References. AEB91, Anuario Estatistico do Brazil (1991) IBGE, 51:1-1024, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Ahmed, K., (1993) Renewable Energy Technoloeies: A Review of Status and Costs. World feank, Washington, DC. Ahsan Ul Haye (1988) Country Paper of Baneladesh, in Report of the FAO/ESCAP/UNDP Regional Training Worlshop, Beijing, 1989. Alexander A.G., (1985) The Energy Cañe Alternative, Sugar Series, Vol 6., Elsevier, Amsterdam. Alpert S.B., Spencer, D.F., Hidy G., (1992) Biospheric Options for Mitigatins Atmosphenc Carbón Dioxide Levéis. Energy Conver. and Mgmt. 33 (5-8):729-736. Anón. (1993) Guidelines, "Shell/WWF Tree Plantation Review," SIPC/WWF, 1993. Barren S., (1991) Global Warmine: the Economics of a Carbón Tax.in Ed. Pearce D., Blueprint 2: Greening the World Economy, Earthscan Publ., London. P31-52. Barros N.F Nováis R.F., (Eds), (1990). Relacao Solo-Eucalipto, Universidade Federal de Vicosa, Vicosa, MG. Brazil. 328 pp. Bazett M.D., (1993) Industrial Wood, Study No.3, Shell/WWF Tree Plantation Review, SIPC/WWF, 1993. Bekkering T.D., (1992) Using Tropical Forests to Fix Atmospheric Carbón: The Potential in Theory and Practice. Ambio 21(6):414-419 Betters, D.R., Wright, L.L., and Couto, L. (1991) Short Rotation Woody Crop Plantations in Brazil and the United States. Biomass and Bioenergy. 1:305-316, 1991. Beyea J., Cook J Hall D.O., Socolow R.H., Williams R.H., (1992) Towards Ecological Guidelines for Large-scale Biomass Energy Development, report of a worksnop for engineers, ecologists and policy-makers convenea by the National Audubon Society and Princeton University, May 6, 1991; National Audubon Society, New York. Birdsey R.A., (1992) Changes in Forest Carbón Storage from Increasing Forest Área and Timber Growth. in Forests and Global Change: Volume 1. Eds., Sampson R.N., Hair D., American Forests, P.O. Box 2000, Washington, DC 20013. pp. 23-39. Bolton J R, Hall D O., (1991). The Máximum Efficiency of Photosynthesis, Photochemistry and Photobiology. 53: 545-548. Box, E.O. and Meetemeyer, V. (1991) Geographic mpdelling and modern ecology, ín G.Esser and D. Overdieck, eds., Modern ecology: basic and applied aspects, 773-804, Elsevier, Amsterdam. British Petroleum (1991). B P Statistical Review of World Energy, The British Petroleum Co. Pie, London, U.K. Brown S, Gillespie A J R, Lugo A E., (1991). Biomass in Tropical Forests of South and Southeast Asía. Can. J. For. Research. 21: 111-117. Brown L.R., (1992) World Grain Takes a Spíll. World Watch 5(3):35-36. BUN (Biomass Users Network) and Skills Centre (1991), Biomass Energy Use datábase, Kings College London, London, W8 7AH. BUN. (Biomass Users Network) (1992) Forest Aericulture: The Thai Way. Newsletter 6(2):¿-9, P.O. Box 1800-2100, Guadalupe, Costa Rica. 71
Transcript
References.
AEB91, Anuario Estatistico do Brazil (1991) IBGE, 51:1-1024, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Ahmed, K., (1993) Renewable Energy Technoloeies: A Review of Status and Costs.World feank, Washington, DC.
Ahsan Ul Haye (1988) Country Paper of Baneladesh, in Report of theFAO/ESCAP/UNDP Regional Training Worlshop, Beijing, 1989.
Alexander A.G., (1985) The Energy Cañe Alternative, Sugar Series, Vol 6., Elsevier,Amsterdam.
Alpert S.B., Spencer, D.F., Hidy G., (1992) Biospheric Options for MitigatinsAtmosphenc Carbón Dioxide Levéis. Energy Conver. and Mgmt. 33 (5-8):729-736.
Anón. (1993) Guidelines, "Shell/WWF Tree Plantation Review," SIPC/WWF, 1993.
Barren S., (1991) Global Warmine: the Economics of a Carbón Tax.in Ed. Pearce D.,Blueprint 2: Greening the World Economy, Earthscan Publ., London. P31-52.
Barros N.F Nováis R.F., (Eds), (1990). Relacao Solo-Eucalipto, UniversidadeFederal de Vicosa, Vicosa, MG. Brazil. 328 pp.
Bazett M.D., (1993) Industrial Wood, Study No.3, Shell/WWF Tree PlantationReview, SIPC/WWF, 1993.
