Unit 2: The Evolution of Political Parties

Readings:Reserves: Aldrich, LaPalombara and

Weiner, Neumann, Duverger, Kirchheimer, Epstein, Pizzorno.

Why did political parties develop? What is an internally created party? What is an externally created party? What is a cadre party? Mass party? Catch-all

party? How do we explain the evolution of political

parties?

Guiding Questions

Why Parties? The formation of what we

consider modern political parties can be linked to:

1) Growing autonomy of parliaments.◦ Political elites had to ensure

that political decisions could be reached.

2) Expansion of suffrage.◦ Political elites had to appeal

to the masses as the suffrage expands; new types of parties emerge to appeal to new voters.

3) Avenues to political power.◦ Political elites saw a value in

creating political parties as a way to wield political power.

Despite attempts to govern without political parties, they have developed.

The circumstances under which political parties form have critical effects on the political system.

Political parties have evolved to meet changing political and social environments.

Same patterns we observe in developed democracies seen as developing democracies become established.

Why Do We Care?

The Emergence of Political Parties: Cadre Parties (Pre 1890) Duverger (1954)

◦ Cadre parties Neumann (1956)

◦ Parties of individual representation.

Politics centered on connections to aristocracy.◦ Political office doled out as

royal favors of sorts. Difficult to conceive of

modern political parties in this atmosphere.◦ No attempt to appeal to the

masses.

By the 18th century, rule by royal prerogative is disappearing.

Eighteenth century politics centered on conceptions of suffrage based on property.◦ Limited electoral audiences did not require

political platforms that appealed to mass audiences.

But groups did develop within the legislature (i.e. internally created) ◦ Why? To be able to make decisions within the

legislature. Example: Tories vs. Liberals in the UK.

The Emergence of Political Parties: Cadre Parties (Pre 1890)

Constituency organizations relatively weak at this point.◦ Limited suffrage reduced the need for

constituency organization. Temporary electoral committees (or

caucuses) would spring up around election time to promote candidates.◦ Connections are based not on quantity of

members but on quality of connections.◦ Caucuses dissolved in between elections, so the

constituency organizations are not permanent.

The Emergence of the Mass Party:Cadre Parties (Pre 1890)

American Political Parties-Cadre Framers opposed the idea of

political parties (Federalist 10).

Aldrich 1995 Big ticket issues such as

placing the capital, and financial disputes surrounding the Revolution were hotly debated with no resolution.◦ Formation of legislative factions

useful to organize this debate. Members owed position in

both chambers to personal connections rather than mass support.◦ Cadre organization

US parties then begin to “look like” political parties in 1828.

Duverger: 1954 Nascent political parties were a collection of

caucuses roughly tied to parliamentary factions.◦ Initially, not predicated on ideology

As calls for suffrage expand, demands from movements from outside parliament (i.e. working classes) challenge elite dominance

Once cadre parties have to seek support within the electorate, parliamentary factions merge with constituency caucuses.◦ Cadre parties are the norm in a social context that

emphasizes social rather than ideological connections.

◦ Cadre parties are not as viable in an ideologically based political system.

The Emergence of the Mass Party:Cadre Party Challenged

Duverger 1954◦ Mass parties

Neumann 1956◦ Parties of social integration

Growth of working class movements pressured political elites to expand suffrage.

Working class organizations could not rely on legislative connections to express their demands.◦ These parties formed

externally, drawing on mass support.

Caucus form of organization was not viable for these parties; branch organization more appropriate ◦ Members would pay dues and

become active in local branches of the party.

The Emergence of Political Parties: Mass Parties (1890- approx. 1945)

The Emergence of the Political Parties:Contagion from the Left?

Quantity of members key.◦ Mass parties created

cradle to grave organizations for their memberships; party organization always active.

Initially, mass parties were a function of the left◦ Great for mobilization.

Parties of the right began to adopt the branch style of organization in response.

Push for large membership rolls on both sides of the political debate begins the era of mass parties.

Cadre vs. Mass Parties

CADRE PARTIES MASS PARTIES

Internally created Organized via caucuses Constituency

organizations dissolved in between elections

Generally less ideologically charged.

Appeal to elites; “quality” of membership key.

Were predominantly liberal or conservative.

Externally created Organized via branches Constituency

organizations permanently in place.

Generally more ideologically charged.

Appeal to masses; “quantity” of membership key.

Predominantly socialist/social democrat or Christian democrat.

US never develops truly mass based parties per se; party funding never based on dues.

Epstein 1966: ◦ US political parties remain funded by notables but

attempt to appeal to masses. Aldrich 1995:

◦ Van Buren attempted to create a party “bigger than its individuals”.

◦ Created mass based electoral mechanisms to win election in disparate regions; ideological vagueness suited party’s electoral goals.

◦ Whigs follow suit; Whigs and Democrats compete to controls spoils of office.

