Reference Tables for Physical Setting/Earth ScienceO N G I S L A N D S O U N D C H A M P L A I N...

Heat energy gained during melting . . . . . . . . . . 334 J/g

Heat energy released during freezing . . . . . . . . 334 J/g

Heat energy gained during vaporization . . . . . 2260 J/g

Heat energy released during condensation . . . 2260 J/g

Density at 3.98°C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0 g/mL

New York State Fossil

2011 EDITIONThis edition of the Earth Science Reference Tables should be used in theclassroom beginning in the 2011–12 school year. The first examination forwhich these tables will be used is the January 2012 Regents Examination inPhysical Setting/Earth Science.

The University of the State of New York • THE STATE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT • Albany, New York 12234 • www.nysed.gov

Reference Tables forPhysical Setting/EARTH SCIENCE

Eccentricity = distance between focilength of major axis

Gradient =change in field value

distance

Density =mass

volume

Rate of change =change in value

time

Equations

RADIOACTIVEISOTOPE

DISINTEGRATION HALF-LIFE(years)

Carbon-14

Potassium-40

Uranium-238

Rubidium-87

C14

K40

U238

Rb87

N14

Pb206

Sr87

5.7 × 103

1.3 × 109

4.5 × 109

4.9 × 1010

Ar40

Ca40

Specific Heats of Common MaterialsRadioactive Decay Data

Properties of Water

Average Chemical Compositionof Earth’s Crust, Hydrosphere, and Troposphere

MATERIAL SPECIFIC HEAT(Joules/gram • °C)

Liquid water 4.18

Solid water (ice) 2.11

Water vapor 2.00

Dry air 1.01

Basalt 0.84

Granite 0.79

Iron 0.45

Copper 0.38

Lead 0.13

ELEMENT(symbol)

CRUST HYDROSPHERE TROPOSPHEREPercent by mass Percent by volume Percent by volume Percent by volume

Oxygen (O) 46.10 94.04 33.0 21.0

Silicon (Si) 28.20 0.88

Aluminum (Al) 8.23 0.48

Iron (Fe) 5.63 0.49

Calcium (Ca) 4.15 1.18

Sodium (Na) 2.36 1.11

Magnesium (Mg) 2.33 0.33

Potassium (K) 2.09 1.42

Nitrogen (N) 78.0

Hydrogen (H) 66.0

Other 0.91 0.07 1.0 1.0

Eurypterus remipes

Physical Setting/Earth Science Reference Tables — 2011 Edition 2

Gen

eral

ized

Lan

dsc

ape

Reg

ion

s of

New

Yor

k S

tate

Appala

chian

Plat

eau

(Upl

ands

)

Inte

rio

r L

ow

lan

ds

Gre

nvi

lle P

rovi

nce

(Hig

hla

nd

s)

New

Engla

nd P

rovin

ce

(High

lands

)

Atla

ntic

Coa

stal

Pla

in

Alle

ghen

y P

late

au

Erie

-Ont

ario

Low

land

s(P

lain

s)

Tug

Hill

Pla

teau

Adi

rond

ack

Mou

ntai

ns

Lake

Erie

Lake

Ont

ario

Inte

rio

rL

ow

lan

ds

St. L

awre

nce

Low

land

s

ChamplainLowlands Hud

son

Hig

hlan

ds

Man

hatta

n P

rong

The

Cat

skill

s

Taconic Moun

tains

Hudson-Mohawk

Lowlands

Newa

rkLo

wland

s

Maj

or g

eogr

aphi

c pr

ovin

ce b

ound

ary

Land

scap

e re

gion

bou

ndar

y

Sta

te b

ound

ary

Inte

rnat

iona

l bou

ndar

y

Key

N S

WE

020

40

020

4060

80K

ilom

eter

s

Mile

s10

3050

elev

atio

n 1

75 m

LA

KE

43

°

79

°7

8°

77

°

44

°

76

°

45

°75

°7

4°

73

° 45

°

44

° 43

°

42

°

73

°7

2°4

1°

73

°40

°30

'7

3°3

0'

74

°

41

°

75

°

76

°7

7°

78

°7

9°

42

°

elev

atio

n 7

5 m

LAK

E O

NT

AR

IO

JAM

ES

TO

WN

BU

FFA

LO

EL

MIR

A

ITH

AC

A BIN

GH

AM

TO

NS

LID

E M

T.

