Date post: | 29-Nov-2014 |
Category: |
Documents |
Upload: | annie-rose-doria |
View: | 464 times |
Download: | 4 times |
READABILITY THEORY
A. The Notion of Readability
1. The Definition of Readability
Readability refers to the easy degree of a text to be understood
(Sakri, 1993: 135) in Nababan (1999: 62). The same definition stated by
Richard et al (1985: 238) in Nababan (1999: 62) readability is how easily
written materials can be read and understood. From the two definitions
above the writer can conclude that readability is the easy degree a written
text to be read and to catch the content by the readers.
At the beginning, the readability is only related to reading activity.
Then the readability is also used in translation because translating is
always related to reading. Basically, in translation context, the readability
is not only related to the readability of the target language text. This is
appropriate with the reality of every translation process which always
involves two languages at once. But, up to this day, the indicator used to
measure the readability level of text still need to be proved. According to
Gilmore and Root (1997: 102), in Nababan (1999: 62) the readability
level of a text which is based on linguistic factors and human
enchantment is not more than a support tool for a writer in adjusting the
readability of a text with the ability of the readers.
Apart from the unstable the measuring tool of the readability, a
translator needs to understand readability concept of the source language
text and the target language. A good understanding of the readability
1
concept will help the translator in doing the translation work. According
to Wardah (1978: 2) in her thesis, readability level is used to show how
communicate or how easy to understand a particular reading text is, both
in terms of its contents and forms for a group of readers.
To determine the readability level of text, the writer uses readability
formula proposed by Robert Gunning (1952). Readability formulas are
mathematical techniques used to determine how difficult it is for someone
to read and understand a piece of writing. According to Gunning Fog
Index, the Fog Index is obviously interesting in terms of its applicability
and simplicity. The formula is used to determine the amount of fog,
obscurity, ambiguity, or complexity in writing. Gunning proposed
counting words of three or more syllabus. These he termed “hard words”.
More than 100 different readability formulas exist, and many are
being used by government agencies and business in an attempt to improve
writing. Most readability formulas are based on an idea that short words
and sentences are easier to understand than long words or sentences.
For example, Robert Gunning’s “Fog Index” works like this:
1. Find the average number of words per sentence (L), using a 100
+ words passage.
Count all of words (W) and all of the independent clauses (C) and
divide (W: C).
Dates count as a single word.
2
2. Find the number of different words (D), defined as those with
three or more syllabus.
3. Add the average sentence length to the number of difficult
words and multiply by 0.4. This will give you estimate of the
average grade level that a reader should have obtained to understand
the writing. That is, Gunning Fog Index = 0.4* (L+D).
2. The Factors which Determine the Readability of the Text
Readability refers to the easy degree of a text to be understood. The
definition of readability above is rather abstract because it has not
involved interaction between reader and the text. In fact, reader has a role
in deciding the readability of the text. The involvement of the reader in
deciding the readability of the text is a really important addition element
in linguistic factors. However, every text resulted has a purpose to be
read, so that automatically that text involves the readers.
The readability of a text is determined by some factors. According
to Richard (1985: 238) in Nababan (1999: 62), readability depends on: the
average length of the sentence, the number of a new word, Sakri (1993) in
Nababan (1999: 63) also suggest the same factors, some as the quotation
below:
“Keterbacaan, antara lain, bergantung pada kosakata dan bangun kalimat yang dipilih oleh pengarang untuk tulisannya. Tulisan yang banyak mengandung kata yang tidak umum lebih sulit dipahami dari pada yang menggunakan kosakata sehari-hari, yang sudah dikenal pembaca pada umumnya. Demikian pula bangun kalimat ganda susun yang panjang dan sangat menyulitkan pembaca akan memahaminya. Kesulitan yang dimaksud disini berkait dengan isi yang sukar dicerna. Isi yang
3
sukar, dalam batas tertentu, dapat disajikan dengan bahasa yang sederhana sehingga uraian keterbacaan tinggi.”
Besides those factors, there are other factors, such as: the use of
foreign word and traditional proverbs (culture word), ambiguous word
and sentence, and the incomplete sentence will also cause a low
readability level.
Diction and sentence forms as factors which influence the
readability level in more details will be explained as follows:
a. Diction
Diction is choice and use of words, style, or manner of speaking and
writing (Hornby, 1987: 239). In this research, diction is used to
emphasize the manner of writing on the text, namely: the use of new
words, the use of foreign words and traditional proverbs, and
ambiguous words which are related to the factors of readability.
