000 - - 0.001 0.001 - - Acetes sp - 0.003 - 0.011 0.001 0.002 - 0.002 0.003 0.002 0.002 - - 0.041 Marine insects - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Bivalves - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Others - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Table 5.3.8: Range and average (parenthesis) of intertidal macrobenthic standing stock at Kandla during February 2010
Transect Biomass (g/m2; wet wt.)
Population (no/m2)
Faunal group (no) Major group
Transect - I
H.W. 0.3-1.1 (1.0)
175-650 (437)
2-6 (4)
Polychaetes Brachyurans
M.W. 0.2-1.2 (0.9)
75-625 (306)
2-5 (3)
Brachyurans Polychaetes Amphipods
L.W. 0-3.0 (1.2)
0-175 (100)
0-4 (2)
Polychaetes Brachyurans
Transect - II
H.W. 0-0.5 (0.3)
0-650 (332)
0-2 (2) Polychaetes
M.W. 0-0.03 (0.01)
0-25 (12)
0-1 (1)
Polychaetes
L.W. 0-1.05 (0.3)
0-525 (157)
0-3 (2) Polychaetes
Transect – III
H.W. 0.5-6.3 (2.3)
200-775 (463)
2-6 (4)
Polychaetes Mysids
M.W.
L.W. 0.001-0.7 (0.3)
25-2450 (1030)
1-4 (3)
Polychaetes
Transect – IV
H.W. 1.2-2.4 (1.8)
1725-5350 (2876)
3-5 (4)
Polychaetes Pelecypods
M.W.
L.W. 1.6-5.9 (3.8)
2250-10325 (5441)
2-5 (4)
Polychaetes Pelecypods
Table 5.3.8: Contd.1
Transect Biomass (g/m2; wet wt.)
Population (no/m2)
Faunal group (no) Major group
Transect –V
H.W 0.006-0.3 (0.2)
150-425 (275)
2-3 (2)
Amphipods Polychaetes
L.W 0.03-0.2 (0.09)
125-252 (181)
2-3 (3)
Amphipods Polychaetes Mysids
Transect–VI
H.W 0.2-18.5 (7.9)
50-1000 (444)
1-7 (3)
Polychaetes Brachyurans Gastropods
M.W 0-7.4 (4.7)
0-3350 (1907)
0-5 (4)
Pelecypods Gastropods
L.W 0.008-4.6 (1.6)
25-325 (169)
1-4 (3)
Pelecypods Amphipods Polychaetes
Transect–VII
H.W 1.3-37.3 (20.4)
175-825 (576)
1-6 (3)
Brachyurans Mysids
M.W 7.5-15.3 (10.4)
2275-4425 (3001)
4-6 (5)
Pelecypods Amphipods
L.W 5.5-8.3 (6.8)
1975-2225 (2108)
3-4 (4)
Pelecypods Amphipods
Overall Average 0-37.3 (3.5)
0-10325 (1100)
0-7 (3)
Polychaetes Pelecypods
Table 5.3.9: Range and average (parenthesis) of intertidal macrobenthic fauna at different transects of Kandla during February 2010
Transect Biomass (g/m2; wet wt.)
