Reading SkillsUnit 1

Vocabulary building

I. Deducing meaning from word structure

We can often deduce the meaning of word if we know the meaning of the root (base word) and the affixes (elements added to the base word). There are two kinds of affixes, those that come at the beginning of a word (prefix) and those that come at the end of a word (suffix).The following is a list of commonly used affixes and their meanings. Read the list carefully and try to remember the meaning of the affixes.

Affix Usual Meaning Examples

-able-ible

can be breakable defensible

ante-pre-

before an anteroom prewar

anti-counter-

against antiwar counterattack

de-dis-

reverse action of the verb

decentralizedisappear

en--en

make enrichsweeten

-er, -or, -man-ist, -ian

agent, person who does/knows something

carrier, driver, actor, fishermanbiologist, mathematician

-ful has the quality of, with

beautifulcareful

im-, in-, il-ir-, un-

not illogicalimmoralunusual

inter- between intergovernmental

-less without rainless

mal- bad, wrong malfunction

mid- middle midweek

mis- in the wrong way

misunderstand

multi-poly-

many multipurposepolysyllabic

over- too much overwork

re- again renew

sub- below submarine

under- too little underpreparedunderpriced

1

Exercise 1

Explain the meaning of the underlined words in the following sentences by using a similar word or expression in your native language. The structure of the words will help you to deduce the meaning. You may refer to the list of affixes on the previous page.

1. His story is unbelievable.__________________________________________________________________________

2. The telephone repairperson disconnected the wires.__________________________________________________________________________

3. The politician was angry when she found she had been misquoted.__________________________________________________________________________

4. At a prearranged sign, the actor began to speak.__________________________________________________________________________

5. Dishonesty makes a person immoral.__________________________________________________________________________

6. For every argument presented by the leader, her opponent presented a counterargument.__________________________________________________________________________

7. Antiwar demonstrations may change the international situation.__________________________________________________________________________

8. There are many unreliable people in my office. I would rather have more dependable workers.

__________________________________________________________________________9. The area was deforested because of carelessness.

__________________________________________________________________________10. The workers in that factory work 16 hours a day for only three dollars. They are underpaid.

__________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 2

Read the words in the left-hand column and make a new word by combining it with one of the prefixes or suffixes given earlier in the table. Write the new word in the blank in the sentence.

_____exist 1. It is impossible for certain animals to __________. (exist together)_____enter 2. After the break the children were asked to __________ the classroom.

(enter again)_____national 3. Diplomats try to improve __________ relations. (between nations)_____accept_____ 4. The teacher said her answer was __________. (could not be accepted)_____standard 5. The family lives in very small room. They live in __________ housing.

(below standard)_____judge 6. Do not__________ your friend. He may be innocent. (judge before)law_____ 7. Before a society is organized it is __________. (without law)_____played 8. The actor did not play his part well. It must be __________. (played again)_____connect 9. Before you work with electricity, you must __________ the wires. (the

opposite of connect)_____mobilized 10. After the war, the army was __________. (the opposite of mobilized)

2

Exercise 3

Fill in the blanks in paragraph with words that have the same meaning as described in parentheses.

The idea of crowd behavior is discussed by many (1) __________ (people working in the field of sociology). They compare people's behavior when they are alone to their behavior in a crowd. When they are alone, people are (2) __________ (capable of reason). Their behavior is based on their own attitudes and their view of the situation. In a crowd, however, people become (3) __________ (reverse of connected) from their moral selves. They are no longer (4) __________ (capable of responsibility) for their actions because they are part of a larger group of people. They may (5) __________ (understand in the wrong way) a situation or (6) __________ (judge before one should) someone (7) __________ (without care). Once a crowd decides to act, it becomes (8) __________ (cannot be controlled). Its actions may be (9) __________ (not legal) or (10) __________ (not moral), but the individual can no longer see things as an individual. This is crowd behavior.

II. Extracting meaning from context clues

Never stop reading when you meet a word or expression you do not know. If you continue, you may get at least a general understanding of what the word means from the context.

In the following list, you will find example of those contextual clues that may help you to deduce the meaning of unfamiliar words.

1. Some words or punctuation marks tell us to expect an example or an explanation.Words- that is- i.e.- namely- for example

- e.g.- in other wordsPunctuation marks- a colon (:)- a dash (---)

Example- How much of the linguistically system is innately specified? In other words, how much of the linguistically system is the child born with?- the basic essential of life, i.e. housing, food and water

2. A word with a similar meaning (synonym) is found in the context, describing the same person or object.

ExampleOn a March night a girl was attacked by a maniac as she came home from work. The madman took half an hour to murder her, but no one call the police.

3. A word with the opposite meaning (antonym) is found in the context.

ExampleTo be white or black, and affluent or poor, will give a person status in certain social groups.

4. The meaning of general term may be deduced from a list of specific.

ExampleTaxes will be increased on cars, trucks, and motorbikes because these vehicles crowd our city streets.

3

5. The meaning of the word is explained in the context.

ExampleLaughter is contagious. If someone in the group starts laughing, the others usually begin to laugh too, even though they don't know what the joke is about.

6. The explanation can be found in a sentence that follows. The connection is shown by a reference word.

ExampleFlash floods often cause damage. These sudden, fast-moving streams of water after heavy rain are feared by local people.

Exercise 4

Deduce the meaning of the words that are underlined in the following sentences. Use clues in the context to help guessing the meaning.

1. When a writer makes broad and general statements, he should clarify them by giving examples. A specific example makes a general point clearer and easier to understand.________________________________________________________________________________2. Before the winter, the villagers stored oil, flour, sugar and meat. They hoped that these provisions would last until spring.________________________________________________________________________________3. People often suffer from different speech defects. The inability to pronounce certain sounds is an example of the suffering. ________________________________________________________________________________ 4. People once thought that the barrier to human progress was illiteracy, the widespread inability to read.________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 5

Read the following sentences. From the possibilities given, choose the one that best describes the meaning of the word that is underlined in the sentence. Use the structure of the word or the context for clues.