1) The Use of New Words
The use of uncommon words in daily life will cause difficulties for
readers to understand those words. So, that will directly cause the
low of readability level. For example words: Anggit (concept), nas
(text), langgas (transitive verbs).
2) The Use of Foreign Words and Traditional Proverbs
Foreign words and traditional proverbs usually cause a readability
problem because they are less understandable. Foreign words such
as: Hard disk, Mouse, Desktop, Digital Camera will be difficult to
understand by common readers. Traditional proverb such as:
4
ujung, mitoni, nyewu, which are cultural events in Javanese
community, also cause difficulties for the readers to understand the
text.
3) Ambiguous Word
When certain word which appears in certain situation support the
meaning, there will be double interpretation. Ambiguity will
appear if the context does not support the meaning, so that, the
translator will be doubt whether the word has meaning or not.
Those words are ambiguous because they have more than one
meaning, or it is usually called homonym. Homonym is word that
is the same in term and sound as another but different in meaning
(Hornby, 1987: 409). For example: the word bank means
“financial institution” or” edge of river”.
b. Sentence Forms
In this research, sentences forms which are related to the factors of
readability are ambiguous sentences, length of sentence, complex
sentence.
1) Ambiguous sentence
Ambiguous sentence is a sentence which has two meaning. For
example: the sentence “flying planes can be dangerous”. The
meaning of that sentence can be:
(a) The action (flying planes) is dangerous.
5
(b) Flying planes (the planes that are flying) are
dangerous.
2) Length of Sentence
Generally, the longer a sentence is the more difficult to understand.
A long sentence uses many more words. In order to understand the
sentence, the readers have to understand the meaning of each word
in that sentence and then the readers have to understand the
meaning from the relation among words in the sentence. The
average length of sentence refers to the average amount sentence in
the text.
3) Complex Sentence
Complex sentence is a sentence which has more than one idea. It
will cause difficulties for the readers to understand complex
sentence.
According to Wardhaugh (1977: 114-115), a sentence with one
main, i.e. matrix, clause and one or more subordinate, i.e. embedded
clause is called a complex sentence.
(a) I went when I was sent for.
(b) He asked what I wanted.
6
According to Frank (1972: 223) such sentences also have two or
more full predications. One of these is an independent clause, (or,
main clause) that is similar to the similar to the form of the simple
sentence, and or more of these are dependent clauses (or,
subordinate clauses).
(c) The man who stole the jewelry hid it in his home.
B. Translation
1. The Definition of Translation
There are some definitions of translation. Brislin (1976: 1) states
that translation is the general terms referring to the transfer of thought and
ideas from one language (source language) to another (target language),
whether language is written in oral form. Pinchuck (1977: 35) in Yuwono
(2000: 1) states that translation is transferring the meaning.
According to Catford (1974: 1) in Yuwono (2002: 2) translation is a
process of substituting a text in one language to another language. This
definition stresses the importance of linguistic theory in translation. In
fact, the translation process does not only deal with linguistic theory. It
usually tends to maintain the form of language of the original text. A more
complete definition is stated by Basnett (1988: 2) that is “what generally
understood as translation involves the rendering of source language text
into the target language. So as to ensure:
7
a. The surface meaning of the two
languages will be approximately similar.
b. The structures of sources language
(SL) will be preserved as closely as possible, but not to closely that
target language (TL) will be seriously distorted.
From the definition above, the translation has the same term
“equivalent”. The meaning, context, thought, or message of both source of
reproducing in the receptor language, the closest natural equivalent to the
message of the source language. First in meaning and secondly in style.
The message of the source language and that of receptor language must be
equivalent. The readers of the translation who know the target language
only will be confused if the target language is influenced by the source
language.
Meanwhile the result of translation must be transferring the meaning
of the source language clearly. In order to make the clear meaning of
source language, it is expected that the meaning of target language can be
understood by the readers. So, the result of the translation must be
readable. In target language, readability is needed, because it makes the
readers easier to catch the content of the translation text, conversely when
the translation text is not readable. It will make the readers difficult to
understand the content of the text well.
So translator must understand both source and target languages well.
A translator must be able to differentiate between lexicon, grammatical
8
structures and cultural context of the source language and those of the
target language because translation is not only word-for word translation,
but also phrase-for-phrase and sentence-for-sentence.