Population (no/m2)
Faunal group (no) Major group
I 0.0-3.0
(0.9)
0-650
(281)
0-6
(3)
Polychaete
Brachyurans
II 0.0-1.1
(0.2)
0-650
(167)
0-3
(2) Polychaete
III <0.001-6.3
(1.3)
25-2450
(747)
1-6
(4)
Polychaete
Mysids
IV 1.2-5.9
(2.8)
1725-10325
(4159)
2-5
(4)
Polychaete
Pelecypods
V 0.03-0.2
(0.1)
125-425
(228)
2-3
(3)
Amphipods
Polychaete
VI 0.0-18.5
(4.7)
0-3350
(840)
0-7
(3)
Pelecypods
Brachyurans
VII 1.3-37.3
(12.5)
175-4425
(1895)
1-6
(4)
Pelecypods
Amphipods
Overall
Average
0-37.3
(3.5)
0-10325
(1100)
0-7
()
Polychaete
Pelecypods
Table 5.3.10: Composition (%) of Intertidal macrobenthos at Kandla during
February 2010
Faunal Groups TRANSECTS
T-I T-II T-III T-IV H.W M.W L.W H.W M.W L.W H.W L.W H.W L.W
Phylum Cnidaria Hydrozoans 0.6 Anthozoans Phylum Aschelminthes Nematodes 1.3 Phylum Mollusca Gastropods 1.4 1.3 Pelecypods 1.4 1.9 6 1.8 8.3 3 5.9 7.8 Phylum Annelida Polychaetes 81.5 32.7 69 94 50 75.8 31.1 91.7 89.5 89.4 Oligochaetes 2.9 0.2 Phylum Sipuncula Sipunculans 1.4 Phylum Arthropoda Amphipods 1.4 24.5 6 2.8 3 1.3 1.6 Isopods 1.3 Brachyurans 5.7 38.9 19 8.3 12.1 0.6 0.2 0.5 Anomurans Decapod larvae 4.3 50 3.8 14.9 0.6 Cumaceans Tanaids 1.9 Pycnogonids Ostrcods Mysids 3.9 3.8 35.2 0.6 3.1 0.6 Phylum Echinodermata Ophiuroids Invertebrate Egg mass
Table 5.3.10: Contd. 1
Faunal Groups TRANSECTS
T-V T-VI T-VII AVG H.W L.W H.W M.W L.W H.W M.W L.W
Phylum Cnidaria Hydrozoans 9.9 0.2 0.3 Anthozoans Phylum Aschelminthes Nematodes 0.03 Phylum Mollusca Gastropods 18.2 3.9 3.6 1 2.9 1.4 Pelecypods 3.3 1.4 88.5 66.8 2.3 54.6 81.5 29.5 Phylum Annelida Polychaetes 20.4 17.1 36.7 1.6 7.7 8.7 8.1 6.5 51.6 Oligochaetes 0.1 Phylum Sipuncula Sipunculans 1 0.2 0.2 Phylum Arthropoda Amphipods 65.8 62.4 2.6 14.8 33.5 10.1 9.3 Isopods 0.03 Brachyurans 3.3 31.1 1.3 3.6 67.4 0.4 1.2 4.4 Anomurans 3.6 0.03 Decapod larvae 0.6 0.6 Cumaceans Tanaids 1 0.1 Pycnogonids 3.3 0.03 Ostrcods Mysids 13.8 3.3 19.6 2.4 Phylum Echinodermata Ophiuroids Invertebrate Egg mass 1.4 0.03
Table 5.3.11: Range and average (parenthesis) of subtidal macrobenthic standing stock at Kandla during February 2010
Station Biomass (g/m2; wet wt.)