KIN

GS

TO

N

NE

W Y

OR

KC

ITY

NIA

GA

RA

FA

LL

SR

OC

HE

ST

ER

SY

RA

CU

SE

UT

ICA

OS

WE

GO

OL

D F

OR

GE

VERMONT

PL

AT

TS

BU

RG

H

MT.

MA

RC

Y

MA

SS

EN

A

St. L

awre

nce

Rive

r

Hudson

River

Mo

ha

wk

Riv

er

Rive

r

Su

squ

eh

an

na

Delaw

areRiver

FIN

GE

R

L

AK

ES

CONNECTICUT

NEW

JE

RSE

Y

PE

NN

SY

LV

AN

IA

LAKE

AT

LAN

TIC

OC

EA

N

Mile

s

Kilo

met

ers

Gene

see R

iver

LON

G IS

LAN

DR

IVE

RH

EA

D

River

Hudson

WA

TE

RT

OW

N

050

4030

2010

080

6040

20

MASSACHUSETTS

41

°

AL

BA

NY

ER

IE

LON

GIS

LAN

DS

OU

ND

CHAMPL

AIN


mod

ifie

d fr

omG

EO

LO

GIC

AL

SUR

VE

YN

EW

YO

RK

STA

TE

MU

SEU

M19

89

NiagaraRiver

GE

OL

OG

IC P

ER

IOD

S A

ND

ER

AS

IN N

EW

YO

RK

CR

ETAC

EOU

S an

d PL

EIST

OC

ENE

(Epo

ch) w

eakl

y co

nsol

idat

ed to

unc

onso

lidat

ed g

rave

ls, s

ands

, and

cla

ys

LATE

TR

IASS

IC a

nd E

ARLY

JU

RAS

SIC

con

glom

erat

es, r

ed s

ands

tone

s, re

d sh

ales

, bas

alt,

and

diab

ase

(Pal

isad

es s

ill)

PEN

NSY

LVAN

IAN

and

MIS

SISS

IPPI

AN c

ongl

omer

ates

, san

dsto

nes,

and

sha

les

DEV

ON

IAN

limes

tone

s, s

hale

s, s

ands

tone

s, a

nd c

ongl

omer

ates

SILU

RIA

NSI

LUR

IAN

also

con

tain

s sa

lt, g

ypsu

m, a

nd h

emat

ite.

OR

DO

VIC

IAN

limes

tone

s, s

hale

s, s

ands

tone

s, a

nd d

olos

tone

sC

AMBR

IAN

CAM

BRIA

N a

nd E

ARLY

OR

DO

VIC

IAN

san

dsto

nes

and

dolo

ston

es

mod

erat

ely

to in

tens

ely

met

amor

phos

ed e

ast o

f the

Hud

son

Rive

rC

AMBR

IAN

and

OR

DO

VIC

IAN

(und

iffer

entia

ted)

qua

rtzite

s, d

olos

tone

s, m

arbl

es, a

nd s

chis

tsin

tens

ely

met

amor

phos

ed; i

nclu

des

porti

ons

of th

e Ta

coni

c Se

quen

ce a

nd C

ortla

ndt C

ompl

exTA

CO

NIC

SEQ

UEN

CE

sand

ston

es, s

hale

s, a

nd s

late

ssl

ight

ly to

inte

nsel

y m

etam

orph

osed

rock

s of

CAM

BRIA

N th

roug

hM

IDD

LE O

RD

OVI

CIA

N a

ges

MID

DLE

PR

OTE

RO

ZOIC

gne

isse

s, q

uartz

ites,

and

mar

bles

Line

s ar

e ge

nera

lized

stru

ctur

e tre

nds.

