Reduction of Dustfall and Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) … · 2017. 11. 14. · of TSP was...

International Journal of Applied Environmental Sciences

ISSN 0973-6077 Volume 12, Number 11 (2017), pp. 1927-1938

© Research India Publications

http://www.ripublication.com

Reduction of Dustfall and Total Suspended

Particulate (TSP) Generation from Alluvial Soil

Surface

A.S. Yuwono1, F. Khoirunnisa1, M. Fauzan1, Iskandar2 and R.A.Regia3

1Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB) PO Box 220 Bogor. 16002, Bogor, Indonesia.

2Dept. of Soil Science and Land Resources, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Indonesia.

3Dept. of Environmental Engineering, Andalas University, Indonesia

Abstract

The main environmental pollution is the decreasing of air quality as caused by

dustfall and total suspended particulate (TSP) generation from soil surface. This

research was conducted to analyze the correlation between dustfall and TSP

generation along with soil moisture, wind speed, and land coverage of alluvial

soil, to compare the generation of dustfall and TSP before and after reduction,

and to analyze the size distribution of dustfall and TSP. The gravimetric method

was implemented based on the national standard, which are SNI 13-4703-1998

and SNI 19-7119.3-2005. The result shows that the average dustfall generation

before reduction was 5 ton/km2/month whereas after the reduction was 4

ton/km2/month. The average TSP generation before reduction was 33 µg/Nm3

whereas after reduction is 24 µg/Nm3. Positive correlation is formed between

dustfall and TSP generation with wind speed, but no correlation is formed with

soil moisture and land cover. The particle size’s distribution of 2.5 µm, 2.5-10

µm and >10 µm were 97.2%, 94.4% and 8.4%, respectively.

Keywords: dustfall, land cover, reduction, TSP, soil moisture, wind speed.

1928 A.S. Yuwono, F. Khoirunnisa, M. Fauzan, Iskandar, R.A.Regia

INTRODUCTION

The main environmental pollution is the degradation of air quality that is caused by the

dustfall and total suspended particulate (TSP) generation from soil surface. Both are

ambient air quality parameters that are stipulated in Indonesia through the Government

Regulation (GR Nr. 41/1999) on Air Pollution Control. Therefore, they must be

presented to explain the environmental baseline assessment or air quality.

Dustfall are consisted of rough solid and liquid particle, with aerodynamic diameter

(>10 μm) are collected through gravitational settling by using a container with opened

mouth bottle for a designated time [15]. According to Liu et al. [12], TSP is a part of

particulate matter (PM) with diverse sources and its composition is a combination of

inorganic ions, trace elements, elemental carbons (black soot), crustal materials,

organic compounds, and biological matters [5]. The finer parts of solid fraction of

airborne pollutants are particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than 10 are

also known as PM10 while the ones that are less than 2.5 μm are also known as PM2.5.

In order to increase the air quality, dustfall and suspended particulate generation must

be reduced. It could be done by watering the soil surface to increase the soil moisture

and planting paddy as land cover. Through this research, correlation between dustfall

and TSP generation with soil moisture, wind speed, land cover from alluvial soil will

be analysed along with the comparison of dustfall and TSP generation before and after

reduction and also size distribution of dustfall and TSP.

TIME AND VENUE

This research was conducted from February to April 2017. During the analysis process,

dustfall and TSP generation were measured by using laboratory scale. The gravimetric

analysis was executed in Water and Air Quality Laboratory at SEAMEO Biotrop,

Bogor. Sample of soil was taken from Pasar Ambon, Bandar Lampung Municipality.

MATERIALS AND INSTRUMENTS

The materials and instruments that were used during the laboratory experiments were

dustfall canister [model AS-2011-1], high volume air sampler [Staplex-USA TFIA-2],

blower [Hercules Ø=24’’; 220 V; 50 Hz; 170 W], digital anemometer, thermometer and

humidity meter [Lutron AM-4201], digital moisture tester [OGA model TA-5], tunnel

[7.6 m length; 0.76 m width; 2.4 m height], analytical balance [Sartorius], Petri dish

(Ø= 80 mm), universal oven UNB 400, desiccator [Automatic Temperature Change],

tray 80 cm x 60 cm, tweezers [Retz], microscope [MD 3000 Binocular], filter paper 10

μm (Whatmann #41), filter paper (TGAGF 41), soil sample, paddy [Ciherang variety],

distillation water.