1. The popular theory of everyday criminal processes oversimplifies in some respects what usually happens.

a. does not make it simple enoughb. makes more difficultc. makes too simpled. simplifies in the wrong way

2. Whenever an infraction of the law occurs, the police try to catch the criminal and bring him or her to justice. Unfortunately, they are not always successful. The crime is recorded but the lawbreaker is unpunished.

a. a criminal b. changing c. breaking d. keeping

3. The contrast between the rich, green vegetation of the coastal area and the barren, brown hills of the desert was striking to the eye.

a. rich b. without any plants c. with many trees and bushes d. beautiful

4

4. The professor told her students to review the lecture notes if they wanted to understand the material. She did not say directly that there would be a test the following week, but from her comments, the students inferred it.

a. doubted b. denied c. assumed d. questioned

5. He is sentenced by the judge to a term of probation under which he is permitted to live in the community as long as he behaves himself.

a. a period in prison with home visits every week b. a punishment for an indefinite period of time c. life in a special institution d. a period of normal living under certain conditions

6. The boss commands because he possesses authority; the worker obeys because he is subject to that authority.

a. is under control b. gives order to powerful peoplec. refuses to be under control d. shows a liking to command

7. The situation does not improve when the people who suffer from the stutter get older. On the contrary, it gets worse as their self-image gradually deteriorates as they grow older.

a. changes for better b. leaves room for hopec. does not change d. become worse

8. The worker who leaves a hole in the ground endangers public safety. This kind of negligence should be punished just as crimes are punished.

a. road repairs b. Carelessnessc. consideration d. good intentions

9. From the public reaction to her speech, the politician realized that she had misjudged the extent of her influence.

a. had not judged b. had judged before the event c. had not judged enough d. had judged wrongly

10. Many scientists claim that there is life on Mars. This claim, however, disputed by those who have studied the photographs brought back astronauts who have been in space.

a. proved b. not acceptedc. supported d. accepted

Exercise 6

From the lists below, choose a synonym or phrases that have similar meaning for the underlined words in each sentence.

control don't have enough moneyenergy from sunraysonlypossibilitiessay with certaintytiny streamtorn down

supportlargelyhousing pass it aroundpreferencesurvivegive

5

1. I can't afford to buy a new car.________________________________________________________________________________2. There will be two food committees; one will buy the food, and the other will distribute it to the people.________________________________________________________________________________3. Cars were owned drastically by very rich people.________________________________________________________________________________4. I can guarantee that there will be problems if oil runs out.________________________________________________________________________________5. It is very dry; there is only a trickle of water in that brook.________________________________________________________________________________6. How long can we last without food and water?________________________________________________________________________________7. The building was demolished several years ago.________________________________________________________________________________8. Solar energy is still very expensive.________________________________________________________________________________9. Do you think we ought to limit the amount of electricity we use in our homes?________________________________________________________________________________10. Are you in favor of spending more money on the space program?________________________________________________________________________________11. Reusable spacecraft have great potential.________________________________________________________________________________12. People have certain basic needs: food, clothing, and shelter.________________________________________________________________________________13. Life on earth could be changed merely by accomplishments in space.________________________________________________________________________________14. Do you think we should give priority to the space program or to social welfare programs?________________________________________________________________________________

Exercise 7

Idiomatic expressions

Each of the following paragraph contains a context clue that will help you understand the italic idiomatic expressions. Underline these context clues.

1. In the past, men's and women's roles were very clear-cut. More often than not, the women stayed home and cared for the children. Usually, the man went off to work. Today, both men and women work outside; they share the responsibility for the home and for their children too.

2. By and large, people are adjusting well to the changes. Generally, men are finding it rewarding to have more intimate relationship with their children while women are also finding it satisfying to have a job and contribute financially to the family.

3. On occasion, some people may yearn for the “good old days when men were men and women were women.” In other words, these people sometimes wish they lived at a time when roles were more fixed and people did not have to think so much about what they wanted from their lives. On occasion, especially when one is having problems, it is not unusual to want to go back to an easier time.

6

4. A person comes of age when he or she legally becomes an adult. In the United States, citizens can vote at the age of eighteen. In most states, however, people cannot order alcoholic beverages unless they are twenty-one years old. In some states, people must be eighteen to obtain a driver's license, but in other states, they only have to be sixteen.

Exercise 8

Read the following passage and answer the questions that accompany it.

Living organisms are composed of lifeless molecules. Why is it, then, that living matters differ so radically from nonliving matter, which is also consists of inanimate molecules? Philosophers once answered that living organisms are endowed with a divine living force, that is, a power given by God. However, the existence of this force, known as vitality, has been rejected by modern researchers. Scientists today seek testable explanations of natural phenomena. One of the basic goals of biochemistry is to determine how inanimate molecules interact with each other to create and maintain life. When scientists discover what happen between the molecules, they will know why a living organism is more than the sum of its inanimate parts.

1. What other word in the text means composed of? ______________________________________

2. Based on what you know about the structure of English words, what do the following words mean?

a. lifeless ________________________________________________________________________b. nonliving______________________________________________________________________c. testable________________________________________________________________________d. interact________________________________________________________________________

3. What other word in the text that has the same meaning as lifeless?_________________________4. Find another word in the text for God-given. __________________________________________

5. Rejected probably meansa. accepted b. provedc. praised d. not accepted

6. Which word in this text is a synonym for search?_______________________________________

7

Unit 2Finding the Stated Main ideas

One of the most important specific comprehension skills is finding main ideas. This could be a literal skill if the idea is directly stated, or an inferential skill if it is not directly stated. The main idea is the essence of the paragraph, or rather what the author is trying to get across to the reader. If you were to discard the main idea, the remaining sentence would be practically meaningless.

Most paragraph have one sentence which expresses the main idea or the general idea of the paragraph. This sentence is called the topic sentence of the paragraph. In most paragraphs in textbooks, the topic sentence is the first sentence. In other paragraphs, the topic sentence may be either the second or last sentence.

Identifying the topic sentence of a paragraph will help you understand the general idea of the paragraph quickly.

Let's look at the following examples.

Example 1Topic sentence

DetailDetailDetail

Water is essential for good health. It is necessary for every process of the body like digestion and absorption of food. In addition, water helps control temperature of the body. It keeps the temperature at 37ºC (98.6ºF). Water also cleans the tissues. It can then refresh our total body system.

