Reading Fluency Children Read Individual But Not Whole Words

The Japanese Association of Special Education

NII-Electronic Library Service

The JapaneseAssociation of Special Education

Jpn. J. Spec. Educ,, 46 (6), 405 416, 2009.

Original Article

Reading Fluency in Young Children Who

Can Read Individual Letters Fluently But Not Whole Words:

A Longitudinal Study

Shino SAKONo* and Tomohiko ITo'"

The purpose of the present study was to investigate longitudinally the develop-ment of fiuency in reading words and nonwords in typically developing children

who could read all the letters in the words but could not read thc whole words

fiuently, The participants were 5 children aged 4 to 5. Words and nonwords were

used as stimuli in a reading task. The number of correct and fiuent readings

increased more rapidly for the words than for the nonwords in 3 of thc children.

aorrect and fluent rcadings of both the words and the nonwords by the fourth

child increased rapidly. The fifth child could only 1 word and 1 nonword by thc

final measurement day. At thc beginning ofthe study, the mean reading time for

thc words by 2 of the 5 children was shorter than for the nonwords. The presentresults suggest that a variety of rates or proc¢ sses exist in the dcvclopment of

reading fiuency for words and nonwords in typically developing children.

Key Words: reading, Iluency, dcvclopment, longitudinal study, preschool chil-

dren

Introduction

The Japanese language uses two kinds of orthographic systems: kana and kanji,Each kana character represents a speech unit roughly equivalent to a syllable

(Sasanuma, 1986), The relationship between orthography and phonology in kana is

perfectly regular and rule-governed. Each kana character essentially always repre-

sents one and the same mora with no context sensitivity (Sasanuma, Ito, Patterson,

& Ito, 1996). There{bre, accuracy of reading kana words can be acquired easily in the

Japanese language by using letter-by-letter reading. As a result, in languages like

Japanese in which the relationship between orthography and phonology is regular,

dilliculty of reading is reflected in reading fluency, Thus, in research on the develop-

ment and disorders of reading in Japanese, it is important to study the development

of reading fiuency.

*United

Graduate Scheol of Education, Tokyo Gakugei University**Tekyo

Gakugei University

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S. Sakono & T. Ito

Many researchers have studiecl the development of reading in typically develop-

ing children. For example, Amano (I986) condueted a series of studies on the

acquisition of the reading of kana letters. Takahashi (1993, 1996) investigated thedevelopment of reading ability after children had learned the kana letters, Recently,many studies have investigated the relationship between the ability to read kana

characterst and phonological awareness in young children (Amano, 1970i Arriano,1986; Hara, 2001; Takahashi, 1999), In addition, numerous studies have fbcused on

the segmentation of words into moras (e.g,, Inagaki, Hatano, & 0take, 2000; Ito,

2006; Ito & Tatsumi, 1997).

However, few studies havc lbcused on the development of reading fiuency intypically developing childrcn. In order to determine the characteristics of reading

fiuency in Japanese children with developmental dyslexia, we must first study the

development ot' reading fiuency in typically developing children,

In order to teach children with developmental dyslexia successfuIIy, it is impor-tant to find deficits early, The later that deficits are identified, the more serious is thedelay of learning (Shaywitz, 2003). If characteristics of the development of reading

fiuency could be found in typically developing children, that may provide a way to

identify children who might have diMculty reading,

Children with developmental dyslexia have been shown to have diNculty read-

ing nonwords (Rack, Snowling, & Olson, 1992; Snowling, 200e). Many studies have

demonstrated that Japanese children with developmental dyslexia have dirnculty

reading nonwords (Matsumoto, 20061 Oishi, 2007; Tatsurni, 2007; Yamada, 1997).

Shaywitz (2003) tbund that the results from children's reading of nonwords were

important in the diagnosis of developmental dyslexia. Therefore, the development ofreading fluency should be investigated, in typically developing ehildren, in an early

stage of reading development, using nonwords to identify dyslexic children.

