Red Cross in Imperial China

1904-19129/13/2012

By: Yannan (Lukia) LiEmail: li34@umail.iu.edu

International Red Cross

• A production of the first Geneva Convention, 1863: for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field.

• On August 22, 1864, representatives of 12 states and kingdoms signed the convention.

• The convention established legally binding rules guaranteeing neutrality and protection for wounded soldiers, field medical personnel, and specific humanitarian institutions in an armed conflict.

International Red Cross

• Two specific requirements for the recognition by the International Committee:

o The national government of the respective country must be a state party to the Geneva Convention. 　

o The national society must be recognized by its own national government as a relief society according to the convention.

- national and international

A Question in Mind…

• How did Chinese Red Cross society, a nongovernmental, voluntary organization with a national focus and an international identification, fit into the late Qing society?o Why it burgeoned in the late Qing dynasty? And why Red Cross

Society?o How was it fitted into the imperial system? How did the public and

private sectors react to it?

Primary Sources• Correspondences and news articles published on

Shunbao• Achieved imperial orders

Late Qing • 1861: Emperor Tongzhi and Self-strengthening

Movement• 1861: Empress Dowager Cixi in power• 1901-1911: Late Qing reform

o Government o Military o Education systemo Political systemo Failure:

• weak financial conditions • social and cultural conservatism • lack of coordination• foreign economic exploitation and foreign imperialism

• 1905: termination of national examination system• 1908: death of Cixi and Guangxu Emperor; Puyi

ascended the throne • April, 1911: General Yuan Shikai in power• October, 1911: Xinhai Revolution, creation of the

Republic of China, capital in Nanjing with Sun Yat-sen as its provisional head.

• 1912: Empress Dowager Longyu abdicated Puyi

The Fall of Qing• Mass civil disorders:- 1850-1864: The Taiping Rebellion- 1899-1901: The Boxer Uprising

• Wars and unequal treaties- 1839-1842: The First Opium War - Treaty of Nanjing- 1856-1860: Second Opium War - Treaty of Tientsin- 1894-1895: First Sino-Japanese War - Treaty of

Shimonoseki - 1900: Eight-Nation Alliance- 1904-1905: Russo-Japanese War (in China)

Early Discussions• Military confrontation between China and Japan in

Taiwan, 1874o 1st article on Red Cross volunteers in Franco-Prussian War

• 1874 to 1894: Red Cross hospitals in northern Chinao Established by Western missionaries and doctors

• First Sino-Japanese War, 1894o Yingkou: field hospital under unofficial Red Cross rubrico ICRC sent medicine and donations to Chinao Japanese Red Cross o Shenbao’s coverage

• Sun Gan’s memorial to the Minister to Japan:“As a civilized country in Asia, China does not participate in such benevolent act [of forming Red Cross society], while all other countries did. It will only make the Westerners despise us further. We must consider it seriously as it is important for our national dignity.”

• Benefitso Promote military moraleo Win respecto Public health support during disasterso Advance the Chinese medical science

The Japanese ModelJapan• Adapted to the modern technology and warfare• Active in the international community• The first Asian country to join the treaty of

Geneva Convention

Japanese Red Cross• Centralized• Controlled by the Ministry of War and supplement

the military• Sponsored by the royal family

First Hague Peace Conference, 1899• Chief delegate Yang Ru:

“Show the world that China is committed to philanthropy just like other countries.”