Bekkering T.D., (1992) Using Tropical Forests to Fix Atmospheric Carbón: ThePotential in Theory and Practice. Ambio 21(6):414-419
Betters, D.R., Wright, L.L., and Couto, L. (1991) Short Rotation Woody CropPlantations in Brazil and the United States. Biomass and Bioenergy. 1:305-316, 1991.
Beyea J., Cook J Hall D.O., Socolow R.H., Williams R.H., (1992) TowardsEcological Guidelines for Large-scale Biomass Energy Development, report of aworksnop for engineers, ecologists and policy-makers convenea by the NationalAudubon Society and Princeton University, May 6, 1991; National Audubon Society,New York.
Birdsey R.A., (1992) Changes in Forest Carbón Storage from Increasing Forest Áreaand Timber Growth. in Forests and Global Change: Volume 1. Eds., Sampson R.N.,Hair D., American Forests, P.O. Box 2000, Washington, DC 20013. pp. 23-39.
Bolton J R, Hall D O., (1991). The Máximum Efficiency of Photosynthesis,Photochemistry and Photobiology. 53: 545-548.
Box, E.O. and Meetemeyer, V. (1991) Geographic mpdelling and modern ecology, ínG.Esser and D. Overdieck, eds., Modern ecology: basic and applied aspects, 773-804,Elsevier, Amsterdam.
British Petroleum (1991). B P Statistical Review of WorldEnergy, The British Petroleum Co. Pie, London, U.K.
Brown S, Gillespie A J R, Lugo A E., (1991). Biomass in Tropical Forests of Southand Southeast Asía. Can. J. For. Research. 21: 111-117.
Brown L.R., (1992) World Grain Takes a Spíll. World Watch 5(3):35-36.
BUN (Biomass Users Network) and Skills Centre (1991), Biomass Energy Usedatábase, Kings College London, London, W8 7AH.
BUN. (Biomass Users Network) (1992) Forest Aericulture: The Thai Way. Newsletter6(2):¿-9, P.O. Box 1800-2100, Guadalupe, Costa Rica.
71
Buringh P. (1987), Bioproductivity and Land Potential. in Eds. Hall D.O., Overend PR., Biomass; Regenérame Energy, John Wiíey & Sons Ltd., Chichester, U.K.
CAST. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, (1990), Ecological Impactsof Federal Conservation and Cropland Reduction Programs. Task Forcé SummaryReport No. 177, CAST Ames, lowa.
CAST. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, (1992), Preparing USAgriculture for Global Climate Change. Task Forcé Report No. 119, CAST Ames,lowa.
Chadzingwa J., (1987) Energy and Biomass Systems in Zimbabwe. Department ofEnergy, Zimbabwe.
Conroy, C. (1992) Can Eucalyptus be Appropriate for Poor Farmers? AppropriateTechnology 19(l):22-25.
Crawley M.J., (1989) Insect Herbivores for the Biological Control of Weeds. PlantsToday, March-April, pp59-63.
Davidson O.R., (1992) Energy Issues in Sub-Saharan África: Future Directions.Annual Review of Energy and the Environment. 17:359-403.
DEA, (Danish Energy Agency)., (1991). The Danish Programme on CentralizedBiomass Plants, Danish Energy Agency, 1119 Copenhagen K, Denmark.
DeBell D S. Whitersell C D, Schubert T H., (19891 UsingN2-FixingtAlbizia to Increase Growth of Eucalyptus Flantationsin Hawau. Forest Science. 35(l):64-75.
DE Groot P, Field-Juma, Hall D O., (1992). Taking Root: Rehabilitating the land inSemi-Arid Kenya, BUN/ACTS Press, Nairobi, Kenya.
De Jesús R.M., (1990) The Need for Reforestation. Paper presented at the Workshopon Large-Scale Reforestation, Corvallis, Oregon, USA. (organised by the USEnvironmental Protection Agency.
EC Economic and Social Committee, (1992) Opinión on the proposal for a CouncilDecisión concernine the promotion of renewable energy sources m the Community.Doc. COM(92) 180 final. Luxembourg.
Economist (1993) A shockine speculation about the price of oil. The Economist 328(7829): 87-88.
Economist, (1992) They Reap as They Sow. in The Economist Agriculture Survey,The Economist. pp5-8, 12/12/92, London.
Ellegárd A., 1991 Energy Sources for Widespread Use in Rural Áreas of DevelopingCountrieSj in Indoor Air Pollution from Biomass Fuel: Working Papers from a WHOConsultation, World Health Organisation, Geneva, 1992.
Elliptt, P., Booth, R., (1993) Brazilian Biomass Power Demonstration Project. SpecialProject Brief. Shell International Petroleum Company, UK.