MID

DLE

PR

OTE

RO

ZOIC

ano

rthos

itic

rock

s

} }

}} }Dominantly sedimentary origin Dominantly metamorphosed

rock

s

Inte

nsel

y m

etam

orph

osed

rock

s(re

gion

al m

etam

orph

ism

abo

ut 1

,000

m.y.

a.)

N S

WE

020

40

020

4060

80K

ilom

eter

s

Mile

s10

3050

Gen

eral

ized

Bed

rock

Geo

logy

of

New

Yor

k S

tate


Su

rfac

e O

cean

Cu

rren

ts


Peru-

Chile TrenchH

awai

iH

ot S

pot

San

And

reas

Fau

lt

Juan

de

Fuc

a P

late

Phi

lippi

neP

late

Ale

utia

nT

renc

hY

ello

wst

one

Hot

Spo

t

Nor

th A

mer

ican

Pla

te

Afr

ican

Pla

teC

ocos

Pla

teC

arib

bean

Plat

e

Mid-A

tlanti

cRidge C

anar

yIs

land

sH

ot S

pot

Sout

hA

mer

ican

Pla

te

Gal

apag

osH

ot S

pot

Naz

caP

late

Ant

arct

icP

late

Indi

an-A

ustr

alia

nP

late

Pac

ific

Pla

teF

iji P

late

Eas

tPaci

ficRidge

Ant

arct

icP

late

Arabia

n

Plate

Eur

asia

nP

late

Eur

asia

nP

late

Icel

and

Hot

Spo

t

EastAfricanRift

Mid

-Indian Ridge So

uthe

ast

Indi

anR

idge

Sout

hwes

t Ind

ian

Ridg

eSc

otia

Pla

te

Sand

wic

hP

late

Mid-AtlanticRidge

Eas

ter

Isla

ndH

ot S

pot

St.

Hel

ena

Hot

Spo

t

Bou

vet

Hot

Spo

t

Key

NO

TE

:N

ot a

ll m

antle

hot

spo

ts, p

late

s, a

ndbo

unda

ries

are

show

n.

Com

plex

or

unce

rtai

npl

ate

boun

dary

Rel

ativ

e m

otio

n at

plat

e bo

unda

ryM

antle

hot s

pot

Div

erge

nt p

late

bou

ndar

y(u

sual

ly b

roke

n by

tran

sfor

mfa

ults

alo

ng m

id-o

cean

rid

ges)

Con

verg

ent p

late

bou

ndar

y(s

ubdu

ctio

n zo

ne)

subd

uctin

gpl

ate

over

ridin

gpl

ate

Tran

sfor

m p

late

bou

ndar

y(t

rans

form

faul

t)

Tec

ton

ic P

late

s

Tas

man

Hot

Spo

t

M

ariana Tr

ench

TongaTrench


Ero

s ion

Wea

ther

ing

&E

rosi

on(U

plift

)

Metam

orphism

MeltingSo

lidific

atio

nMeltin

gWeather

ing& E

rosion

(Uplift)

Metamorphism

Weathering & Erosion

(Uplift)

Heat and/or Pressure

Heatand /or

Pressure

Melting

Ceme

ntation

and Burial

Comp

action

and/or Deposition

IGNEOUSROCK

SEDIMENTS

MAGMA

METAMORPHICROCK

SEDIMENTARYROCK

0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

1.0

10.0

100.0

PAR

TIC

LE

DIA

ME

TE

R (

cm)

Boulders

Cobbles

Pebbles

Sand

Silt

Clay

1000500

50100

105

10.5

0.10.05

0.01

STREAM VELOCITY (cm/s)

This generalized graph shows the water velocityneeded to maintain, but not start, movement. Variationsoccur due to differences in particle density and shape.