Reduction of Dustfall and Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) Generation… 1929

Measurement of Dustfall and Suspended Particulate

Dustfall and TSP generation were calculated through the gravimetric analysis, where

the difference between the weight of the paper filter before and after it was inserted into

the dustfall canister and high volume air sampler is considered. Both dustfall and TSP

were controlled by these elements: wind speed, soil, moisture, and land cover. The

flowchart of this research is presented on Figure 2, while the experiment’s scheme is

presented on Figure 2.

Figure 1. Research framework

Figure 2. Schematic experimental in tunnel [9]


Dustfall generation is measured based on the national standard titled SNI 13-4703-1998

on determining the level of dust in the air by using dustfall canister, while the generation

of TSP was measured based on the SNI 19-7119.3-2005 on testing method for total

suspended particle using high volume air sampler (HVAS) with gravimetric method.

The required duration to measure the dustfall in tunnel is 12 hours while the

measurement of TSP only requires 1 hour. The wind speed that was used for the

measurement process was 0.7 m/s, 1.0 m/s, and 1.2 m/s. However, the temperature and

relative humidity changed relatively. The flow rate that was used for the HVAS was

from 1.2 to 1.5 m3/min. To calculate the dustfall generation the first formula (Formula

1) was used, while the second formula (Formula 2) was used to calculate the TSP

generation.

𝐶 =W

A 𝑥

30

T (1)

𝐶2 = 𝐶1 𝑥 (t1

t2)0.185 (2)

Where “C” is dustfall generation in the ambient air [ton/km2/month], “W” is dustfall

mass accumulated on the filter [ton], “A” is surface area of dustfall canister [km2], “T”

is measurement elapse time [day], “C2” is standard concentration [µg/Nm3], C1 is

particulate concentration in ambient air [µg/Nm3], “t1” is momentary exposure time

[hour], and “t2” is standard exposure time [hour].

Reduction dustfall and TSP

Dustfall and TSP were reduced by watering with water and paddy planting. The type

of paddy that used was Ciherang varieties. The percentages of land cover that used were

10%, 20%, 30% and 40%. The height of paddy was around 15 cm and needed 2 weeks

until fertile. The soil moisture that used was 15%, 18% and 21%. Dustfall and TSP

generations before reduction using soil moisture were around 15%. The number of

dustfall and suspended particulate generation before reduction compared with dustfall

and suspended particulate after reduction.

Measurement of Particle Size Distribution

To measure the particle size distribution, a complete digital microscope was used along

with a camera that was put above the object glass. The object glass itself was placed on

the edge of the dustfall canister. A computer was used to show the result which can also

save the images. The distance of object in pictures was calculated by using Corel Draw.

Then, the collected are input to Microsoft Excel to obtain the particle’s diameter, which

are later used to classify the dustfall and TSP, in μm unit.


RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Correlation dustfall and total suspended particulate (TSP) with soil moisture,

wind speed and land cover

Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) is a complex mixture of solid particles, liquid or

both in the air and contains inorganic and organic substances [10]. The diameter of TSP

is less than 100 μm [20], whereas according to EPA the size ranges 0.1-30 μm [23].

The correlation of TSP generations with soil moisture and wind speed is presented in

Figure 3.

(a) (b)

Figure 3. Correlation between TSP generations

and soil moisture (a) and wind speed (b)

Reduction Dustfall and Total Suspended Particulate

Based on Figure 3 (a), the lowest TSP generation is 18 µg/Nm3 when the wind speed

0.7 m/s and soil moisture 21.5%. The results of long term precipitation measurement of

pollutants (monthly, quarterly, and annual periods) are the basis of the assessment of

pollution trends on covered areas [4]. High soil moisture will affect TSP generation.

Based on the result, the correlation between TSP and soil moisture is negative. The

highest R2 from the Figure 3 was 0.999. The level of influence of the wind speed and

soil moisture content on dustfall generation is represented by the R-Sq value [22].