Demeter, C.P.. Gray, E.E., Piscitello E.S., (1993) Electricity from Biomass: AnEnvironmental Review and Strategy. ANTÁRES GROUP INC., NREL/TP-420-5637.NTIS. Springfield, VA 22161.
Emrich, W., (1985) Handbook of Charcoal Making, Series E: Energy from Biomass,Vol 7. b.Reidel Publ.
72
EPA, (1992) Oreen Lights Program: The First Year. EPA 430-N-92-003, Washington,D.C. 20460.
Erskine J.M., (1991) Agroforestry: Its development as a sustainable productivaland-use system for low-resource farmers in southern África, in Special issue onAgroforestry. For.Ecol.Manage.. 45:281-291
ESSER G., (1991). Osnabruck Biosphere Model Construction, Structure, Results, in:Facets of Modern Ecologv. Esser G & Overdick D, (eds), Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp679-710.
ETC, (1992) Biomass Assessment in África, ETC (UK) in collaboration withNewcastle Polytechnic and Reading University. ETC (UK) Ltd., Northshields, NE30
ETSU (Energy Technology Support Unit), (1991) The Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation.Review SuppTement, ETSU, Hanvell, UK, OX11 ORA.
ETSU, (Energy Technology Support Unit, UK), (1991) Wood-Fuel for Thought. EdRichards G.E; Proc. Woodfuerfor Thought Conf. Hanvell, UK, OX11 ORA.
Faaij A., Blok K., Worrell., (1992) Biomass Gasification for Eíectricity. Report No.92041 Dept. Science Technology and Society, Uni. Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
FAO, Food and Agriculture Organisátion, (1990). Yearbook of Forest Products 1989,FAO, Rome.
FAO., (1991) AGROSTAT Datábase, Rome.
FAO, Food and Agriculture Organisátion, (1991) Production Yearbook, Vol. 44,Rome.
FAO, Forest Resources Assessment 1990 Project, (1992) The Forest Resources of theTropical Zone by Main Ecological Regions, Food and Agriculture Organisátion of theUnited Nations, "Rome.
FAO (Food & Agriculture Organisation), (1992) The KEITA IntegratedDevelopment Project. FAO, Vía Delle Termi di Caracalla, Rome 001000 Rome, Italy.
FAO, (1993) A decade of wood energy activities within the Nairobi Programme ofAction. FAO Forestry Paper 108, Rome.
Fickett A.P., Gellings C.W., Lovins A.B., (1990) Efficient Use of Eíectricity. ScientificAmerican 263(3):2Ír
Fischer G., van Velthuizen H., (1992) Agro-Ecological Zones (AEZ) New Inventory,AT2010. F'AO, Rome.
GEF (Global Environment Facility), (1992) Mauritius: Sugar Bio-Energy TechnologyProject. Mauritius Suear Enerey Development Project Report No. 10037-MAS.World Bank, Washington, D.C.
Gladstone W.T., and Ledig F.T., (1990) Reducing pressure on natural forests throughhigh-yield forestry. For. Eco!. Manage. 35:69-78
Global Climate Chanee Dieest (1992) US Mieht Stabilize Emissions. Global ClimateChange Digest 5nO):I74.
Goldemberg J., Monaco L.C, Macedo I.C., (1992) The Brazilian Fuel-AlcoholProeram, in eds., Johansson B.J., Kelly H., Reddy A.K.N., Williams R.H., Renewablesfor Fuels and Eíectricity, Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp.841-864.
Grainger A., (1988). Estimating Áreas of Degraded Tropical Lands RequiringReplenishment of Forest Cover. International Tree Crops Journal. 5:31-61.
73
Grubb M7 (199) Energy Policy and the Greenhouse Effect. Vol 1: Poíicy Appraisal.Dartmoutn Publishing Co., Aldershot, UK.
Hall C.W., (1984) The Role of Energy in World Agriculture and Food Availability, inedsv Pimentel D., Hall C.W., Food and Energy Resources, Academic Press, Oralando,Calif.
Hall D O, Mynick H E, Williams R H., (1990). Carbón Sequestration vs. Fossil FuelSubstitution. CEES Report No. 255, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA.
Hall D.O., (1991) Biomass Energy. Energy Policv. 19(8):711-737.
Hall D.O., Rosillo-Calle F Williams R.H., Woods J., (1992); Biomass For Energy:supply prospects. Chapter 14 "Renewabjes for Fuels and Electricity," Eds. JohanssonT.B., Kelly H., Reddy A.K.N., and Williams R.H., Island Press, Washington,
HALL D O, ROSILLO-CALLE F., (1991). Why Biomass Matters, Biomass NewsLetter, 5(4):Special Issue. Biomass Users Network (BUÑ), Bangkok, Thailand.