1. What is the topic of the paragraph?2. What is the main idea you should understand about water?

Example 2Detail

Topic sentenceDetailDetail

Iron is the mineral that makes meat look red. If there is not enough iron in the diet, a person will get a disease that is commonly called anemia. Anemia is found all over the world. People with anemia do not have enough iron in their blood. Because iron carries oxygen, people who do not have enough iron do not get enough oxygen for their normal activities. Their heart beats faster so their bodies can get more oxygen. People who have anemia often get tired easily. Sometimes their skin looks pale; it does not look pink and healthy.

1. What is the topic of the paragraph?2. What is the main idea you should understand?

8

Example 3DetailDetailDetail

Topic sentence

It has been found that many obese persons eat food to derive certain types of satisfactions or to compensate for certain personality lacks. The overweight girl who is not socially acceptable may appease her discomfiture and ego by indulging in rich desserts or some other type of unwise eating. Persons who are undergoing tensions, such as fear, boredom, or frustration, may find that eating seems to relieve the situation. The individual who lacks affection, recognition, or the fulfillment of other emotional needs may turn to food as a solace. There is considerable evidence that psychological factors may play a role in obesity.

1. What is the topic of the paragraph?2. What is the main idea you should understand?

Exercise 1: Identifying the topic and the topic sentence.

Read each of the following paragraphs and answer the questions that follow.

1. The memory unit, or storage unit, is the heart of the total computer system. It is where information is stored. This element serves as the computer's filing cabinet. Both information for solving a problem and instructions on how to use the information are stored here. The memory storage unit can be both internal and external. Computer systems contain internal memory units for the storage of instructions and data. In addition, it is possible to increase the system's computer memory capacity through the use of external memory units that can be plugged into the system. The use of such external storage units provides added flexibility for the computer system.

- What is the topic of the paragraph?____________________________________________________________________- What is the main idea you should understand about the topic?____________________________________________________________________

2. Formal education in America is not merely freely available; it is actually compulsory. There are still many societies where this is not the case, or where schooling is compulsory for only the first few grades. American parents are legally obliged to send their children to school, although they may choose between public and private (including religious education choices that are not offered in many other countries). Education in the United States is financed by taxing everyone, including people without children and people whose children attend private schools. The implication is that public education benefits the entire society, not merely those who happen to receive it. Every child is thus entitled to at least twelve years of schooling at public expense, and we even expect some skilled professionals to spend twenty years or more in school—a period equal to half the life expectancy in some of the less developed countries of the world.

- What is the topic of the paragraph?____________________________________________________________________- What is the main idea you should understand about the topic?____________________________________________________________________

9

3. There are many ways to improve your vocabulary in English. One way is to read fiction (novels and stories) in English. Novels and stories often contain new words. It is not difficult to understand these new words because you can usually guess their meanings. The other words in the sentences will help you, and the story will also help you. An interesting story will help you understand the new words because the meanings of the new words are part of the meaning of the story.

- What is the topic of the paragraph?____________________________________________________________________- What is the main idea you should understand about the topic?____________________________________________________________________

4. Many people think that homemade bread is hard to make. However, baking bread is actually very simple. It only requires a few simple steps and a few common ingredients. Once you became familiar with the process, it's also easy to mix flour and make your own kinds of bread. Then, eating it when it's done is the simplest part of all.

- What is the topic of the paragraph?____________________________________________________________________- What is the main idea you should understand about the topic?____________________________________________________________________

5. Skiers stay outdoors all day exercising in the fresh, cold winter weather. They race down the snowy mountainside, often through beautiful pine groves or forest. After a day outdoor, skiers gather together indoors to relax and enjoy one another's company. They joke about their adventures during the day, or they sing and dance. Inexpensive and comfortable ski resorts exist in almost every part of the world today where there are mountains and snow. Skiing has become a very popular sport for these reasons and one other. It is easy to learn. A person can take private or group lessons and in just a week attain the basic skills.

- What is the topic of the paragraph?____________________________________________________________________- What is the main idea you should understand about the topic?____________________________________________________________________

Exercise 2: Finding the main idea.

Read each paragraph and choose the best answer.

1. People speak differently in different situations. Sociolinguistics analyze the effects of situation on language. Three of the major points that they consider are the place, the interlocutor, and the purpose of the conversation. First, sociolinguistics look at the place. People may speak differently if they are at home, at school, in church, or in a government office. Second, they consider the relationship of the people who are having conversation. A woman may talk in different way to her son, her secretary, or her mother. Third, sociolinguistics analyze the purpose of the conversation. People may use language differently if they are explaining a problem, complaining about the problem, or trying to persuade someone to do something about the problem.

- The main idea of the paragraph is __________.a. people speak differently when they have a problem.b. people may have a better relationship if they talk to each other.c. the situation affects how people speak.

- The paragraph mentions _________ points that sociolinguistics consider.a. 1 b. 3 c. 5

10

2. Both spelling and pronunciation change. In general, the spelling of words change more slowly than their pronunciation. As a result, the oral and written forms of some words are quite different from each other. The word “knock” has a silent k. Today people do not pronounce the k in word but years ago they did. While the spelling of this word do not change, the pronunciation does. The words “meat” and “meet” are spelled differently but they are pronounced the same. In the past, they were pronounced differently too. In a few cases, the spelling of a word has changed while its pronunciation stay the same. A spelling change often makes a word simpler. For instance, a few years ago, the word “coordinate” was written with a hyphen, co-ordinate. Occasionally, a spelling change makes a word more complex. For example, years ago, the word “rhyme” was spelled “rime.”

- The topic of the paragraph is ____________.a. lost words in English.b. changes in English words.c. new words in English.

- The paragraph mainly ________________________.a. describes how to figure out the pronunciation of a word from its spelling.b. discusses the pronunciation of words in the past.c. gives examples of words whose spelling or pronunciation has changed.

3. Informal rules often control actions. The rules are not written and people do not talk about the rules. However, most people know the rules and follow them automatically. Anthropologists have studied the informal rules for time. They found that in American schools and businesses, people expect that everyone will be on time. Suppose a student has an appointment to see her teacher. If she is two or three minutes early or late, she notices the time, but she does not say anything about it. If she is five minutes late, she will give a short apology. For instance, she may say, “I'm late.” If she is ten or more minutes late, she will probably give both an apology and an excuse, “I'm sorry I'm late. My car wouldn't start.” If she is more than ten minutes late to the appointment it may be an insult to the teacher. In short, the informal rules describe how people generally act.