From many definitions above, the writer knows that translation is a
process of transferring thoughts and message from source language to
target language, in the form of written or oral. It is the meaning that has to
be transferred, while the form or the style may change. Also, the
translation text in the target language must readable.
2. The Kinds of Translation
Practically, there are some kinds of translation that have their own
characteristics and forms. Some kinds of translation are found because of
the differences and similarities of the source language structures, different
kinds of text that are going to be translated and different purpose of
translation.
Catford in Yuwono (2000: 4) divides translation into three kinds
namely:
a. Word for word translation
b. Literal translation
c. Free translation
According to Nababan (1999: 29) in translating practice he applied
some kinds of translation, because translating practice was caused by four
factors namely: (1) there are differences between the source language and
target language; (2) there are differences on the kinds of the text material
9
that will be translated; (3) there is assumption that translation as a
communication tool; (4) there is a different purpose in translation of the
text.
Nababan (1999: 30) in his book Teori Menerjemah Bahasa Inggris
differentiates kinds of translation: word for word translation, free
translation, literal translation, dynamic translation, pragmatic translation,
aesthetic-poetic translation, ethnographic translation, linguistic translation,
communicative translation, and semantic translation.
a. Word – for – word translation
Word –for –word translation is translation based on the arrangement of
word from the source language into target language. In this type of
translation, the translator just transfer the meaning of each word based
on the word order and part of speech of the source language. This type
can be used if the source language (SL) and the target language (TL)
have same structure.
Example: I will go to New York tomorrow. Saya akan pergi ke New
York besok. (Nababan, Nababan, 1999: 30)
b. Free translation
Free translation is the type of translation which is not bound to the
search equivalence of the word or sentence but of the paragraph rank
or discourse. This type of translation emphasizes on the transfer of the
source language message. A translator has a freedom to express the
idea of source language into target language through her own language
10
style and structure but it is better for her not to change the message of
the source language.
Example: Killing two birds with one stone.
Sambil menyelam minum air.
c. Literal translation
This type of translation is located between both types above, it is
started by translation word –for –word translation but several parts of
translation change related to the grammar of the target language.
Examples: His heart is in the right place.
Hatinya berada ditempat yang benar.
(Nababan, 1999: 33)
d. Dynamic translation
Dynamic translation is called natural translation. The message of the
source language is transformed and expressed by using custom
expressions in target language. All of thing that is still peculiar or less
natural characteristic, not only on cultural context but also on the
expression of target language can be avoided. This type emphasizes on
message transformation and on particular expression of target
language.
Example: The Author has organized this book since 1995.
Penulis telah menyusun buku ini sejak 1995.
11
(Nababan, 1999: 33)
e. Pragmatic translation
Pragmatic translation refers to the translation of message with an
interest in accuracy of the information that was meant to be conveyed
in a source language form. The clearest example of pragmatic
translation is in the treatment of technical documents in which
information about, say, repairing a machine is translated into another
language. Translator would have no concern other than getting the
information across in the second language. (Brislinn, 1976: 3).
Example: White cross Baby Powder is soft and smoothing, it absorbs
moisture and keeps baby cool and comfortable.
White cross Baby Powder lembut dan halus, menyerap
kelembapan, menjaga kesegaran dan kenyamanan bayi
anda.
From the text above, in pragmatic translation, the grammar is ignored
by the translator, because the pragmatic translation must be suitable to
the context. Word “soft” for example, not parallel with word
“smoothing”. And there is deleted subject on translation text sentences
or on target text. From the phenomenon above, a translation gives
more attention on the transfer information as complete as possible.
f. Aesthetic – poetic translation
According to Brislin (1976: 3) Aesthetic – poetic translation is kind of
translation in which the translator takes into the effect, emotion, and
12
feeling of an original language version, the aesthetic forms (e.g.
sonnet, dramatic dialogue) used by the original author, as well as any
information in message. Aesthetic – poetic translation is called literary
translation. The clearest examples are in the translation of literature.
g. Ethnographic translation
Ethnographic translation purposes to explicate the cultural context of
the source and second language versions. A translator has to be
sensitive to the way words used (e.g. yes versus yea American
English), and must know how the words fit into the cultures that use
the source and target language.
h. Linguistic translation
According to Casagrande (1954: 337) in Brislin (1976: 4) linguistic
translation is concerned with “equivalent meanings of the constituents
morphemes of the second language and with grammatical form”.