Based on Figure 3 (b), the generation TSP generation is 50 when the wind speed is at

1.2 m/s and soil moisture is at 15.3%. It proves that when the wind speed is high, the

suspended particle generation is relatively large. The local persistent dust sources and

simultaneously evaluate the most related synoptically parameters to dust emission, such

y = -24.31ln(x) + 92.08

R² = 0.992

y = -17.12ln(x) + 81.626

R² = 0.999

y = -19.67ln(x) + 102.7

R² = 0.985

15

25

35

45

55

14 16 18 20 22

TS

P (

µg/N

m3)

Soil Moisture (%)

Wind Speed 0.7

m/sWind Speed 1.0

m/sWind Speed 1.2

m/s

y = 6.2591e1.575x

R² = 0.9952

y = 6.4883e1.628x

R² = 0.9947

y = 10.9e1.2159x

R² = 0.9993

15

25

35

45

55

0.5 0.8 1.1 1.4

TS

P (

µg/N

m3)

Wind Speed (m/s)

Soil Moisture

21%Soil Moisture

18%


as temperature, wind speed, and number of dusty days [7]. The correlation between

dustfall generation with soil moisture and speed is shown on Figure 4.

(a) (b)

Figure 4. The correlation between dustfall generations and soil moisture (a) and wind

speed (b).

Based on Figure 4 (a), the lowest dustfall generation was 2 tons/km2/month when the

wind speed was 0.7 m/s and soil moisture was 21.5%. The highest dustfall generation

when the wind speed was 1.2 m/s and soil moisture content 15.3% was 9

tons/km2/month. If the generation of dustfall was tested on the field, the obtained result

might be different from the ones that were conducted in laboratory due to the influence

of non-uniform vegetation type, meteorological factors, C-organic content of the soil,

unstable soil moisture content, and wind speed [22]. According to Amaliah et al. [1]

and Yuwono et al. [21], the increase in soil water content will decrease the number of

dustfall generation.

According to Yuwono et al. [22], the highest the number of dustfall generation was 26

tons/km2/month for Regosol soil and 18 tons/km2/month for red yellow Grumusol soil.

High generation of dust into the ambient air is affected by four things: strong wind, dry

soil, sparse vegetation, and saltating particles [13].

Based on Figure 4 (b), the high dustfall generation will affect the wind speed. The

generation of dust fall is positively correlated with wind speed. At higher wind speeds

and larger values of the friction velocity, both the re-entrainment of particles that

became lodged in the floor at low speeds [17]. The correlation of dustfall and TSP

generation and land cover is presented on Figure 5.

y = -0.2621x + 8.0494

R² = 0.9986

y = -0.3658x + 11.808

R² = 0.9621

y = -0.333x + 13.774

R² = 0.9998

2

4

6

8

10

14 16 18 20 22

Du

stfa

ll (

ton

/km

2.m

nth

)

Soil moisture(%)

Wind Speed 0.7 m/s

Wind Speed 1.0 m/s

Wind Speed 1.2 m/s

y = 6.2106ln(x) + 4.8354

R² = 0.8994

y = 8.6024ln(x) + 5.816

R² = 0.9496

y = 8.0626ln(x) + 6.8458

R² = 0.9923

2

4

6

8

10

0.5 0.8 1.1 1.4

Du

stfa

ll (

ton

/km

2.m

on

th)

Wind Speed (m/s)

Soil moisture

21%Soil moisture

18%


Figure 5. The correlation between dustfall and TSP generation and land cover

When the soil moisture was 18.8% and wind speed was 1.2 m/s, the dustfall and TSP

generation were 8 tons/km2/month and 45 µg/Nm3. Both were measure when the soil

moisture of the land cover was 15% and wind speed was 1.2 m/s. Other percentages of

land cover were used to measure the dustfall generation, which are 10%, 20%, 30% and

40%. The result shows that the dustfall generation were 6 tons/km2/month, 5

tons/km2/month, 3 tons/km2/month and 2 tons/km2/month respectively. Meanwhile the

TSP generation that was measured after the reduction with land cover at 10%, 20%,

30% and 40% were 38 µg/Nm3, 25 µg/Nm3, 20 µg/Nm3 and 13 µg/Nm3, respectively.

According to previous research [2] the wind speed is known to be positively correlated

with dustfall generation, while soil moisture and land cover is negatively correlated

with dustfall generation. Higher vegetation cover results in higher surface roughness

length and less dust emission, thereby reducing dust storm occurrence [14].

Soil texture is an important factor in soil erodibility because soil texture determines the

consistence, cohesion, and mobility of the soil [16]. Based on tests performed in the

Soil and Plant Laboratory, SEAMEO Biotrop, alluvial soil texture has the composition

of sand, dust and clay were 57.9%, 18.2% and 23.9%. Because alluvial soils that are

used tend to be a lot of sand then based on studies of [8] the sandy surfaces produced

the least amounts of dust. The composition of organic C in alluvial soil was 0.56%.