25.6

6.4

0.2

0.006

0.0004

Rock Cycle in Earth’s Crust

Scheme for Igneous Rock Identification

Relationship of TransportedParticle Size to Water Velocity

Pyroxene(green)

Amphibole(black)

Biotite(black)

Potassiumfeldspar

(pink to white)

(rel

ativ

e by

vol

ume)

MIN

ER

AL

CO

MP

OS

ITIO

N

Quartz(clear towhite)

CH

AR

AC

TE

RIS

TIC

S

MAFIC(rich in Fe, Mg)

HIGHER

DARKER

FELSIC(rich in Si, Al)

LOWER

LIGHTER

CRYSTALSIZE

TEXTURE

Pumice

INT

RU

SIV

E(P

luto

nic)

EX

TR

US

IVE

(Vol

cani

c)

EN

VIR

ON

ME

NT

OF

FO

RM

AT

ION

Plagioclase feldspar(white to gray)

Olivine(green)

COMPOSITION

DENSITY

COLOR

100%

75%

50%

25%

0%

100%

75%

50%

25%

0%

IGN

EO

US

RO

CK

S

non-

crys

talli

ne

GlassyBasaltic glassObsidian

(usually appears black)

less

than

1 m

m FineBasaltAndesiteRhyolite

1 m

mto

10

mm

CoarsePeri-dotiteGabbroDioriteGranite

Pegmatite

10 m

mor

larg

er Verycoarse

Scoria Vesicular(gas

pockets)

Du

nit

e

Non-vesicular

Non-vesicular

Vesicular basaltVesicular rhyolite Vesicularandesite

Diabase


INORGANIC LAND-DERIVED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

COMPOSITIONTEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL

Rounded fragments

Angular fragmentsMostlyquartz,feldspar, andclay minerals;may containfragments ofother rocksand minerals

Pebbles, cobbles,and/or bouldersembedded in sand,silt, and/or clay

Clastic(fragmental)

Very fine grain

Compact; may spliteasily

Conglomerate

Breccia

CHEMICALLY AND/OR ORGANICALLY FORMED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Crystalline

Halite

Gypsum

Dolomite

Calcite

Carbon

Crystals fromchemicalprecipitatesand evaporites

Rock salt

Rock gypsum

Dolostone

Limestone

Bituminous coal

. . . . .. . . .

Sand(0.006 to 0.2 cm)

Silt(0.0004 to 0.006 cm)

Clay(less than 0.0004 cm)

Sandstone

Siltstone

Shale

Fine to coarse

COMPOSITIONTEXTURE GRAIN SIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME MAP SYMBOL

Fineto

coarsecrystals

Microscopic tovery coarse

Precipitates of biologicorigin or cemented shellfragments

Compactedplant remains

. . . . .. . . .

Bioclastic

Crystalline orbioclastic

FO

LIA

TE

D

Fine

Fineto

medium

Mediumto

coarse

Regional

Low-grademetamorphism of shale

Platy mica crystals visiblefrom metamorphism of clayor feldspars

High-grade metamorphism;mineral types segregatedinto bands

Slate

Schist

Gneiss

COMPOSITIONTEXTUREGRAINSIZE COMMENTS ROCK NAME

TYPE OFMETAMORPHISM

(Heat andpressureincreases)

MIN

ER

AL

ALI

GN

ME

NT

BA

ND

-IN

G

MAP SYMBOL

Foliation surfaces shinyfrom microscopic micacrystals

Phyllite

GA

RN

ET

PY

RO

XE

NE

FE

LD

SPA

R

AM

PH

IBO

LE

MIC

AQ

UA

RT

Z

Hornfels

NO

NF

OLI

AT

ED

Metamorphism ofquartz sandstone

Metamorphism oflimestone or dolostone

Pebbles may be distortedor stretched

Metaconglomerate

Quartzite

Marble

Coarse

Fineto

coarse

Quartz

Calcite and/ordolomite

Variousminerals

Contact(heat)