- The topic of the paragraph is _____________.a. actions in an American schoolb. excuses and apologiesc. informal rules of time

- The general idea of the topic is that ________________________.a. your action depends on how late you are.b. if you are late, you have to apologize.c. you do not talk about informal rules.

4. A child must learn some actions, but other actions are innate. All humans are born with the same innate actions. One innate action is sucking. All babies know how to suck when they are born. Babies do not have to learn how to suck. Smiling and frowning are also innate actions. All babies smile and frown, even babies who are blind and deaf. Likewise, all babies cry, although babies who are deaf cannot hear themselves cry. When people greet each other, they move their eyebrows up and down rapidly. Anthropologists believe that this movement of the eyebrows is an innate action. There is no proof that this movement is innate, but all people that anthropologists have studied raise and lower their eyebrows when they greet each other. While anthropologists know that babies actions are innate, they do not know if some adult actions are innate or not. Adults have learned many actions and there is no way to be certain that an adult action is innate.

- The topic of the paragraph is ____________.a. children b. innate actions c. Anthropologists

11

- The paragraph is mainly _______________________.a. a definition and examples of innate actions.b. a contrast of babies actions and adults' actions.c. a description of an anthropologist's study.

12

Unit 3Finding the Unstated Main ideas

In the preceding unit, you are shown to locate the main idea directly stated in a particular sentence in the paragraph, i.e. the first sentence, the last sentence, and so on. In this unit you will be exposed to paragraphs each of which contains sentences that imply the main idea and do not specifically stated in any sentence.

Let's look at the following examples.

Example 1

In 2050, you will not have to travel to office any more as you can work from your own home. Moreover, machines will do most of your work for you. You will also travel to downtown on a moving sidewalk. Furthermore, you will have longer vacations in more distant places since transportation will be faster and cheaper.

1. What is the topic of the paragraph?- The year 2050.

2. What is distinctive about this year?- It will be different from now.

3. What is the main idea of the paragraph?- Life in 2050 will be much different from what it is today.

To find the central thought of the above paragraph, you need the ability to generalize. The paragraph does not state specifically that the year 2050 is different from today. However, the descriptive sentences, the details, lead you to this conclusion.

Therefore, when reading, try to conscious of “clues” of this kind. Examine them, making a mental picture of what the details describe. Then, drawing upon your own experience and knowledge, form a conclusion.

Example 2

There was a time when women were confined to the home. Later, they were permitted to enter only dignified professions such as teaching and nursing. Today, they do most kinds of work that men do. They work on farms. They operate heavy as well as delicate machines. In business they have also been very successful. Even the fighting forces now make use of their skills and abilities.

1. What is the topic of the paragraph?- Women.

2. What is the main idea of the paragraph?- Although at one time women stayed home or did limited types of work, today they do most kinds of work that men do.

Like in the first example, there is no one sentence that gives the entire idea the author wants you to know. Therefore, the main idea is a summary of all the sentences..

13

Exercise 1: Finding the main idea.

Find the main idea of each of the following paragraphs. Remember that the main idea may be directly stated or implied.

1. Is it true that blonds have more fun? An ad for hair coloring posed this question years ago. If the question had been asked in Venice, the answer would have been a definite yes. Long ago, in this Italian city, blond hair was the height of the fashion. Everyone had to have it. It wasn't a matter of simply wanting blond hair. It was almost a requirement. Blond hair was a symbol of wealth. Dark hair was only seen among the poor working classes. Women from Venice spent hours dyeing their hair, simply because they wanted to be in fashion.

The main idea is:a. Long ago, in Venice, most women dyed their hair blond.b. In Venice, dark hair on women was once a sign of poverty.c. Different hair colors have been in style at different times.

2. The United States Navy has trained whales to help the Navy at sea. The whales are called pilot whales. They are smart, strong, and they can dive very deep. When a torpedo is lost, the Navy sends a whale down to find it. The whale then brings the lost weapon to the surface of the sea. Some of the Navy whales have been known to dive as deep as 1,600 feet. These whales dive deeper than torpedoes. They have also retrieved number of other sunken objects.

The main idea is:a. The U.S. Navy has trained pilot whales to dive for sunken objects.b. Pilot whales are strong and smart, as well as good divers.c. The Navy uses many different methods to do its various jobs.

3. Standing barefoot on pavement on a hot, sunny day can be painful. Can you imagine standing on burning coals? This is just what some people do. They are called fire walkers. A fire walker named Kuda Bux once walked on hot coals in New York City. Kuda Bux was from India, where fire walking is a part of some religious ceremonies. To prepare for the walk in New York, a long pit was dug. Huge logs were put in it. They were set on fire and left to burn all day. At the end of the day, charcoal was put on top. A few hours later, the pit was filled with ashes that were over a thousand degrees. Kuda Bux took off his shoes and walked on the burning hot ashes. He walked a distance of twenty feet. When he had finished his walk, three doctors looked at his feet and found that they were not burned at all. In fact, they were not even warm.

The main idea is:a. Fire walkers can walk on burning hot coals without being hurt feeling pain.b. Fire walking is an amazing thing.c. Kuda Bux was an India fire walker.

4. Onions have many uses in the world of superstition that are quite different from their uses as a food. For example, snakes are commonly believed to have a strong dislike for their smell. Therefore, according to one superstition, you should carry a raw onion to prevent snakes from biting you. It was also once thought that witches disliked onions, so they were used in anti-witch charms. Keeping onions in the house was believed to be a protection against evil

14

spirits. Onions were also used in folk medicines to prevent sleeplessness and to cure hangovers. They have even been rubbed on the head in the hope of curing baldness.

The main idea is:a. There are many superstitions that involve onions.b. Onions have been used to prevent snakebite.c. The onion has been used for many things.

5. It's not only vampires who drink blood. Many people in the world drink the blood of animals or use it in recipes. Blood sausage is one example. Also, a chinese drink known as “chicken essence” is simply chicken's blood. The Polish have a soup recipe that calls for duck's blood. Though the idea of eating or drinking blood may sound unappealing to many people, blood is actually very good for you. Two thousand years ago, hunters in northern Europe drank animal blood regularly. It provided the men with the vitamin C that their bodies needed.