Population (no/m2)
Faunal group (no) Major group
Stn 1
0.3-2.8
(1.3)
200-525
(376)
1-4
(3)
Polychaetes
Isopods
Brachyurans
Stn 2 0.2– 0.3
(0.2)
175 – 500
(331)
2 – 5
(3)
Polychaetes
Amphipods
Brachyurans
Stn 3 0-0.3
(0.1)
0-325
(93)
0–3
(1) Decapod larvae
Stn 4 0–0.1
(0.03)
0–50
(19)
0–2
(1)
Polychaetes
Stn 5 0-0.2
(0.1)
0-425
(176)
0-2
(1) Decapod larvae
Stn 6 0-0.8
(0.4)
0-25
(13)
0-1
(1)
Polychates
Amphipod
Stn 7 0.003-0.1
(0.03)
25-75
(38)
1-2
(1) Decapod larvae
Stn 8 0.02-1.3
(0.4)
50-275
(169)
1-4
(2)
Polychates
Mysids
Stn 9 0.8–1.5
(1)
200–775
(574)
1–2
(2)
Polychates
Stn 10 0.03-0.5
(0.2)
75-200
(131)
2-4
(3)
Polychates
Amphipod
Table 5.3.11: Contd. 1 Station Biomass
(g/m2; wet wt.) Population
(no/m2) Faunal group
(no) Major group
Stn 11 N I L
Stn 12 0.9-2.6
(1.6)
300-800
(615)
4-8
(6)
Polychates
Amphipod
Oligochaetes
Stn 13 0.8-2.2
(1.6)
325-650
(463)
2-5
(4)
Polychates
Tanaids
Stn 14 1.1-7.0
(2.8)
425-775
(640)
3-7
(4)
Polychates
Oligochaetes
Over all Average 0-7.0
(0.6)
0-800
(248)
0-8
(2)
Polychates
Amphipod
Table 5.3.12: Composition (%) of Subtidal macrobenthos at Kandla during February 2010 Faunal group
Stations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Avg
Phylum Cnidaria
Hydrozoans
6.5 9.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
Anthozoans
6.2 1.3 2 1.6
Phylum Aschelminthes
Nematodes 3.1 0.5
Phylum Mollusca
Gastropods 3.6 4.6 1.3
Pelecypods 1.6 11.2 9.9 4.1 1.3 9.8 0.5
Phylum Anneida
Polychaetes 86.4 79.5 6.5 68.4 7.4 34.2 29.6 96.9 38.2 38.7 78.4 50.8 61.8
Oligochaetes 1.8 12.2 4.1 21.6 6.6
Phylum
Sipuncula
Spiunculans 1 4.6 0.4
Table 5.3.12: Contd. 1 Faunal group
Stations 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Avg
Phylum
Arthropoda
Amiphipods 1.6 9.4 6.5 100 7.7 1 23.7 22.4 2.8 9.8 10.1
Isopods 3.5 N 4.1 1.3 1.2
Branchyurans 3.5 5.7 1 I 0.9 1.2
Anomurans L
Decapod larvae 3.5 80.6 31.6 92.6 65.8 4.6 2.1 1.3 8.7
Cumaceans 2 0.4
Tanaids 1.8 3.1 8.2 3 2.3
Pycnogonids
Ostrncods
Mysids 1.8 47.9 4.6 3.5
Phylum Echinodermata
Ophiuroids 2.1 0.4
Figure 6.4.1: Tolerance limits of some aromatic hydrocarbons for selected marine biota
Figure 3.1.1: Gulf and the surrounding region
Figure 4.1.1: Sampling locations at Kandla
0
2
4
6
8Chl aPhaeo
S M B S M B S M B S M B S M B S M B S MBh 0730 0930 1130 1330 1530 1730 1830
Eb FlFigure 5.3.1: Temporal variation in phytopigments at station 2 on 2 March 2010.
0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2Chl aPhaeo
S M B S M B S M B S M B S M B S M B S MB
h 0730 0930 1130 1330 1530 1730 1930Eb Fl
Figure 5.3.2: Temporal variation in phytopigments at station 14 on 26 February 2010.
0
40
80
120
160
200BiomassPopulationTotal group
(265)
h 0730 0930 1130 1330 1530 1730 Eb Fl
Figure 5.3.3: Temporal variation in zooplankton at station 2 on 2 March 2010
0
40
80
120
160
200
BiomassPopulationTotal groups
h 1930 2130 2330 130 330 530 730 EbFl
Figure 5.3.4: Temporal variation in zooplankton at station 14 on 26 February 2010
Bio
mas
s (m
l/100
m3 )
,Pop
ulat
ion
(nox
103 /1
00m
3 )
Tot
al g
roup
s (n
o)B
iom
ass
(ml/1
00m
3 ) ,P
opul
atio
n (n
ox 1
03 /100
m3 )
T
otal
gro
ups
(no)
Figure 6.1.1: Causes of oil spills at different levels
Figure 6.5.1: Schematic diagram of various weathering processes acting of a spilled oil
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