Various rocks changed byheat from nearbymagma/lava

VariousmineralsFine

Anthracite coalRegional Metamorphism ofbituminous coalCarbonFine

Regional

or

contact

Scheme for Metamorphic Rock Identification

Scheme for Sedimentary Rock Identification


PLEISTOCENEPLIOCENE

MIOCENE

OLIGOCENE

EOCENE

PALEOCENE

LATE

EARLY

LATEMIDDLE

EARLY

LATE

MIDDLEEARLYLATE

MIDDLE

EARLY

LATE

MIDDLE

EARLY

LATE

MIDDLE

EARLY

LATE

EARLY

LATE

MIDDLE

EARLY

LATE

MIDDLE

EARLY

EARLYLATE

GEOLOGIC HISTORY

ElliptocephalaCryptolithus

Phacops Hexameroceras ManticocerasEucalyptocrinus

CtenocrinusTetragraptus

Dicellograptus EurypterusStylonurus

B LA EC D G HF I J NK M

CentrocerasValcouroceras Coelophysis

(Index fossils not drawn to scale)

EraEon

PH

AN

ER

O-

ZO

ICP

RE

CA

MB

RI

AN

AR

CH

EA

NP

RO

TE

RO

ZO

IC

LATE

LATE

MIDDLE

MIDDLE

EARLY

EARLY

0

500

1000

2000

3000

4000

4600

Million years ago

CENOZOIC

MESOZOIC

PALEOZOIC

QUATERNARY

NEOGENE

PALEOGENE

CRETACEOUS

JURASSIC

TRIASSIC

PERMIAN

CA

RB

ON

IF-

ER

OU

S

DEVONIAN

Period Epoch Life on Earth

SILURIAN

ORDOVICIAN

CAMBRIAN

580

488

444

416

318

299

200

146

Million years ago

NY RockRecord

PENNSYLVANIAN

HOLOCENE

65.5

251

1.85.3

0.010

23.033.9

MISSISSIPPIAN

Humans, mastodonts, mammoths

55.8

Large carnivorous mammalsAbundant grazing mammalsEarliest grasses

Many modern groups of mammalsMass extinction of dinosaurs, ammonoids, and many land plants

Earliest flowering plantsDiverse bony fishes

Earliest birds

Earliest mammals

Mass extinction of many land and marine organisms (including trilobites)

Mammal-like reptiles

Abundant reptiles

Extensive coal-forming forests

Abundant amphibiansLarge and numerous scale trees and seed ferns (vascular plants); earliest reptiles

359Earliest amphibians and plant seedsExtinction of many marine organisms

Earth’s first forestsEarliest ammonoids and sharksAbundant fish

Earliest insectsEarliest land plants and animals

Abundant eurypterids

Invertebrates dominantEarth’s first coral reefs

Burgess shale fauna (diverse soft-bodied organisms)Earliest fishes

Earliest trilobites542

Abundant stromatolites

Ediacaran fauna (first multicellular, soft-bodied marine organisms)

Extinction of many primitive marine organisms

First sexually reproducingorganisms

Oldest known rocks

Estimated time of originof Earth and solar system

Sediment

Bedrock

Abundant dinosaurs and ammonoids

Earliest dinosaurs

Great diversity of life-forms with shelly parts

1300

Evidence of biologicalcarbon

Earliest stromatolitesOldest microfossils

Oceanic oxygenproduced bycyanobacteriacombines withiron, formingiron oxide layerson ocean floor

Oceanic oxygen begins to enterthe atmosphere


Grenville orogeny: metamorphism ofbedrock now exposed in the Adirondacksand Hudson Highlands

Advance and retreat of last continental ice

Sands and clays underlying Long Island andStaten Island deposited on margin of AtlanticOcean

Dome-like uplift of Adirondack region begins

Intrusion of Palisades sill

Initial opening of Atlantic OceanNorth America and Africa separate

Pangaea begins to break up

Catskill delta formsErosion of Acadian Mountains

Acadian orogeny caused by collision ofNorth America and Avalon and closing of remaining part of Iapetus Ocean