Sasanuma (1995) propesed that each word carries infbrmation about ortho-

graphy, phonology, and semantics, and that such intbrmation and its interactiverelationship are decoded in the mental lexicon, On the basis of this, we assume that

it is easier lbr children to read real words than nonwords fluently, because they can

use their mental lexicon when they read the real words. Theretbre, we predict that

children should be able to acquire reading fiuency earlier for words than fbr

nonwords. However, as we have indicated above, few studies have focused on the

development of reading fluency in typically developing chlldren.

The purpose of the prcsent study was to investigate the development of fluency

in reading words and nonwords in typically developing chi!dren who eould read each

letter in the words, but could not read whole words fluently,

Method

Stimulus Letters and vaorcts

1) Letters used in the stimultts words. Nine letters were used as the stimulus words

and nonwords. These letters were employed to determine whether participants could

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Reading Fluency in Young Japanese Children

TABLE 1 Stimulus Words

2 moras 3 moras 4 moras 5 moras

WordsNonwords kumatsusu tsumiki

sutarl

kutsushita

miritashi

kurisurnasu

kimamikusu

TABLE 2 Participants

Participant

Agc

Child A

4:4

Child B

4:6

Child C

4: 11

Child D

5:1

Child E

5:2

Atbtes, Age when the present longitudinal study was started.

Child E was a boy; the other four participants were girls,

read all the letters that were used to tbrm the stimulus words and nonwords.

According to the National Institute fbr Japanese Language (1972), such words

present the easiest and the second-easiest degree of difficulty in acquisition.

2) Stimulas wortis. The stimulus words, 4 words that are used frequently

(Iwabuchi & Muraishi, I976) and 4 nonwords, were from two moras to five moras in

length. The stimulus words and nonwords are listed in Table 1.

ParticiPants

The originally seiected participants were eight children who could not read the

stimulus words correctly and fluently in three trials from among 38 participants in anearlier study by the present authors (Sakono & Ito, 2007). We wanted to inciude al1eight of the children as participants. However, two o{' the children could not

participate in the present study because they had graduated from nursery scheol, In

addition, one child was exciuded because of stuttering. As a consequence, the

participants in the present study were five out of the eight participants in the presentauthors' earlier research (Sakono & Ito, 2007). Child E was a boy; the other four were

girls. Further information about the participants is provided in Table 2.

Procednre

The children were tested individually. First, nine hiragana letters that were

included in the stimulus words were presented to the children one by one on a card,

and the children were asked to read each letter. Next, those children who could read

all the letters were asked to read the four hiragana words and the four nonwords as

fast as possible, The stimulus words were written in hiragana on cards, If the children

did not notice a reading error, they were asked to read that word or nonword again.

If a child read letter-by-letter, the child was then asked again to read that word, up

to a total of two additional trials.

The present longitudinai study continued fbr about one year. The data were

collected on four occasions: when the study started, and at 7, 9, and 11 months

thereafter.

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S. Sakono & T. Ito

The children's responses were tape-recorded using a digital audio tape recorder

(TCD-DIO) and a microphone (ECM-959DT).

Method of Analysis The children's correct and fluent readings were analyzed. When a stimulus word

was read by a child without letter-by-letter reading or disfiuencies such as repetitions

or revisiQns, the word was judged to have been read fiuently. The rate of agreement

between the two graduate students who judged fiuency was 93.6%, calculated by

dividing the number of agreements by the total of the number oi' agreements plusdisagreements, and multiplying by 100.

In addition, reading time (the time between the presentation of a stimu}us word

or nonword and the end of the child's reading of that word or nonword) was

measured by a digital stop watch (WATER 5BAR RESIST, Q & Q).

Results

Developmental Change in Correct and Fluent Reading

Figure 1 shows the developmental changes in the five children's correct and

fluent reading of the stimulus words and nonwords over the year ofthe present study.

The abscissa shows the time in months from the start of the study. The ordinate

shows the number of words read correctly and fiuently. The results for the fbur words

were analyzed as a whole, as were the results fbr the four nonwords.