Hall D.O., House J., (1992) Biomass Food and Water: Is there Enough forEverybody? Paper presented at the Advanced Education Course On Evaluation ofImpacts and Pnority Setting in Environmental Management, June 1992 Nagu; VTT,Espoo, Finland.
Hall D.O., (1993) Submission to Enquete Commission on "Possibilities of fixingcarbón by increasing forest áreas in order to stabilize the climate." GermánBundestag, Bonn.
Houghton R.A., Woodwell G.M., (1989) Global Climate Change. ScientificAmerican. 260(4):36-44.
Howe R., Sreesangkom P., (1990) Costs and Performance of Equipment for BalingSugarcane Tqps and Leaves. Winrock International Draft report, Office of EnergyBureau of Science and TecHnology, USA.
Howes M., (1989) Identifying Biomass Fuel Shortages in Sri Lanka. Biomass 19:247-
Howes R., (1992) The Economic Potential and Environmental Implications ofExpanding Arable Coppice in the United Kingdom. Imperial College, Centre forEnvironmental Technology, London.
Hubbard H.M., The Real Cost of Energy. Scientific American 24:18-23.
IPCC, International Panel on Climate Chanee, (1990) Climate Change: The IPCCScientific Assessment. Eds. Houghton J.T., Jenkins G.J., Ephraums JTJ.,University Press, Cambridge, U5
Cambridge
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (IPCC), (1992) Climate Change 1992.The Supplementary Report to the IPCC Scientific Assessment. Houghton, J7T.,Callander B.A., Varney S.K., eds. Cambridge University Press.
Johansson, T.B., Kelly H., Reddy A.K.N., Williams R.H., (1992) Renewable Fuels andElectricity for a Growing World Economy: Defining and Áchieving the Potential. ineds., Johansson B.J., Kelly H., Reddy A.K.N., Williams R.H., Renewables for Fuelsand Electricity, Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp.1-72
Kerkhof P., (1990). Agroforestry in África: A Survey of Project Experience, eds, FoleyG., Barnard G., Panos Publ. Lta, London.
Leach G., Mearns R., (1988). Beyond the Woodfuel Crisis.Earthscan Publications, London.
Leach G., (1992) pers. comm.
74
Ledig F.T.. (1981) Silvicultura! Systems for the Energy Efficient Production of FuelBiomass. Ed. Comstock M.J.. ACS Symposium Series. American Chemical Society,US.
Ledig F.T., & Kitzmiller H.J., (1992) Genetic strategies for reforestation in the faceof global climate change. For. Ecol. Manage. 50:155-169.
Lenssen N,. (1992) Empowering Development: The New Energy Equation.Worldwatch Paper No.il!, Worldwatch Institute, Washington, T).C. 20036.
Lindman N., Andersson C-G., Liinanki L. Horvath A., Salo K., (1992) Sweden turnsto biomass for IGCC demonstration. Modern Power Systems 12(5): 19-23.
MacDicken K.G., (1988) Nitrogen Fixine Trees For Wastelands. Regional ForestryOffice, FAO, Bangkok.
Makunda H.S., Dasappa S., Shrinivasa U., (1992) Open-Top Wood Gasifiers. in eds.,Johansson B.J., Kelly H., ReddyA.K.N.,Williams R.H., Kenewables for Fuels and Electricity,Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp.699-728.
Markandya A., (1991) Global Warming: The Economics of Tradeable Permits. in Ed.Pearce E)., Blueprint 2: Greenine the World Economy, Earthscan Publ., London.P53-62.
Marland G., Marland S., (1992) Should We Store Carbón in Trees? Water. Air andSoil Pollution 64: 181-195,
Massoud (1979) in Forage and Fuel Production form Salt Affected Wasteland (1986)Ed., Barret-Lenard E.G., Elsevier, London. Pp5.
Myers N., (1989) The Greenhouse Effect: A Tropical Forestry Response. BiomasslíT(l):72-t8.
Moulton R.J.. Richards K.R., (1990) Costs qf Sequestering Carbón through TreePlanting and Forest Management in the United States. USDA Forest Service GeneralTechnical Report.
NaKicenovic N., et al. (1993) Lone Term Strateeies for Mitieatins Global Warming.Energy InternationalJ. 18(51:97-106.
NSCGP, Netherlands Scientifíc Council for Government Policy, (1992) Ground forChoices: Four perspectives for the rural áreas in the European Community. Reportsto the Government, 42. Sdu uitgeverij, Plantijnstraat, The Hague.
NUTEK, Swedish National Board for Industrial and Technical Development, (1992)Energy in Sweden, 1992. NUTEK, Stockholm 11786. Sweden.