Salt and gypsum deposited in evaporite basins

Erosion of Taconic Mountains; Queenston deltaforms

Taconian orogeny caused by closing of western part of Iapetus Ocean and collision between North America and volcanic island arc

Widespread deposition over most of New Yorkalong edge of Iapetus Ocean

Rifting and initial opening of Iapetus Ocean

Erosion of Grenville Mountains

OF NEW YORK STATE

MastodontBeluga Whale

CooksoniaBothriolepis

Maclurites EospiriferMucrospiriferAneurophyton

CondorNaples Tree CystiphyllumLichenaria Pleurodictyum

PO RQ S T U V W X Y Z

Platyceras

Time Distribution of Fossils(including important fossils of New York) Important Geologic

Events in New YorkInferred Positions ofEarth’s Landmasses

ADU (2011)

The center of each lettered circle indicates the approximate time of existence of a specific index fossil (e.g. Fossil lived at the end of the Early Cambrian).

PL

AC

OD

ER

M F

ISH

A

Alleghenian orogeny caused bycollision of North America andAfrica along transform margin,forming Pangaea

119 million years ago





TR

ILO

BIT

ES

C

B

A

BIR

DS

S

E

D

F

NA

UT

ILO

IDS

AM

MO

NO

IDS

G

CR

INO

IDS

H

I

J

K

GR

AP

TO

LIT

ES

L

DIN

OS

AU

RS

MA

MM

AL

S

O

N

EU

RY

PT

ER

IDS

M P

Q

VA

SC

UL

AR

PL

AN

TS

T

U

V

CO

RA

LS

R

BR

AC

HIO

PO

DS

GA

ST

RO

PO

DS

W

X

Y

Z


Inferred Properties of Earth’s Interior

24

23

22

21

20

19

18

17

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

EPICENTER DISTANCE (× 103 km)

P

9 10

S

TR

AV

EL

TIM

E (

min

)

00


Earthquake P-Wave and S-Wave Travel Time

1– 33– 28– 24– 21–18–14–12–10– 7– 5– 3–11468

10121416192123252729

2

– 36– 28– 22–18–14–12– 8– 6– 3–11368

111315171921232527

0– 20–18–16–14–12–10– 8– 6– 4– 2

02468

1012141618202224262830

– 20–18–16–14–12–10– 8– 6– 4– 2

02468

1012141618202224262830

3

– 29– 22–17–13– 9– 6– 4–11469

1113151720222426

4

– 29– 20–15–11– 7– 4– 2

1469

11141618202224

5

– 24–17–11– 7– 5– 2

1479

121416182123

6

–19–13– 9– 5– 2

147

101214171921

7

– 21–14– 9– 5– 2

147

1012151719

8

–14– 9– 5–1248

10131618

9

– 28–16–10– 6– 2

258

111416

10

–17–10– 5–2369

1114

11

–17–10– 5–1269

12

12

–19–10– 5–137

10

13

–19–10– 5

048

14

–19–10– 4

15

15

–18– 9– 3

1

12840485561667173777981838586878888899091919292929393

2

1123334148545863677072747678798081828384858686

0100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100100

– 20–18–16–14–12–10– 8– 6– 4– 2

02468

1012141618202224262830

3

1320323745515659626567697172747576777879

4

112028364246515457606264666869707172

5

111202735394348505456586062646566

6

61422283338414548515355575961

7

10172428333740444649515355

8

61319252933364042454749

9

410162126303336394244

10

28

1419232730343639

11

17

12172125283134

12

16

111520232629

13

51014182125

14

49

131720

15

49

1216

Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)

Difference Between Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures (C°)Dry-BulbTempera -ture (°C)

Dry-BulbTempera -ture (°C)

Dewpoint (°C)

Relative Humidity (%)



Temperature Pressure

One atmosphere

millibars(mb)

inches(in of Hg*)