As shown in Fig, 1, three of the children, A, C, and D, showed a rapid increase

in the number of werds read correctly and fiuently, but a slower increase in the

number of n,onwords read correctly and fiuently. The number of words read correctly

and fiuently by Child B increased rapidly fbr both the words and the nonwords. In

contrast, Child E read correctly and fluently only one word starting with the second

test (at 7 months from the start of the study) and, in addition, by the final day of

measurement, oniy one nenword, Child D was absent from the nursery school on the

day of the 9-month tests, so her data fbr that day are missing.

Developmental Changes in the Mean Reading Time

Figure 2 shows the developmental changes in the five children's mean time to

read the fosTords and nonwords. The abscissa shows the time in months from the start

of the study. The ordinate shows the mean time to read the stimulus words and

nonwords. Child D was absent from the nursery school on the day of the 9-month

measurement, so her data tbr that day are missing.

At the start of the study, the mean reading time was quite diflerent across the

five children. However, all the children's reading times tended to decrease up to the

Iast day of measurement. The mean times for Child A and Child E to read the

nonwords was longer than fbr the words on the first day of measurement. Child A'smean tirne to read the nonwords was longer than for reading the words throughout

the study. The difference between Child E's mean reading time for the words and the

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Reading FIuency in Young Japanese Children

nonwords became smaller and smaller over the year ofthe study, and few differencesin reading time between the words and the nonwords were observed on the last day

of the study. Throughout the year, few diflerences were observed between Child B

and Child D;s mean reading times for the words and the nonwords, Curiously, at the

start of the study, Child C's mean reading time for the words was longer than for the

nonwords.

mtu-[vtuocr-c

¢

nLT[a-e

¢

too-oLvAE=z

d

3

2

1

o

Child A

o

Child C

q

3

79 11 U

Child D-----o

'

2

''''

l

'te

oo

79 ll

T9 11 o 79 11

O/ WoTds

e: Nonwordsme / Words and Nonwords

't

3

2

I

o

Child E

o T9 li

Time From the Start of the Study (Months)FIG. 1 Developmental Changes in Correct and Fluent Reading

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S, Sakono & T. Ito

DeveloPmental Chauges in Correct and Fluent Reading in Relation to the

rvumber of Moras of the Stimuli

Figure 3 shows the relationship between the developmental changes in correct

and fluent reading and the moras of the stimuli by the five children. The abscissa

shows the time in months from the start of the study. Only one word was used as a

stimulus word with 2, 3, 4, and 5 moras. The ordinate shows the total number of

correct and fiuent readings by the five children. The data at the 9-month assessment

AcoEvoEFtnrEvamxccaoE

9UOOBOOO700U6eoo5ooe4000300020001000

o

9000sooo70UU6000sooe400030002oeolveo

o

o 79 il

o T A 11

v T 9 Tl

o T･ 9 ]l

O: Words

e/ Nonwords

op : Words aiid Nonwords

9000souoTOOO6000500040003oon20001ono

o

Child C

O 79 11

Time From the Start of the Study (Months)FIG. 2 Developmental Changes in the Children's Mean Reading Time

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The JapaneseAssociation ofSpecial Education

Reading Fluency in Young Japanese Children

were from 4 children, because Child D was absent f'rom the nursery school on the day

of testing.

The total number of correct and fluent readings of the 2-, 3-, and 4-mora words

tended to increase from the first to the last day of measurement. However, the total

number of correct and fiuent readings of the 5-mora words tended to be smaller and

morc unstable than those with 2-, 3-, and 4-moras. While the total number of correct

and fluent reading of the 2-, 3-, and 4-mora nonwords increased from the first to the

last day of measurement, even by that time, only one of the 5-mora words was read

correctly and fluently.

mun=vNocrvcU=tav[asPootoo-oLoAE-z-eE,-oH

5

4

3

2

1

o

5

4

3

2

1

o

o 7 9t11

o 7 9 11

---O---2moras

+3moras

+4meras

+ S moras

-ee-2 mDras and 3 moras

-4moras

+ S moras

FIG.Mtes.