Example: 1) Harry is willing to help
2) Harry is difficult to help
The sentences of (1) and (2) above have the same surface structure.
But, they have different in grammar. In the first sentence, Harry acts
the activity to help on the other hand, in the second sentence, Harry is
patient of the verb to help.
Surface structure Deep structure
(1) Harry is willing to help Harry is willing to help me
13
(2) Harry is difficult to help Harry is difficult for one to help
(Nababan, 1999: 39)
i. Communicative translation
In his book Approach to Translation, Newmark (1981: 26) in Nababan
(1999: 40) states that translation has the function as means of
communication. This is expressed on the statement as follows”…
translation is basically a means of communication or a manner of
addressing one or more persons in the speaker presence:. “In that
expression, the meaning which can be interpreted as a means of
communications, the translation has the function as an instrument to
convey an opinion or feeling to the people. Basically, communicative
translation emphasizes transferring of message, meaning, and function
of language translating.
Example: Jimmy Carter was the President of the United States, have
different meaning with, Jimmy Carter is the President of the United
States.
j. Semantic translation
According to Newmark (1981: 39) in Nababan (1999: 45) this
semantic translation resembles with communication translation.
Semantic translation concentrates on looking for the equivalence of
word only, with attached on cultural source language. The translation
in this type tries to transfer the context meaning of source language as
nearly as possible by syntax.
14
Examples: context situation 1
Mr. Andrew : You must not go out this evening.
Harry : Yes dad
Context situation 2
Mr. Andrew : You must not go out this evening
Harry : Yes sir.
Both examples above show that Harry gives different responses, that is
reflected from uses of the words. In dialogue 1, Harry uses word
“Dad”, and “sir” dialogue 2, both of them refer to the same references,
that is Mr. Andrew (Harry’s father). (Nababan, 1999: 45).
3. The Process of Translation
The process of translation can be defined as the activity of
translation. The translation process usually is used by a translator as a
guide in translating text from source language into target language. Nida
(1975: 80) in Yuwono (2000: 63) illustrates the process of translation
converse three steps namely analysis, transfer and restructuring.
15
Source Language Text
Analysis
Receptor Language Translation
Restructuring
From the diagram above, it can be seen that there is a process in
translating text. First, a translator faces a written text in the source
language, then tries to understand the content of the text. In addition to
that point, a translator has to transfer the meaning into the target language
exactly, without any change of meaning in target language. The
translator’s last work is she has to restructure the transfer into a good
language.
C. Folklore
1. The Definition of Folklore
Etymologically, the folklore word is compound word which is
derived from two syllabus folk and lore. Folk has the same meaning as a
collective word. According to Alan Dundes, folk is a group of people who
have physical, social, and cultural identity features. So that, we can
differentiate it from other group. The identity features are among others:
the same skin color, the same hairstyle, the same of job, the same of
language, the same in educational level, and the same religion. However,
the most important thing is they have a tradition, that is, culture which is
Transfer
16
inherited hereditary from their ancestor. There are at least two generations
which can be claimed by them as a join property and they realize their
identity (Dundess, 1965: 2; 1977: 17-35; 1978: 7) in Dananjaja (1994: 1)
So, folk is synonym word of collective, also it has physical identity
feature or the same culture, and folk has a personal awareness as a unit
society.
Lore is folk tradition. It means that the parts of the culture, which are
inherited by oral or by examples which are completed by movement
signals or remainder tolls. So folklore is a part culture of collective, which
is traditionally spread and inherited hereditary among any kinds of
collective in any versions, whether in oral form or example completed by
movement signals or reminder tools (Dananjaja, 1994: 2).
According to Brunvand (1965: 5) in Danandjaja (1994: 2) the
definition of folklore may be as those materials in culture that circulate
traditionally among members of any group in versions, whether in oral or
by means of customary example.
In order to able to differentiate folklore from other culture, firstly the
book’s writer has to find out the main feature of folklore, which can be
formulated as follows:
a. Usually, the folklore process are spreaded and inherited
orally, that is, spreaded up by words from mouth to mouth in one
generation to the next generations.