OECD/IEA, (1990) "World Energy Statistics and Balances, 1985-1988," Organisationfor Economic Cooperation and Development, París.
Openshaw K.. (1980). Woodfuel- A Time for Reassessment. In: Energy in theDevelopine World. The Real Energy Crisis, (eds) V Smil and E. Knowland, OxfordUniversityTress, U.K., pp.72-86.
Office of Technology Assessment (OTA), (1991) Energy in Developing Countries. USCongress, OTA-E-486, Washington, DC 20402-9325.
Pandey D., (1992) Assessment of Tropical Forest Plantation Resource, FAO, Rome.
Pearce D., (1991) Blueprint 2: Greening the World Economy, Earthscan Publ.,London.
75
Perlack R D. Ranney J W.,(1987). Economics of Short-RotationIntensive Culture for the Production of Wood Energy Feedstocks. Energy 12:1217-1226.
Pimentel D., (1984) Energy Fíow in the Food System in eds^ Pimentel D., Hall C.W.,Food and Energy Resources, Academic Press, Orlando, California.
Raich J.W., Rastetter E.B., Melillo J.M., Kicklighter D.W.. Steudler P.A., PetersonB.J., Grace A.L Moore III B., Vórósmarty C.JT, (1991). Poteníial Net PrimaryProductivity in South America: Application of a Global Model. EcologicalApplications l(4):399-429.
Rajabapaiah P., Jayakumar S., Reddy A.K.N., (1992) Biogas Electricity: the PuraVirtage Case Study. Ch.18, in eds.. Johansson B.J., Kelly TI., Reddy A.K.N., WilliamsR.H., Renewables for Fuels and Electricity, Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp.786-816.
Ranney J.W., (1992a) Environmental Action Agenda Gathers Steam, Energy CropsForum. Biofuels Feedstock Development Program, Oak Ridge, TN.
Ranney J W., (1992b). Environmental Cpnsiderations in Biomass ResourceManagement for a Greenhouse-Constrained Society, Proc. Conference, Technologiesfor a Greenhouse-Constrained Society, Eds., Kuliasna M.A., Zucker A., Ballew KJ.,Lewis Publ, Boca Ratón, US. pp.519-542.
Ranney J.W., (1993) Principies and Issues of Biomass Energy Crops and theEnvironment. in Eds. Hall L).O. Proc. 7th European Conf. on biomass for Energy andEnvironment, Agriculture and Industry, Florence, Italy.
Raske A.G., Wickman B.E., (1991) Towards Integrated Pest Management of ForestDefoliators. For. Ecol. Manage.. 39(l-4):l-2
Ravindranath N.H., (1993) Biomass Gasification: Environmentally Sound Technologyfor decentralised Power Generation, A Case Study From India. Biomass &Bioenergy. 4(1):49-60. •
Reddy A.K.N., Goldemberg J., (1990) Energy for the Developing World. ScientifícAmerican 263(3):62-73.
Robinson A.P., Smith A.E., (1989) The Charcoal Industry in Somalia: A Techno-Economic Appraisal, ODA (Tropical Development and Research Institute) Report
Rosillo-Calle F, Hall D O, (1988), "Brazil's Commitment to Biotechnology,"International Industrial Biotechnology 8:(4)5-10.
Rosillo-Calle F., Furtado P., Hall D.O., (1992) Brazil Charcoal: A Case Study forSustainable Production and Use, Working Paper, Kings College London.
Saxene N.C., (1992) India's Eucafyptus Craze: The God that Failed, £S, Panos,London, May 1992.
Schroeder P.. (1992) Carbón storage potential of short rotation tropical treeplantations. For.Ecol. Manage. 50:31-41.
Scurlock J.M.O., Rosenschein A., Hall D.O., (1991) Fuelling the Future: PowerAlcohol in Zimbabwe. ACTS Press, Nairobi, Kenya.
Shay E.G., (1993) Diesel Fuel from Vegetable Oils:Status and Qpportunitíes. Biomass& Bioenergy 4(4):227-242.
Slivka D.C, McClure T.A, Buhr A.R., Albrecht R., (1993) Compost: United StatesSupply and Demand Potential. Bfomass and Bioenergy. (in press) pp!9.
76
Smith K R. (1990), Health Effects in Developing Countries.in Eds. Pasztor J, Kristoferson L.A., Bioenergy and the Environment, Westview Press,Boulder, Colorado, USA 80301. pp. 301-322.
Smith K.R., (1991) Biomass Cpokstoves in Global Perspectives: Energy, Health, andGlobal Warming, in Indoor Air Pollution from Biomass Fuel. Working Papers from aWHO Consultation, World Health Organisation, Geneva, 1992.