The main idea is:a. Blood is used in quite a large number of recipes.b. Many people drink animal blood or use it in cooking.c. Many people find uses for animal blood.

6. It's common knowledge that little water can be found in deserts. But what causes deserts? Well, in some places near the equator the sun is so hot that all the water is evaporated and stays in the air rather than on the ground. In other places, especially along coastlines, a range of tall mountains can create a desert on its inland side. On the ocean side, water evaporates into the air. Winds off the ocean carry this moist air toward the land. The air must rise to pass over the mountains. When air rises, it cools, and this causes the water vapor to turn into rain. The rain falls on the mountains, leaving the air that finally reaches the other side dry. Another cause of desert formation is an area's distance from a large water source such as an ocean. Since most water in the air comes from the oceans, land that is far inland on a very large continent (such as the Gobi desert in China) may never get rain simply because the winds can't carry the water that far.

The main idea is:a. Deserts can be formed in several ways.b. Many factors affect where and when rain will fall.c. Mountain ranges along coastlines often cause deserts to form inland.

7. Do animals dream? Dreaming is a common experience for human beings, and there is a growing body of evidence that other creatures dream, as well. Dogs and cats can be seen making running motions with their legs in their sleep, as if they were reacting to dreams. Humans and animals both display REM—rapid eye movements--during dream episodes. A French scientist named Michel Jouvet has found evidence that young humans and other mammals dream more in infancy than at any other time in life. These dreams may help the young develop sensory, motor and mental capabilities. What do animals dream about? Since we can't ask them, we will probably never know.

The main idea is:a. There is some scientific evidence that animals dream.b. Some animals make running motions with their legs while they asleep.c. Human beings share many characteristics with other animals.

15

8. In one study, six girls appeared twice before high school classes. One girl was dressed alike on the two occasions. On the second occasion, which was approximately three weeks after the first, the classes were told that some of them had misunderstood the instructions the first time and that therefore the test needed to be repeated. The classes were not informed that the models had changed their clothing. Both times the students rated the models on various personal characteristics. The girl who was dress alike on the two occasions was judged to have the same personal characteristics both times, while those who were wearing different clothing were judged differently. The changed ratings for the girls who were dressed differently indicates that the ratings personality traits were influenced by the subjects' clothing.

The main idea is:a. A person's personality changes as he or she changes clothing.b. In a research study, six girls appeared before a group twice with one girl wearing the same clothes the second time.c. According to one study, many people judge personality traits on the basis of clothing.

9. People in the modern age fear sudden catastrophe. They fear the hurricane and the earthquake. They fear nuclear fallout. But few fear the slow catastrophe that is creeping upon the world through environmental pollution. The air that we breathe in is poisoned. We can stop smoking cigarettes, but we cannot stop breathing, and with every breath we inhale a mixture of dangerous chemicals. It is already a well-known fact that our rivers are dead. Where once children fished and swam, there is nothing but slime and dirt, a breeding place for bacteria. The restful quiet our ancestors enjoyed has disappeared. Even our hearing is slowly being damaged by the level of noise we have to suffer—the noise of traffic and trains, the noise of planes and heavy tractors.

The main idea is:a. The modern age is full of sudden catastrophe.b. Environmental pollution is a more real danger than sudden catastrophes.c. The modern age has created problems that never existed before.

10. A man who has just lost his job as a sewing machine operator—together with 400 fellow workers—may think that the economic situation of the country is very bad. The truth may be that the country has stopped exporting fashions and is now producing and selling heavy machinery in the world market and that, in fact, there are many opportunities for work in heavy industry. In the same way, a man who wants to buy a new refrigerator sees many of the latest imported models in the store. He may think that the economic situation of the country is so good that it allows for such a big choice in refrigerators. In fact the increase in imports may be responsible for a large national foreign debt that is a threat to the economy.

The main idea is:a. Whether the economic situation of a country is bad or good depends on job opportunities and the national foreign debt.b. Judgements about the national economy based on individual experiences may not reflect the true economic situation.c. To get an accurate picture of the national economy, one cannot ignore the judgements of individual citizens.

16

11. The status of women in Britain are without doubt better than they used to be. At the beginning of the nineteenth century women seem to have had almost no rights at all. They could not vote, or even sign contracts. Their marriages were arranged by their parents, and once they were married they could not own property. Most of the time they were kept at home, and even when they were allowed to work, they were never given responsible jobs. It is strange to think that, as far as we know most women were happy with this situation.

Today the position is quite different. Women can now vote, and choose their own husbands. In 1970, a law was passed to give them an equal share of property in the case of divorce, and in the same year the Equal Play Act gave them the rights to equal pay with men for work of equal value.

Yet despite these changes, there is no doubt that there are still great differences in status between men and women. Many employers—maybe even the majority—seem to ignore the Equal Pay Act, and the average working women is likely to earn only about half what a man earns for the same job. Most women still do unskilled jobs, and only a small proportion of the country's workers—possibly one third—are women. This small percentage is partly because of a shortage of nurseries. If there were sufficient nurseries, more women would go out to work. There is also great inequality in education. Only a quarter of all university students are women, and at present boys' schools are much better than girls' schools.

The main idea of the whole passage is:a. In the nineteenth century, women were worse off than today. Many improvements have been made.b. Women today are better off than women in the nineteenth century because they are equal to men in all conditions.c. Although women in the nineteenth century were worse off than women today, there are still many improvements to make.

12. Population problems will continue to be a severe impediment to economic development in the low-income countries of Asia. By the year 2,000, the population of the six largest countries will have risen to 1.6 billion from the current level of slightly less than 1 billion. The future of Asian countries with population problems is not uniformly discouraging; birth rates have begun to decline in many countries—Myanmar, India, Indonesia and Sri Lanka—for a variety of reasons, mainly family planning. However, the birth rate continues to be high in Bangladesh and Pakistan. Neither country has advanced very far in providing the social services usually associated with population change, nor have their family planning programs been very effective.

The protest of large additions to the population, to be supported by scarce resources, underlines the urgency of strengthening family planning program, of establishing the institutional framework for sustained improvements in agricultural productivity, especially among small farmers, and of implementing special programs for employment and the distribution of essential public services directed at the poorest sections of society.