Time From Start of the Study (Months)

3 Developmental Changcs in Correct and Fluent Reading and

The data at 9 months arc from 4･ children, because one of the c

from the nursery school on thc day of testing.

Moras

hildrenof

Stimuliwas absent

411



The JapaneseAssociation ofSpecialEducation

S. Sakono & T. Ito

DeveloPmentat Changes in Mean Reading Time in Relation to the JVumber

of Moras of the Stimuli

Figure 4 shows the relationship between the developmental changes in rnean

reading time by the five children and the number of moras of the stimulus words and

nonwords. The abscissa shows the time in months from the start of the study. The

ordinate shows the mean reading times. Child D was abs,ent from the nursery school

on the day of the 9-month measurement, so her data for that day are missing.

The mean readlng time for the words regardless of the nuinber of rnoras

gradually became shorter and shorter. The mean reading time of the words with 4

and 5 moras tended to be longer than for those words with 2 and 3 moras throughout

FIG.

Mtes.

GEWUEFtu.!vtudicr=tooE

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2eoe

1000

o

7eoo

6000

5000

4eoo

3eoo

2000

lOOO

o

o 7 9*11

H)-2mnras

+3moras

-4 moras

+5 rnoTas

--O-2moras

+3 moTas

-O-4nwras

+ 5 moras

e 7 9 11

Time From Start of the Study (Months)

4 Developmental Changes in Mean Reading Time and Number of Moras

of the Stimuli

The data from the 9-month measurement were frem 4 children, because

Child D was absent from the nursery school on the day of testing.

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Reading Fluency in

the study. Although the mean reading

gradually became shorter and shorter,

to be longer and unstable.

Young Japanese Children

time of' the nonwords with 2, 3, and 4 moras

the reading time of the 5-mora words tended

Discussion

In order to achieve early identification of children who have diMculty in reading,

it is necessary to know the characteristics of developmental changes of fluent reading

in typically developing children, The purpose of the present study was to investigate

the devclopment of reading fluency for words and nonwords in typically developing

children who could read each letter in the stimulus words but could not read the

whole words fluently. The participants were five children who could read each letter

in those words but could not read the whole words fluently within three trials in the

present authors' earlier research (Sakono & Ito, 2007). The data were obtained on

fbur occasions; viz., when the present study started, and 7, 9, and 11 months later.

Developmental Changes in Correct and Fluent Readiug

Each word carries information about orthography, phonology, and semantics,

and this information and its interactive relationship are clecoded in the mental lexicon

(Sasanuma, 1995). Theretbre, it is easier for children to read words fluently thannonwords, because they can use their mental lexicon when reading words but not

when reading llonwords. We could predict that the fiuency of reading the stimulus

words would develop rapidly, but that the fiuency of reading the nonwords would

develop slowly.

As expected, the number of fluently read stimuli increased faster for the words

than the nonwords in 3 out of 5 children (A, C, and D), The results fbr these three

children agreed with our prediction that reading fluency would be acquired easier for

the words than the nonwords. Thc reason why these three children could read the

words more fluently than the nonwords is, we hypothesize, that they could use their

mental lexicon while reading the words.

However, the number of correct and fluent readings increased rapidly for both

the words and the nonwords in one of the children (B). The development of her

reading fluency was different from our expectation, probably tbr the tbllowing reason.

For her, although, as we expected, reading the nonwords was more diMcult than

reading the words, she acquired both the words and the nonwords within 7 months

from the start of the present study. Her results suggest that some children can acquire

fluent reading of both words and nonwords in a pcriod of less than 7 months, so that

it is necessary to examine developmental changes within shorter intervals than 7

months when the development of reading fluency in typically developing children isbeing investigated.