Smith L.L., (1992) Multi-purpose Cañe for Feeds & Ethanol. Revised versión paperpresentad at "Energex 91 Second International Conference on Energy fpr theAmericas, Pan American Federation of Engineering Societies, Puerto Rico ChemistsAssociation, San Juan PR, (1991)
Steele P., (1992) Personal communication, FAO, Rome.
Taschner K., (1991) Bioethanol: a Solution or a New Problem. EuropeanEnvironmental Bureau (EEB), Bruxelles.
Tillman, D.A.. Hughes, E., Gold B.A.t (1993) Cofíring of Biofuels in coal firedBoilers: Resuíts oí Case Study Analysis. Proc. Conf. First Biomass Conference of theAmericas: Energy, Environment, Agriculture, and Industry (1993) Vol. I, pp 368-381.NREL, Colorado.
Trexler M.C., (1992) Minding the Carbón Store: Weighing U.S. Forestry Strategies toSlow Global Warming. World Resources Institute Report, WRI Washington, D.C.20006.
Tributsch, H., (1993) Biomass: A Synergetic System Between Crisis and NewFrontiers. Proc. 7th European Conf. on Biomass for Energy and Environment,Agriculture and Industry, Florence, Italy. (in press)
Tugwell F., Gowen M., Kenda W., Cohén A., (1988) Electric Power from Sugarcanein Costa Rica: A Technical and Economic Analysis. Bioenergy Systems andTechnology Project N°.936-9570, USAID Office of Energy Report N°. 88-18. USA.
Turhollow A.F., Perlack R.D., (1991) Emissions of CO2 from Energy CropProduction. Biomass & Bioenergy 1(3):129-135
Turnbull J.H., (1993) Use of Biomass in Electric Power Generation: the CaliforniaExperience. Biomass and Bioenergy 4(2):75-84.
United Nations, "Energy Statistics Yearbook, 1987," New York.
United Nations Statistical Office (UNSO), (1990) "Energy Balances and ElectricityProfiles 1988," New York.
Viro P.J., (1974) Effects of Forest Fire on Soil in ed., T.T. Kozlowskí, C.E. in Fireand Ecosystems. Academic Press. London. ppy-44.
WEC, World Energy Council, (1992) Biomass Energy: Status, Constraints andOpportunities. Final Draft, 1992, WEC, St. James's St, London.
Wigley, Y.M.L., Raper (1992) Implications for Climate and Sea Leve! of RevisedIPCC emissions scenarios, Nature 357:293-300.
Williams J.R., (1993) Europe: Competirle for sources of natural gas. ShellInternational Petroleum Company Ltd. (SIPC).
Williams, R.H. (1994) Roles for Biomass Energy in Sustainable Development. To bepublished in Industrial Ecology and Global Change, R.H, Socolow et ai., eds.,Cambridge University Press.
77
Williams R.H., Larson E.D., (1992) Advanced Gasification-Based Biomass PowerGeneration. in eds., Johansson B.J., Kelly H., Reddy A.K.N., Williams R.H.,Renewables for Fuelsand Electricity, Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 729-786.
WRI, World Resources Institute, (1992) World Resources; 1992-93, Oxford UniversityPress, Oxford.
Wrieht L.L., Graham R.L., Turhollow A.F., English B.C, Opportunities to MitígateCarbón Dioxide Build up Usine Short-Rotation Wooo!y Crops. in Eds, Sampson, Neiland Hair, Forests and Global Warming, Vol 1., Washington, D.C., American ForestryAssociation.
Wyman C.E., Bain R.L., Hinman N.D., Stevens D.J., (1992) Ethanol and Methanolfrom Cellulosic Biomass. in eds., Johansson T.B., Kelly H., Reddy A.K.N., WilliamsR.H., Renewables for Fuels and Electricity, Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 865-y¿,\8
( A l l í I I PRESENT ENERGY CONSUMPTION (COMMERCIAU + BIOMASS); GLOBAL SUMMARY
DEVELOPING
AFRCA
"EN. AMERICA
SOUTH AMERICA
iVSIA
OCEANIA
INDUSTRIALISMO
N AMERICA
EUROPE
USSR
ASIA (nrtfll)
DCEANIA_(noteg
WORLD
1POPULATION
(1987)
(MILLIONS
3,828
586.5
]41.7
279.6
2,814.5
5.8
1 , 193
269.6
494.6
283.1
125.5
_ .IRiS
5,021
Í¡ III IV V VI VIIPRESENT COMMEFCIAL ENERGY CONSUMPTION 11968)
COAL OIL GAS NUCLEAR HYOFO
(MTOE) (MTOE) (MTOE) (MTOE) (MTOE)
746 630 222 12 66
71.4 7 2 . 1 28.1 0.3 3.3
5.7 94 .0 28.0 0.0 3.0
15.6 107.5 48.0 0.5 2 6 . 7
653.4 354.2 117.8 1 J - 6 33.1
0.1 2.3 0.0 0.0 0.1
1,309 2,202 1,375 397 323
505.7 867.1 516.6 160.1 132.3
331.3 69?. 1 262.3 151.0 106.9
358.27 378.84 537.97 42.50 56.00
76.3 229-5 39.2 43.4 18.3
_3L_7°____3_4.- 30 18 • 50 P - PP— -9 • 3-°-
2,056 2 032 1,597 409 369
TOTALCONS.