1. The main idea of this passage is that:

a. population problems will continue to be a severe impediment to economic development in low-income countries of Asia.

b. economic development in the low-income countries of Asia has not advanced very far.

17

c. the population of the six largest low-income countries of Asia, by the year 2000, will have risen to 1.6 billion.

d. the low-income countries of Asia should make plans to cope with population problems which are a severe impediment to their countries' economic development.

2. Which of the following is not stated as a means of coping with the prospect of population growth in the low-income countries?

a. Implementing special programs for employment.b. Establishing the institutional framework for sustained improvement in agricultural

productivity among small farmers.c. Providing scarce resources.d. Strengthening family planning programs.

3. Which is correct ?

a. Family planning programs in India have been more effective than in Pakistan.b. Family planning programs in Myanmar, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and

Pakistan have declined.c. Birth rates in Bangladesh and Pakistan have declined.d. Myanmar, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Pakistan have not advanced

very far in providing the social services usually associated with population change.

4. Many Asian countries with population problems ______________.

a. must concentrate first on handling declining birth rates.b. have a discouraging future since they have not been able to take care of any of these

problems yet.c. will possibly be able to handle these problems in the future since their birth rates have

begun to decline.d. will never be able to handle these problems because of increasing birth rates.

5. Population problems in the low-income countries of Asia ______________.

a. will be severest in the year 2000.b. have already severely impeded economic development.c. have just begun to be a severe impediment to economic development.d. will stop economic development.

18

Unit 4Supporting Details and Outlining

The previous chapters emphasized the importance of being able to extract the central thought or main idea of the paragraphs.

In stressing main ideas, you should not infer that the details are useless. “Detail sentences” fill in and often provide the “meat” of the story and can involve the readers' imagination. Details provide various nuances of meaning. We would be quite bored if all we read were simple main-idea sentences. If our purpose is to acquire as much details as possible, then the details become extremely important and we should read more carefully and perhaps at a slower rate. Basic to good comprehension, however, are an understanding of the relationship of main ideas to details and the ability to pick out the central thought from the maze of facts that maybe presented in a paragraph.

Some details are more important than others, therefore, require more careful study and emphasis. There is a limit to the number of details you should attempt to remember and jot down in your notes. An efficient reader attempts to select and rank the details into more important and less important, or major and minor, details.

Example 1

There are several steps that need to be taken to make America a land of equal opportunity for all. One is to make sure that all people are treated fairly under the law. For example, there must not be one treatment for the Chinese, another for the Negro, and still another for the Mexican-Americans. Another step is to make sure that all people are treated fairly in job training and chances for employment. For instance, in the past, there had been some labor unions that would not accept black people as apprentices. Still another important step is to make sure that everyone has an equal opportunity to get an education. This means that there must not be a system whereby some schools in a city get most of the new equipment and textbooks while others in the same city get the hand-me-downs. By taking these steps, America could become a land of equal opportunity for all.

Main Idea: Steps that need to be taken to make America a land of equal opportunity for all.Details: 1. (Major) To treat all people fairly under the law. 1.1 (Minor) There must not be one treatment for the Chinese, another for the Negro, and still another for the Mexican- Americans. 2. (Major) To treat all people fairly in job training and in chance for employment. 2.1 (Minor) In the past, there had been some labor unions that would not accept black people as apprentices. 3. (Major) To provide an equal opportunity to get an education. 3.1 (Minor) there must not be a system whereby some schools in a city get most of the new equipment and textbooks while

19

others in the same city get the hand-me-downs.

Exercise 1: Paragraph Outlining

Outline the following paragraphs using the mentioned outline methods.

1. There are several things that every defensive driver should learn. To begin with, every defensive driver should learn to drive courteously. That is, he should always let the other person have the right-of-way if there is ever any doubt. Also, every defensive should learn to anticipate, or guess, what the other driver is going to do next. This gives a driver time to get his car into a safer position, if necessary. Furthermore, every defensive driver should learn to give the proper signal before changing directions, allowing enough time for other drivers to react to it. Lastly, every defensive driver should learn to keep a safe distance between his car and the car ahead.

2. Oddly enough, retirement can pose more problems for the spouse than for the retired person. For a person who has been accustomed to a demanding job, retirement can mean frustration and a feeling of uselessness. This feeling will put pressure on the spouse to provide challenges at home equal to those of the workplace. Often, these tasks will disrupt the spouse's well-established routine. Another problem arising from retirement is filling up all those empty hours. The spouse may fid himself or herself in the role of social director or tour guide, expected to come up with a new form of amusement every day. Without sufficient challenges or leisure activities a person can become irritable and take out the resulting boredom and frustration of retirement on the marriage partner. It is no wonder that many of these partners wish their spouses would come out of retirement and do something—anything—just to get out of the house.

Exercise 2: Identifying the supporting details

Read each of the following short passages and answer the questions choosing the corect answers. Work as quickly as you can.

1. Cloth-making was greatly increased, both in the United States and England, by the invention of the machine to remove the seed from the cotton which grew abundantly in the southern area of the United States. This machine was the work of Eli Whitney, a young man from New England who had gone south to teach school. While visiting a plantation, he heard a good deal of talk about the cost of separating cotton fiber from the seed. He was told that a man, working all day, could separate only a pound of cotton from the seed. Both Georgia and South Carolina had offered a prize for a machine that could do the work, but no one had claimed it. Whitney became so much interested in the problem that he quit teaching and put all his time into the effort of inventing a cotton gin. In 1793, he completed a machine with which a man could clean fifty pounds of cotton a day. He wrote his father proudly; “It makes the labor fifty times less without throwing any class of people out of business.” He continued to work on his machine, improving it so that it would clean more and more cotton. But his hopes of making a great fortune with the cotton gin were never realized, because many people, after learning how, simply built gins and paid Whitney nothing for his invention.

How much cotton per day could be cleaned by one of Whitney's first machines?a. 5 pounds b. 15 pounds c. 50 pounds d. 150 pounds

Why did Whitney fail to make a fortune with his machine?a. Because the people of the South were slow to adopt it.b. Because other people copied it without paying him anything.

20

c. Because he spent all his money trying to improve his original machine.d. Because other people invented machines that were much better.