30.701040.0

1036.0

1032.0

1028.0

1024.0

1020.0

1016.0

1012.0

1008.0

1004.0

1000.0

996.0

992.0

988.0

984.0

980.0

976.0

972.0

968.0

*Hg = mercury

30.60

30.50

30.40

30.30

30.20

30.10

30.00

29.90

29.80

29.70

29.60

29.50

29.40

29.30

29.20

29.10

29.00

28.90

28.80

28.70

28.60

28.50

Key to Weather Map Symbols

196+19/

.25

28

2721

Station ModelStation Model Explanation

196+19/

.25

28

27

12

Amount of cloud cover(approximately 75% covered)

Barometric pressure (1019.6 mb)Barometric trend(a steady 1.9-mb rise in past 3 hours)

Precipitation(0.25 inches in past 6 hours)

Wind direction(from the southwest)

Temperature (°F)

Present weather

Visibility (mi)

Dewpoint (°F)Wind speed

(1 knot = 1.15 mi/h)

whole feather = 10 knotshalf feather = 5 knots

total = 15 knots

Air MassesPresent Weather Fronts Hurricane

Tornado

cAcPcTmTmP

continental arcticcontinental polarcontinental tropicalmaritime tropicalmaritime polar

Cold

Warm

Stationary

OccludedFreezing

rainHaze

Rain

FogSnow

Hail Rainshowers

Thunder-storms

Drizzle

Sleet

Smog

Snowshowers

Fahrenheit(°F)

Celsius(°C)

Kelvin(K)

Water boils220

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0

–20

–40

–60

Room temperature

Water freezes

110

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

–10

–20

–30

–40

–50

380

370

360

350

340

330

320

310

300

290

280

270

260

250

240

230

220


Gamma rays

X rays

Ultraviolet Infrared

Microwaves

Radio waves

Visible light

Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red

Decreasing wavelength Increasing wavelength

(Not drawn to scale)

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Planetary Wind and MoistureBelts in the Troposphere

The drawing on the right shows the locations of the belts near the time of anequinox. The locations shift somewhatwith the changing latitude of the Sun’s vertical ray. In the Northern Hemisphere,the belts shift northward in the summerand southward in the winter.

(Not drawn to scale)

Selected Properties of

Earth’sAtmosphere


Solar System Data

CelestialObject

Mean Distance from Sun

(million km)

Period ofRevolution

(d=days) (y=years)

Period ofRotation at Equator

Eccentricityof Orbit

EquatorialDiameter

(km)

Mass(Earth = 1)

Density(g/cm3)

SUN — — 27 d — 1,392,000 333,000.00 1.4

MERCURY 57.9 88 d 59 d 0.206 4,879 0.06 5.4

VENUS 108.2 224.7 d 243 d 0.007 12,104 0.82 5.2

EARTH 149.6 365.26 d 23 h 56 min 4 s 0.017 12,756 1.00 5.5

MARS 227.9 687 d 24 h 37 min 23 s 0.093 6,794 0.11 3.9

JUPITER 778.4 11.9 y 9 h 50 min 30 s 0.048 142,984 317.83 1.3

SATURN 1,426.7 29.5 y 10 h 14 min 0.054 120,536 95.16 0.7

URANUS 2,871.0 84.0 y 17 h 14 min 0.047 51,118 14.54 1.3

NEPTUNE 4,498.3 164.8 y 16 h 0.009 49,528 17.15 1.8

EARTH’SMOON

149.6(0.386 from Earth)

27.3 d 27.3 d 0.055 3,476 0.01 3.3

Characteristics of Stars(Name in italics refers to star represented by a .)

(Stages indicate the general sequence of star development.)