17
b. Folklore has a traditional characteristic, that is, spreaded
up in a relative constant or standard form. Folklore spread among
certain collectives in a long period of time (at least in two generations).
c. Folklore exists in various versions. That is, because of the
spreading process orally, not by a print or record form. Because of
forget fullness process of people or interpolation. Folklore is easily
changed.
d. Folklore has an anonym characteristic. It means that the
first creator is unknown.
e. Usually, folklore has a formula or pattern form.
f. Folklore has a function in a collective’s life. Folktale for
examples: it has a function as an education tools, fun, social protest,
and projections of a deep wish.
g. Folklore has prelogical characteristic. It has its own logic
which does not agree with general logic, for example in verbal and
partly verbal folklore.
h. Folklore becomes a join property in certain collectives.
This is as a result from the unknown creator.
i. Folklore is commonly smooth and plain so that it looks
rough and spontaneous. This is because folklore is the most honest
manifestations of human and it is as human’s expression of emotional
projection.
2. The Kinds of Folklore
18
According to Jan Harold Brunvand, in Danandjaja (1994: 21-22)
based on the type, folklore can be classified into three groups based on the
type:
a. Verbal folklore
b. Party Verbal folklore
c. Non Verbal folklore
The explanation of the type of folklore, is as follows:
a. Verbal folklore
Verbal folklore is a folklore of which form is originally verbal. The
examples of verbal folklore are as follow:
(1) Folk speech: dialect, nick name, traditional rank, and nobility title.
(2) Traditional question: puzzle.
(3) Traditional expression: proverb and pemeo.
(4) Folk poem: poetry and rhyme.
(5) Story of people’ fairy tales: myth, legend and folklore.
(6) Folk song.
b. Partly Verbal Folklore.
Partly verbal folklore is a folklore which form is a combination of oral
and non-oral elements. For examples: people’s trust which refers to
superstition by “modern” people that can be called”myth”. It consists
of a statement which has oral characteristic which is added by signals
gesture.
19
The form of folklore included into this group are: folk’s playing, folk’s
theater, folk’s dance, folk’s ceremony, and folk’s party.
c. Non Verbal Folklore.
Non verbal folklore is a folklore which form is non-verbal, although
the technique of making it is taught verbally.
This can be divided into sub groups, namely:
(1) Material : such as, the form of folk house, the folk’s
architect, the folk’s hand made, dress, articles of
the body, food and beverage, and the traditionally
drugs.
(2) Non material : such as, the traditional signal gesture, the sound
of folk communication, and folk music.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alberta, Sr, CB.2000. The Multi Coloured Lake. Jakarta: PT. Gramedia.
Bassnet, Susan. 1998. Translation Application and Research. England: Routledge and Co. Ltd.
Brislin, Richard. W. 1976. Translation: Application and Research. New York: Gardener Press Inc.
Danandjaja, James. 1994. Folklore Indonesia. Jakarta: P.T. Pustaka Utama Grafiti.
Frank, Marcella.1972. Modern English: A Practical Reference Guide. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc.
Hardjana, HP.2000. The Old Widow with a Gabus Fish. Jakarta: PT. Gramedia.
20
Hornby, A.S. 1987. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English. London: Oxford University Press.
Machali, Rochayah. 2000. Pedoman Bagi Penerjemah. Jakarta: PT. Gramedia.
Martini, Tuty. 2005. The Readability of Translation of Text of the Legend of Banyuwangi Folklore (Thesis). Klaten: Widya Dharma University Klaten Press.
Nababan, M, R. 1999. Teori Menerjemah Bahasa Inggris. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar Offset.
Newmark, Peter. 1988. About Translation. London: Long Bun Press Ltd.
Seliger, H, W and Shahomy, E. 1989. Second Language Research Method. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sudaryanto. 2001. Metode dan Aneka Teknik Analisis Bahasa; Pengantar Penelitian Wahana Kebudayaan secara Linguistis. Yogyakarta: Duta Wacana University Press.
Sutopo, H.B. 2002. Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif; Dasar Teori dan Terapannya dalam Penelitian. Surakarta: Sebelas Maret University Press.
Wardah. 1978. A Survey on the Readability Level of Indonesian Translation of Some English Novels. Malang: IKIP Malang.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. 1972. Introduction to Linguistics. New York: MC Graw Hill Book Company.
Yuwono, Suhud, Eko. 2000. Teori Terjemahan I (BPK). Klaten: Widya Dharma University Press.
_______, _________. 2000. Teori Terjemahan II (BPK). Klaten: Widya Dharma University Press.
21
49