• Government takes the lead• Supervised by the throne• Public fundraising• Financial sustainability• Instill civic virtues• Modeled with Western standards

to provide long-term, sustainable services

• Utilize international conventions for protection

Manchuria Red Cross Benevolent Society• Russo-Japanese war in the three eastern

provinces within Manchuria, 1904o Qing government claimed neutrality

• Manchuria Red Cross Benevolent Societyo Founded by patriotic merchants in Shanghai o Constitution:- Follows the regulation and protocol of ICRC;- Asks foreign embassies to notify their troops to respect its neutrality; - Appeals for the military protection from Russia, Japan and China;- Elects Western board to contact missionaries in the three provinces and

to reduce external intervention;- The society is a private endeavor but the committee is looking for

support and guidance from the central and regional administrations;- Provides stipend to cover travelling expenses of volunteers;

International Red Cross Society of Shanghai (IRCSS)• 35 western board members, 10 Chinese• English as the official language

Governmental Support• Close relationships with ministry level officials• Foreign Ministry and Business Ministry: diplomatic

negotiations • Senior officials: fundraising• Regional officials: local coordination • The throne: “covert” to explicit support• Sheng Xuanhuai , Lu Haihuan, and Wu Zhongxi

The 1907 Petition• Reviewed the services of IRCSS from 1904 to

1907• Appealed for governmental supervision• Post-war medical training and education

Post-War Services• IRCSS: dissolved by the court in 1908• 1908-1910: Chinese Red Cross Society (CRCS)• 1910: the edict to rename it to Great Qing Red

Cross Society (Da Qing Hongshizihui) o Subordinated to the Ministry of Waro President: Sheng Xuanhuaio Opposed by Shen Dunhe, the founder and president of CRCS

Critiques• Public? Private? • Shen:

“…from the very beginning the society was led by gentry, and [the fact] was acknowledged by the nation and the international community.”

• Tensiono expedient solution v.s. regular systemo Internationalize v.s. indigenize

Chinese Red Cross, 1904-1912• 1894-1895: Sino-Japan war (Jiawu

Zhanzhen)o Western Red Cross activities in Liaoning

• 1904-1905: Russo-Japanese War o March, 1904: International Red Cross Society of Shanghai

(Shanghai Wanguo Hongshizihui)o June, 1904: Qing signed Geneva Conventions, China became

an official member of ICRC.

• Post Russo-Japanese Waro 1906: China adhered to the new Geneva Conventionso 1908-1910: Chinese Red Cross Society o 1910: Great Qing Red Cross Society (Da Qing Hongshizihui) o 1912: new Red Cross constitution, Unification Conference

Joint Initiative• Government – “acquiescent” facilitator

o Building legitimacy o Coordinating national operationo Facilitating public fundraisingo Patronizing

• Individuals – the main playero Networking and mobilizingo Moderation national and international relationso Fundraising and distributingo Transporting people and materials

Transformation to Modern Philanthropy• Catalyzed by the pressing needs• Convergence of philanthropic tradition and the

Western model of humanitarian aid• A vibrant civic sphere that was ready for change• New technology

Philanthropic Traditions (Ming and

Qing)• widespread, yet sporadic • regional • responsive • Focused on lineage and neighborhood• Funders: local merchants, gentry and literati

Limitations • Lack of legitimacy • Insufficient in cross-regional cooperation

Geographical Root • Center(s) of modern philanthropy• Earliest experiment: China Relief Benevolent

Society

Civic Sphere• Confucian ideal of serving the general public• Nationalism and patriotism

o Conservatives: culturocentrismo Progressives/internatonalists: modernization and civilizationo National solidarity: survive Social Darwinism

• Individual responsibilityo Manifested patriotism through non-governmental bodies

Technologies• Railway, steamer and automobile• Telegraph• Media

Path in the Court• Bureaucratic entanglement• Gentry-official “lobbyists” • Attitudes of the throne

o Moral imperative o To earn International recognition o To follow the trendo To leverage international influence

Medical philanthropy• To cure the nation by curing individuals

Why Red Cross?• Medical focus• Modern organizational model • Privilege of neutrality

• Government: Retain control and join the global community

• Individual:Strengthen the fragile nation

Question • Given the victory of Shen Dunhe in retaining the

autonomy of Chinese Red Cross, it seems that the civil society is more likely to thrive under a “weak” government. Do you agree with it or not? And why?