2. Basketball is one sport—perhaps the only sport—whose exact origin can safely be stated. During the winter of 1891-1892, Dr. James Naismith, a college instructor in Springfield, Massachusetts invented the game of basketball in order to provide exercise for the students between the closing of the football season and the opening of the baseball season. He attached fruit baskets overhead on the walls at opposite ends of the gymnasium, and using a soccer ball, organized nine-man teams to play his new game in which the purpose was to toss the ball into one basket and attempt to keep the opposing team from tossing the ball into the other basket. Although there have since been many changes in the rules (such as the reduction of the number of players on a team from nine to five), the game is basically the same today. United States soldiers introduced it to the Philippines in 1990 and to Europe during World War I, and being adopted by foreign nations, it soon became a world-wide sport. It is interesting that although basketball was created as an indoor game, in countries other than the United States it is now played almost entirely outdoors.

What does the writer say is particularly unusual about basketball as compared with other sports?

a. It began as an indoor game but later became equally common as an outdoor game.b. We know exactly when, where, and by whom it was invented.c. It was invented for college students but became popular only after it was adopted by

soldiers.d. We know exactly when it was first played outside of the country of its origin. What connection does the writer mention between the game of basketball and the game

of soccer?a. Basketball was first played with a soccer ball.b. Basketball has replaced soccer as the most popular sport in some countries.c. Basketball was invented by a well-known soccer player.d. Basketball was designed to provide exercise for students before the beginning of the

soccer season.

21

Unit 5Paragraph Relationships

In the previous chapters, you learned that the main idea is what the author wants you to understand about the subject being discussed. The main idea is supported by details, both major and minor, that help you understand the topic. Authors use a variety of techniques to relate the supporting details to the main idea. Several of these techniques are:

1. Time Order2. Cause-Effect3. Comparison-Contrast4. Examples5. Process

Time Order

The time order pattern describes when things happen in relation to one another. The time element, or the sequences of events in an order, is important.

Example

Tea has been the national drink of Britain for a long time. It was first brought to Europe by the Dutch in the seventeenth century. In 1658, it was first mentioned in England as medicine against sleepiness. At that time, all tea was China's tea (Chinese tea) and was considered an aristocratic drink. However, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, tea was drunk by all. But many thought it had disadvantages—especially being bad for one's health. In 1838, tea was first imported from India and in 1878 from Ceylon. Today, in the twentieth century, an average English man drinks four cups a day. Interestingly enough, tea is thought to calm and stimulate at the same time.

- What is the topic of the paragraph?____________________________________________________________- What is the main idea?____________________________________________________________- What are the details that support this main idea?____________________________________________________________

Note that words often used in this pattern are first, at that time, next, later and finally. When reading, it is important to notice what is in time order and to be able to recall the events or situation in a proper sequential or chronological order.

22

Cause-Effect

In a paragraph using this relationship, you are given a cause of something and the effects that result from the cause.

Example

In cities with rent control, the city government sets the maximum rent that a landlord can charge for an apartment. Supporters of rent control argue that it protects people who are living in apartments. Their rent cannot increase; therefore, they are not in danger of losing their homes. However, the critics say that after a long time, rent control may have negative effects. Landlords know that they cannot increase their profits. Therefore, they invest in other businesses where they can increase their profits. They do not invest in new buildings which would also be rent-controlled. As a result, new apartments cannot built. Many people who need apartments cannot find any. According to the critics, the end result of rent control is a shortage of apartments in the city.

- What is the topic of the paragraph?____________________________________________________________- What is the main idea?____________________________________________________________- What are the causes and effects given?

Causes Effects1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

4. 4.

Notice that the signal words because and therefore help you recognize the cause-effect relationship pattern. Other signal words are: for this reason, consequently, hence and so on.

23

Comparison-Contrast

This technique relates two things, one to another, by showing either how they are alike or how they are different. Within one paragraph, an author may use comparison, contrast, or a combination of both to relate one idea to another.

Example

It used to be that women were sexy if they made a good souffle men were sexy if they tossed a ball, ran a mile, and went out with the fellows. My father belonged to a man's club where he could play squash and talk on politics and high finance while we at home talked intimately. Now my mate and I talk politics together as I help place the apples in the crust. I want to fling them in. He wants to place them in a neat circle. It's a character difference, not a sexual one.

- What is the topic of the paragraph?____________________________________________________________- What is the main idea?____________________________________________________________- How are they different?

In the past at present

→

As you read this type of this selection, you should determine what is compared or contrasted and how these things are alike or different.

Examples

Main ideas and supporting details are often made clearer to the reader when examples are provided. Signal words such as for example and for instance aid in identifying this type of relationship.

Example

One serious problem in Bangladesh is that wives are often abused. Let's look at the cases of three unfortunate women as examples. First, twenty-year-old Rakela Begum ended her life because she she could no longer bear living under the same roof with her husband's second wife. Similarly, Sakina Akhatar, at 23, killed herself after a dispute with her in-laws with whom she used to share her two-room village home. Finally, Shahida Bibi, 27, was beaten to death by her husband when her parents refused to pay for a new bicycle-part of the promised dowry payment. Obviously, life for an average Bangladesh woman is no bed of roses.

- What is the topic of the paragraph?____________________________________________________________- What is the main idea?____________________________________________________________

24

- What are the details given?____________________________________________________________

ProcessA paragraph of process describes how to do something or how a system works.

Example

People do not analyze every problem they meet. Sometimes they try to remember a solution from the last time they had a similar problem. They often accept the opinions or ideas of other people. Other times they begin to act without thinking; they try to find a solution by trial and error. However, when all these methods fail, the person with a problem has to start analyzing. There are six stages in analyzing a problem.

First, the person must recognize that there is a problem. For example, Sam's bicycle is broken, and he cannot ride it to class as he usually does. Sam must see that there is a problem with his bicycle.

Next, the thinker must define the problem. Before Sam can repair his bicycle, he must find the reason why it does not work. For instance, he mist determine if the problem is with the gears, the brakes, the tires, or the frame. He must make his problem more specific.

Now the person must look for information that will make the problem clearer and lead to possible solutions. For instance, suppose Sm decided that his bike does not work because there is something wrong with the gear wheels. At this time, he can look in his bicycle repair book and read about gears. He can talk to his friends at the bike shop. He can look at his gears carefully.