Child E was able to read correctly and fiuently only one word and one nonword,

even by the last measurement day of the present study. The characteristics of his

development in reading were also different from our expectations. Althouglt we

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S. Sakono & T. Ito

cannot explain why Child E:s fluency of reading the words did not develop within the

time limit of the present study, his results suggest that there are some children of this

age who cannot acquire fluent reading of words and nonwords within a year's time.

That is, Child E might have some reading diMculty.

The present results suggest that there is a variety of rates or processes from

letter-by-letter reading to fiuent reading. The present study should be repeated on a

larger sample in future studies of the development of reading in children between 4to 6 years old, because since only five children participated in this study, individual

diffbrences may have been an impertant l'actor.

Develqpmental Changes in Mean Reading 71me

Developmental changes in reading fiuency are refiected in reading time. We

predicted that the time to read the words would be shorter than that to read the

nonwords at the beginning of the development of reading. Although the results forChildren A and E agreed with our predictien, the results from Children B, C, and D

did not. As we expected, Child A's mean time to read the nonwords was longer than

the time to read the words from the first to the last day of the present study. Child

E;s mean reading time tbr the nenwords was longer than for the words on the first

day of measurement. Child E read only one word and one nonword fluently even on

the last day of measurement. These results suggest that Child E's speed of letter-by-

letter reading gradually increased.

Few differences were observed between in Child B's mean reading time fbr the

words and the nonwords. Her reading time tbr both was very short, and although the

number of words and nonwords read eorrectly and 'Huently

was O on the first day of

this study, her correct and fiuent reading ofboth increased simultaneously. This may

be because Child B read both the words and the nonwords at a very high speed of

letter-by-letter reading on the first day of measurement.

Little difltirence was observed in Child D's mean reading times between the

words and the nonwords from the first to the last day of measurement. The number

of words she read correctly and fluently increased faster than that did the number

of nonwords, probably because her reading time in fiuent reading was not very

diflerent from that in letter-by-letter reading.

Contrary to our expectations, on the first day, Child C's mean reading time on

the words was longer than on the nonwords. Shc was first presented with the werds,

followed by the nonwords, and took longer to read the words than the nonwords. One

possible explanation for these results is that it took her a long time to become

accustomed to the experimental task.

Taken together, the results of the present longitudinal study suggest that the

decreases in reading time for words and nonwords difEer ameng children.

Moras of Stimuli in Relation to Reading Fluency

In the present study, the relationship between developmental changes in correct

and fiuent reading and the number of moras of the stirnuli was investigated, The

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Reading FJuency in Young Japanese Children

correct and fluent reading of the words tended to increase from the first to the lastday of thc present study in the 2-, 3-, and 4-mora words, However in the 5-mora

words, it tended to be smallcr and more unstable, While thc total number of correct

and fiuent reading' of the 2-, 3-, and "-mora nonwords increased from the first to the

last day of Tneasurement, even on the last day, only one of the 5-mora nonwords was

read correctly and fluently. These results suggest that the developmental changes in

correct and fluent reading are influenced by the number ol' moras in stimu]i,

especially with more than 4 moras.

While the mean reading time fbr the words gradually became shorter and

shorter regardless of the number of moras, the mean reading time for the words with

4 or 5 moras tended to be longer than for those with 2 or 3 moras from the first to

the last day of measurement. The mean reading time lbr the nonwords with 2, 3, or

4 moras gradually became shorter and shorter, whereas it tended to be longer and

unstable in the 5-mora words. These results suggest that developmental changes in

mean rcading timc iarcrc influcnced by the number of moras in the stimuli, cspecially

those with more than 4 moras,

tNote

In the Japanesc literaturc en rcading disordcrs, ,Japancsc kanu charactcrs arc referred

to as "letters".

Acknowledgments

We express our gratitude to the children and caretakers at the Hanakoganei

Nursery School.

References

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re!ation to learning .Japanese syllabic characters (kanamoji). .lbPanese

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Shoten, Tokyo. (in Japanese)Hara, K. (2001) The clevelopment of phonological awareness in Japanese children.

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Reading Fluency Children Read Individual But Not Whole Words

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