- tPJ)
70 , 430
7,363
5,488
8,328
49, 146
105
235,456
91,636
64,832
57,690
17,106
4ji_92_
305,885
VIII IX XFUELWOOO BIOMASS 3IOMASS
finduding (ALL (ALLCHAnCOAL) FORMS) FORMS)
*FAO- Tab 10* -SSH"(PJ) (PJ) (PJ)
15,730 42,631 47 ,950*
4,481 9,160
504 868
2,419 2,858
8,263 29,689
62 56
2,895 7,312 7,860*
1,319 4 ,027
609 1,527
930 1,720
6 6
31 31
18,625 49,943 55 000*
XI XII XIII XIV ~JÍVTOTAL PRESENT ENERGY
CONSUMPTIONFUELWOOOCOMMERC.
(VlItVlll)
(PJ)
86,160
11,845
5,992
10,748
57,409
167
238,351
92,955
65,441
58,620
17,112
4,223
324,511
BIOMASS tCOMMERC
(Vil. 1)0(PJ)
113,061
16,524
6,355
11,186
78,835
161
242,768
95,662
66,359
59,411
17,112
4,223
355,829
TOTAL AVERAGE PER CAPITAENERGY CONSUMPTION
GJ/cap GJ
'(Xl/l)*FAO* «Sí
cap GJ/cap(XJI/I)
,H* *Tab.lO*
23 36* 30
20 28
42
38
20
29
45
10
28
2fi
200 218* 203
345 355
132
207
135
216
134
210
135
216
65 80* 71
xvr XVTI XVIIIFUELWOOD or BIOMASS
% TOTAL ENERGYCONSUMPTICN
FW*FAO*
18
38
a
23
14
37
1.2
1.4
0.9
1.6
0.04
0 . 7 _
6
BIO•34 H*
*8UN*
(43) 35*
( 77 )
(16)
(31)
( 4 2 )
-
3*
-
'
14*
BIO*Tab.lO*
38
55
14
26
38
35
3
•1
?
3
0
1
14
COÑS. ^ CONSUMPTION FW = FUELWOOD () - BUN estímate SÍH = Scurlock & Hall {1990}•Scurlock & Hall eeUmalelnTheContributionof Biomass lo Global Ener(* Uwi" BIOMASS 21:75-81.1990.
-Th(y «rlim(iteC)<vpJn(>nacojntri(K irw36. DeMBloped 218 S Woild 80 GJ/capHa anj Ova biomass prcvktee35%. 3% * 14% ofthe Workta energy feapBdtvety.O' BUN dala ooly (rom 55coiíitnca (see»ource5)
ASSUMPTIONS: I TainaotOilEqulwalBnl(TC€) = «GJ: 1 GJ = 10-9 joules; BIOMASS/FUEl.WCOD ^ 15 GJA (alrdry Sm, moiEtirFueíwoodlFW) Inlhis labia te equivalen! to Ihe F AOs doíinHion ot TunlwocKl t Ctmrcoel"; noothef forms of tíomass use aie eatímatod.
Nota* DINDUSTRIAUSED ASIAislotalforJapant Israel ONLY2)INDUSTRIAUSED OCEANIA te to(a( for Australia 4 New Zealand ONLY-HYDRO = HYDRO t GEOTHERMAL forh/droand nuclear elalistics inginnal leíate may noí ettf aa dala souroe dd nol provlde a comprehenslve brW'dtwn fc< all counlri*».