◦ Arguably collude to prevent the issue of slavery from coming to the forefront.

American Political Parties-Mass

Neumann 1956◦ Parties of total integration

Seek to encapsulate the lives of the citizenry Duverger 1956

◦ Devotee parties A type of mass party.

Aim to enroll the masses but closely guard the “purity” of the movement.

More open than caucuses but more restrictive than mss parties

◦ Typically referred to communist and fascist parties

A Hybrid? Devotee Parties

Organization◦ Communist parties adopt a cell rather than a branch

structure. Branch unites members on the basis of location Cell unites members on the basis of occupation

rather than location. Typically much smaller than branches, intensity of

devotion to cause is key.◦ Fascist parties adopt a militia rather than a branch or

cell approach Militias tend to adopt a more military facade. Involvement not limited to the typically “political”

(i.e. violence/intimidation)

A Hybrid? Devotee Parties

Kirchheimer 1966 Catch all parties:

◦ 1) Mass party in a post ideological state◦ 2) Electoral success trumps ideology.

Major parties cooperate to forestall a rise in political extremism.◦ Socialist parties are finally brought into

government.◦ As socialist parties enter government, class

distinctions begin to wane. Political parties begin to look for votes

“outside their base” to gain political advantage.

The Emergence of Political Parties:Catch All Parties (1945 to approx 1970)

Kirchheimer 1966 Strategy involves:

◦ 1) jettisoning “ideological baggage” ◦ 2) trumpeting efficiency of administration over

ideological goals.◦ 3) reducing the role of individual party member

while boosting the role of the central party.◦ 4) reducing emphasis on classe gardée to pull

votes from other societal groupings.◦ 5) creating channels within various interest

groups to boost electoral support. Only major parties can make this transition.

◦ Not all parties will go this route. Example: Niche parties

The Emergence of Political Parties:Catch All Parties (1945 to approx 1970)

Epstein 1967 Catch all strategy facilitated by new

communications and informational technology (i.e. TV).◦ TV reduces the emphasis on building mass

membership bases. Catch all parties need access to funds to

buy advertising;.◦ No problem for the middle class parties but tough

for working class parties. Parties seek to get the funds necessary to

compete effectively. ◦ Unions become key for parties of the left;

business organizations for parties of the right.

The Emergence of Political Parties:Contagion from the Right?

Consequences of Catch All?

KIRCHHEIMER 1966 EPSTEIN 1967

Problematic. Mass parties provide

critical integration and expressive functions not provided by catch all parties.

Reduced focus on controversial legislation.

Catch all parties may lose their traditional supporters as a result.

Normal. Allows parties to

jettison more ideological components.

Political parties are free to compromise.

Parties can gain freedom from ideological activists or groups.

The Emergence of Political Parties: Electoral-Professional Parties

PANEBIANCO 1988MASS BUREAUCRATIC

PANEBIANCO 1988ELECTORAL PROFESSIONAL

Emphasize an elected bureaucracy.

Appeal to ‘electorate of belonging’

Internal leaders are “critical”

Financing through membership dues.

Emphasize ideology.

Emphasize political professionals in campaigns.

Appeal to ‘opinion electorate’

Public leadership is “critical”

Financing through public funds and/or interest groups.

Emphasize leadership and specific issues.

Pizzorno 1981 Convergence: Party statements and

policies look different to party specialists and activists but not to the electorate.◦ Linked to adoption of catch-all strategies as well

as full expansion of the suffrage. External pressure groups have been

accepted into the system; their demands have now become “negotiable”

May reduce ideological spread between governing parties.◦ But some argue this fosters disillusionment.

Consequences of Catch All?Policy Convergence

US political parties are typically viewed as cadre parties.◦ Mass parties never caught on in the US◦ Although both the Democrats and Republicans

typically make “catch-all type” electoral appeals. Aldrich 1995:

◦ Suggests evidence of convergence until the 1970’s.◦ Highlights the role of supporters and activists to

both major political parties. Present era: seeing a return to ideological

differentiation amongst the major parties.

American Political Parties: Catch All

Should point out that these are ideal types.◦ Some overlap between eras.◦ Some systems have parties with many different organizational

types. Example: Canada

◦ One organizational type has not necessarily “won out” across all democratic systems.

Convergence occurring in advanced democracies.◦ Developing democracies show a similar pattern once the party

system stabilizes.◦ The typical response has been more elite cooperation across

parties rather than differentiation. Katz and Mair 1997:

◦ New laws have allowed “accepted” parties to “collude” to prevent the rise of new parties and maintain control of the governing apparatus.

It has been argued that the “cartelization” of party systems is prompting a rise in political extremism.

Conclusions: Prelude to Cartel Parties

Game: Primitive Politics Theme: Parties and Membership

◦Readings: Ware CH 2 and D/W Ch 5

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