After studying the problem, the person should have several suggestions for a possible solution. Take Sam as an illustration again. His suggestions might be: put oil on the gear wheels; buy new gear wheels and replace the old ones; tighten or loosen the gear wheels.

Eventually, one suggestion seems to be the solution to the problem. Sometimes the final idea comes very suddenly because the thinker suddenly sees something new or sees something in a new way. Sam might immediately realizes the solution to his problem looking at the gear wheels: he must clean the gear wheels.

Finally, the solution is tested. Sam cleans the gear wheels and finds that afterwards his bicycle works perfectly. In short, he has solved the problem.

- What is the topic of the passage?____________________________________________________________- What is the main idea of the whole passage?____________________________________________________________- What are the details given?____________________________________________________________

25

Exercise: Read the passages below and do as directed.

Passage 1

While computer makers are selling plenty of machines on campuses, many students and professors are still trying to figure out just what to do with them.

A good start is communications. Universities across the country are setting up network aimed at allowing nearly every computer on campus to “talk” to every other computer. Some applications of the networks are simple. Electronic bulletin boards announce study groups, provide class notes for absent students, and give notice of campus activities. Most run classified ads peddling such items as bicycles and stereo sets. At Dartmouth, students can sit in their dorm rooms and submit homework assignments, get help from their professors or check to see what books are in the library.

Other uses are more involved. Engineers and chemists use the network at the University of California at Berkeley to tap the school's supercomputers for help in running complicated simulations. Scholars at Dartmouth soon will have access to the university's central computer, which is being loaded with virtually every known piece of ancient Greek literature, some 300 million characters of data.

Networking can be expensive. Drexel expects to spend $2.24 million building a network with 2,800 “ports,” or connection points, on its campus. Berkeley is investigating $30 million on a 40,000-port operation.

Researchers hope the networks will connect universities with each other. John Hopkins is interested in linking its campuses so that departments such as medicine and bioengineering can exchange more data. “Networks promote the synergy of the work our people do,” says David Binko, director of academic computing at John Hopkins.

Some students, on their own, already have found ways to swap more than just information. Term papers that get A's in one school are being transmitted electronically to grade-hungry students on other campuses.

One student at Drake University has found still another use. She sends messages to her parents by dialing her father's office computer. “I told her dad that we could build in computer commands to make it easy for her to ask for money,” says Bob Lutz, Drake's computer administrator. “He didn't think that was too terrific.”

Directions: Choose the best answer.

1. Which of the following would be the best title for this passage?a. Computer Makers on Campuses.b. The Use of Computers on Campuses.c. How Students Exploit Computers.d. Computer Networks.

2. Which of the following is an example of a simple application of computers on campuses?a. Running complicated simulations.b. Informing about campus activities.c. Loading with every known piece of ancient Greek literature.

26

d. Setting up 2,800 connection points.

3. “that” in the last sentence means ________.a. building in computer commands to make it easy for her to ask for moneyb. sending messages by dialing her father's office computerc. Bob Lutz's comment on the exploitation of computers on campusd. allowing students to use computers on campus

4. Which university is spending $30 million on a 40,000-port operation?a. Drexelb. John Hopkinsc. Berkeleyd. Dartmouth

5. “Other uses are more involved” in paragraph 3 means that other applications of computers _______.

a. are more complexb. involve many people in many universitiesc. use other universities' central computersd. are not as complex as one thinks

Passage 2

One of the youngest independent countries in the Western Hemisphere, Trinidad and Tobago, became a nation on August 31, 1962. For a long time, this nation has attracted tourists—it is the home of calypso music and limbo dancing and in recent years its healthy economy has attracted investors as well.

Trinidad and Tobago is a single country composed of two islands: Trinidad, with the majority of the country's 900,000 inhabitants, is a rectangular of roughly fifty by forty miles; Tobago, nineteen miles to the north, is smaller and has a population of about 35,000.

Situated at the end of the long chain of Windward and Leeward Islands, Trinidad is at one point only seven miles off the coast of Venezuela. Its geology, flora, and fauna are similar to those of the South American mainland. Like Venezuela, the backbone of Trinidad and Tobago's economy is petroleum and its first colonists were Spaniards.

Three mountain ranges, with summits of up to 3,000 feet, cross Trinidad from east to west, while Tobago is a relatively flat island, rimmed with fine beaches. The broad plains between Trinidad's mountain ranges are dominated by vast fields of sugarcane that present a symmetrical green pattern when seen from the air. A closer inspection reveals the coconut plantations along the coast and the profusion of brilliant red and yellow flowers of various species that are found all over the island. Houses on both islands tend to be light-colored, with an open style of architecture, in many cases with open space under the entire dwelling. Port-of-Spain, the capital, is a bustling modern city where the pulse of the people reflects British, Spanish, and East Indian influences.

Directions: Choose the best alternatives.

1. The title below that best expresses the ideas of this passage is _______.a. Trinidad and Tobago, A Young Countryb. Trinidad's Attraction to Tourists

27

c. Sugarcane Productiond. The Location of Trinidad

2. Tobago's area is _________.a. approximately 2000 square milesb. less than 2000 square milesc. 19 miles from Trinidadd. more than 2000 square miles

3. Trinidad's economy depends on _________.a. sugarcaneb. coconutsc. touristsd. oil

4. Sugarcane grows best ___________.a. in mountainous areasb. along the coastc. in valleysd. in coral islands

5. Trinidad's mountains are ____________.a. relatively barrenb. made of coralc. paralleled to the equatord. covered with coconut groves

6. It is likely that the “open space under the entire dwelling” is provided in order to obtain _______.

a. heat form the sunb. a kind of air-conditioningc. protection from tropical vermind. an open style of architecture

28

English Required by Graduate School

Directions: Read the following passages and choose the best answer to each question on the basis of what is stated or implied in each passage.

Passage 1

Laser is an acronym for “light amplification by simulated emission of radiation.” Stimulated emission is a variation of spontaneous emission, a process that occurs in atoms when an electron in a ground, or unexcited state, is knocked into a higher state when energy is applied to the system. As the electron drops back into the ground state, a photon, or particle of light, is released. As de-excitation occurs in millions of atoms, photons are released in a random fashion, and light is emitted in every direction. Stimulated emission, however, causes an increase in the number of photons traveling in

29