Color

Surface Temperature (K)

0.0001

0.001

0.01

0.1

1

10

100

1,000

10,000

100,000

1,000,000

Lu

min

osi

ty(R

ate

at w

hich

a s

tar

emits

ene

rgy

rela

tive

to th

e S

un)

20,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 3,000

Blue Blue White White Yellow

2,000

RedOrange

Sirius

Spica

Polaris

Rigel

Deneb Betelgeuse

SUPERGIANTS(Intermediate stage)

(Intermediate stage)GIANTS

Barnard’sStar

ProximaCentauri

Pollux

Alpha Centauri

Aldebaran

Sun

Procyon B SmallStars

MassiveStars

WHITE DWARFS(Late stage)

MAIN SEQUENCE

(Early stage)

40 Eridani B

30,000

1–2�

silver togray

black streak,greasy feel

pencil lead,lubricants C Graphite

2.5 �metallicsilver

gray-black streak, cubic cleavage,density = 7.6 g/cm3

ore of lead,batteries PbS Galena

5.5–6.5 �black to

silverblack streak,

magneticore of iron,

steel Fe3O4 Magnetite

6.5 �brassyyellow

green-black streak,(fool’s gold)

ore ofsulfur FeS2 Pyrite

5.5 – 6.5or 1 �

metallic silver orearthy red red-brown streak

ore of iron,jewelry Fe2O3 Hematite

1 �white togreen greasy feel

ceramics,paper Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 Talc

2 �yellow toamber white-yellow streak sulfuric acid S Sulfur

2 �white to

pink or grayeasily scratched

by fingernailplaster of paris,

drywall CaSO4•2H2O Selenite gypsum

2–2.5 �colorless to

yellowflexible in

thin sheets paint, roofing KAl3Si3O10(OH)2 Muscovite mica

2.5 �colorless to

whitecubic cleavage,

salty tastefood additive,

melts ice NaCl Halite

2.5–3 �black to

dark brownflexible in

thin sheetsconstruction

materialsK(Mg,Fe)3

AlSi3O10(OH)2Biotite mica

3 �colorless

or variablebubbles with acid,

rhombohedral cleavagecement,

lime CaCO3 Calcite

3.5 �colorless

or variablebubbles with acidwhen powdered

buildingstones CaMg(CO3)2 Dolomite

4 �colorless or

variablecleaves in

4 directionshydrofluoric

acid CaF2 Fluorite

5–6 �black to

dark greencleaves in

2 directions at 90°mineral collections,

jewelry(Ca,Na) (Mg,Fe,Al)

(Si,Al)2O6Pyroxene

(commonly augite)

5.5 �black to

dark greencleaves at

56° and 124°mineral collections,

jewelryCaNa(Mg,Fe)4 (Al,Fe,Ti)3

Si6O22(O,OH)2

Amphibole(commonly hornblende)

6 �white to

pinkcleaves in

2 directions at 90°ceramics,

glass KAlSi3O8Potassium feldspar

(commonly orthoclase)

6 �white to

graycleaves in 2 directions,

striations visibleceramics,

glass (Na,Ca)AlSi3O8 Plagioclase feldspar

6.5 �green to

gray or browncommonly light green

and granularfurnace bricks,

jewelry (Fe,Mg)2SiO4 Olivine

7 �colorless or

variableglassy luster, may form

hexagonal crystalsglass, jewelry,

electronics SiO2 Quartz

6.5–7.5 �dark redto green

often seen as red glassy grainsin NYS metamorphic rocks

jewelry (NYS gem),abrasives Fe3Al2Si3O12 Garnet

HARD- COMMON DISTINGUISHINGLUSTER NESS COLORS CHARACTERISTICS USE(S) COMPOSITION* MINERAL NAME

Nonm

etal

lic lu

ster

*Chemical symbols: Al = aluminum Cl = chlorine H = hydrogen Na = sodium S = sulfur C = carbon F = fluorine K = potassium O = oxygen Si = siliconCa = calcium Fe = iron Mg = magnesium Pb = lead Ti = titanium

� = dominant form of breakage

Met

allic

lust

erEi

ther

FRAC

TURE

CLEA

VAG

E

Properties of Common Minerals


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