The comparison between dustfall and TSP generations before and after reduction

Fugitive dust emissions can be managed by a range of inclusive strategies consisted of:

y = -0.794x + 43.45

R² = 0.96

y = -2.995ln(x) + 13.376

R² = 0.9785

2

4

6

8

10

08

16

24

32

40

0 10 20 30 40 50

Du

stfa

ll (

ton

/km

2.m

on

th)

TS

P (

µg/N

m3)

Land Cover (%)

TSP Dustfall


chemical stabilization using surfactants, planting of vegetation cover, construction of

wind breaks, and finally, watering. The application of chemical material provides

longer periods of dust suppression than watering, but can be costly, adversely affect

plant and animal life, and contaminate the treated material [17].

Reduction Dustfall and Total Suspended Particulate

Watering is the most common and affordable method. Unfortunately, there are few

guidelines concerning the amount and frequency of watering needed to either reduce or

prevent the emission of dust [17]. The comparison between dustfall generations based

on the national standard with dustfall generation before and after reduction is presented

on Figure 6.

Figure 6. The comparison between dustfall generation in national standard with

dustfall generation before and after reduction

According to the Government Regulation (GR) 1999, the dustfall generation for 30 days

is 10 tons/km2/month. Based on Figure 8, generation of dustfall was reduced by 1

ton/km2/month. Reduction efforts testing were carried out by using the land covered of

rice field in Ciherang. According GR1999, TSP generation for 24 hours is 230 µg/Nm3.

The comparison between TSP generation in national standard with TSP generation

before and after reduction is presented in Figure 7.

10

5

4

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

dustfall generation national standar (PP

RI 1999)

average of dustfall generation before

reduction

average of dustfall generation before

reduction

Du

stfa

ll (

ton

/km

2.m

on

th)


Figure 7. The comparison between TSP generation in national standard with TSP

generation before and after reduction

Based on Figure 7, the difference of TSP generation before and after the reduction

process is 9 µg/Nm3. The magnitude of the generated TSP reduction is considerable

land cover by using a variation of 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%. The increasing of land

cover proven effective to reduce dust (particulate matter) generated from the soil [18].

The increasing of land cover is proven effective in reducing dust (particulate matter) as

generated by the soil.

The size distribution of dustfall and TSP

Size distribution, composition, and shape of dustfall in the air will affect the

environment [6]. Particulate matter suspended in the atmospheric air that has

aerodynamic diameter less than 10 micron refers to respirable suspended particulate

matter (RSPM) or PM10. These particulate are small enough to be inhaled deeply into

respiratory tract and pulmonary system of human beings and pose health related

problems to person inhaling it [11]. Particle size distribution is presented on Table 1.

Table 1. The size distribution of particle

Size of

particulate

(µm)

Size distribution of particulate (%)

Without land cover With Land cover

< 2.5

2.5-10

> 10

60.8

35.3

3.9

36.4

59.1

4.5

230

3324

0

50

100

150

200

250

TSP generation national standar

(PP RI 1999)

average of TSP generation

before reduction

average of TSP generation

before reduction

TS

P (

µg/N

m3

)


Based on Table 1, the size distribution for diameter < 2.5 µm, 2.5-10 µm and > 10 µm

are 97.2%, 94.4% and 8.4% respectively. The size distribution of alluvial particle is

from 2.5 μm to 10 μm. Because of its small diameter, PM2.5 could sediment in lung and

due to its large surface area, toxins including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)

and heavy metals is absorbed onto the surface. Organs such as lung and heart, cells and

DNA could be damaged by these toxins [3].

CONCLUSION

The conclusions of this research are as follow:

1. The generations of dustfall and TSP correlated positively with wind speed but

correlated negatively with soil moisture and land cover.

2. The average of dustfall generation before reduction was 5 tons/km2/month

whereas after reduction was 4 tons/km2/month. The average of TSP generation

before reduction was 33 µg/Nm3 whereas after reduction was 24 µg/Nm3.

3. Particle size distribution of 2.5 µm, 2.5-10 µm and >10 µm particles are 97.2%,

94.4% and 8.4% respectively.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The research was conducted with financial support from The Ministry of Research,

Technology and Higher Education, Republic of Indonesia, under PUPT research grant

scheme in Bogor Agricultural University (IPB).

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