-Cd. I; 1987 PopJation data from FAO AGROSTAT daabeoe (1990)-Cd. II-VII: Condensed individual oountry dala fiom vattous BOUICW ÍP:
BP, "SlaísficBlHevIewot World Ef*Tjy, 1990," london. pWestorn Europa USSR, N.AmericaandJapanCommerctBl Eneroy Drfa)OECD/IEA. "World Rnsrcy Stati5lif« and Balancm. 1985-1988," País. (Eaalem turcpe and Ismel Commerclal Counlry D»lal
Cd. VIII: FUELWOCO = TueNrood t CharcoaT (noolhBf forma rf b*xiafis eneran use am ttcountedfcr undet Ihls dfflnitiqn) as ris'iriedby:(FAQ, Food and Ag-leJlurB OrflaniBrfiQn; 'ftjrtet Producía Yoartxx* 1989.' Romo. (Fuelwoor! UBedatí")
Cd IX show? regional SJjmmariesdcouril'y by country Idal bioma^s ervrcn use Incliries data O^ncrlindGpenrlenllyrrom the FAO/UN (s«e Jttfo 10.)-Cd. X: TdatbiomaBsene>oy LBB darvad fren Scurlock « Hall (1990):
Scurkxk J.M O , Hall OO.. (1990) TneConlributknd Btomoss loGlobel Cneroy Ltea." BIOMASS PS-75*1.-Cdumn Xl= Cd. Vil * Col. VIII.-Cd. XII = Cd. Vil . Col. IX (BBB lable 10)-Cd. XlllloXV;P«capilaenergy «jnsumptioncalculatedfrom the eetimeíed totBÍ hiomass and commefcial Bnwgy conemptioo ctvided by the 1987 popul«lton («ate. SSH par capí»«reumrtkmisnd<<ifcJ*ríiB¡ngpc(iutatk^HrKlcomm^ as IheGommerdafeneígy dfÉabaseispdbythem (¡e HP) cannd bed«Qreggal*if fÉ th»counlry l»wlBP fBQknaf estímales fct commercial snnroy consumpHcn ere nkjher thon shown horp-Cd. XVI toXVIll: The peroer(aoecortrit"J'on d biomass eoefgy totoíaí andrgy consumction te cdüjaled L8>ng-Cd.XVII: BUN dala hasbeena3ltectedfbr55developingcountnaeonly, 9owt«
re. Kings CdtefR London [s«>nJfloScurlocli « HaJI. 1990. above)
Tnwlo 2. FUTURE LAND AVAJLABILITY FOR BIOMASS ENERGY & FOOD DASED ON FAO-AEZ DATABASE. REGIONAL SUMMARY
Ih* n»-gio™«l pWpnlinl ten bio^nw produclion m a numbe' & drveloping tountres using cnty ttiat if»id definid by (he TAOlo besutahl» 'oí ngi>cutluie nnd tTPílry as determinad by physical. wBtpr nnd social constraints (see loo(ric<e"0 Yirtds oT
10 W -o nre "d npr.f."-.--!.' 'palistt cxi aC land bul tve c^O6»"i lo'ep'psenl a convenípnl global midpo«il to> bimass pfoduction on a 'arge scale in the MUIP, ¡n pr«clic* yietds of less Bian 1 tomtxelhan 30 Wi*"y aie pfese"tly expefienced
REGIÓN
(1 12counU»os Tolal)
'DEVELOPING
ÁFRICA
IATIN AMERICA
C AMERICA
S AMERICA
*ASIA( CHINA)
TOTALLAÑOÁREA
(Mha)
6.448
2.935 5
2.0165
2648
1.751.7
1.495.6
TI r TVFORESTS CROP PASTURE
& LANDS (PERM-WOODLANDS ANENT)
(000 ha) (000 ha) (000 1«)
1.995.501 724.082 1,546.015
602.561 200.276 74a 180
961.273 179,441 570.752
65.605 37,868 94.002
095,668 141,573 476,750
351,667 344,365 233,083
VFORESTA
CROPtPASTURE
LAND
(Mha)
4.266
1.360
1.702
195
1.507
945
VI Vil VIII IX X XI"TOTAL POTENTIAL" AGRICULTURAL LAND
FAOAEZ CLASSIFEDLOW UNCER. GOOO PROBLEM NATURAL TOTAL
XIII XIV XV XVICROPLAND "REMAINING lOVha. %REOUIRED LAND" BIOMASS ON PRESENT
BY (col.Xt- "REMAIN1NO ENERGY2025" cd XIII) LAND" CONS
(Mha) (Mha) (PJ) UMPTION
1 .086 1 .633 244,889 45T.
300 790 118.425 902
-;"- 269 090 133.440 793
57 ' 44 6.599 110
212 846 IZC.fi'JO 1.172
517 -47
* doos not include China CONS. = Consumptkxi FW = Fuehwood and Chafcoal only
NOTES: "TOTAL POTENTIAL" Land is delined hy the FAO as land which is phsicaBy capable oí crop poduclbn wühin soü and waleí conslrainls II exckjdos land which is loo steep. dry or with unsiiilabio soih.**-IPCC III, calcúlales ttiat demand lor cropland in developing counlríes will increase by 50% by tlie year 2025. Presen! cropland a/ea (col III) Ifom the FAO "Production
Yearbook, 1909." is Ihorelore increased by 1.5 limes to grve lulure ükety land área under cultwation
The regional cla^síications used here miss a total of SOrountries irtcHiding China South África arid muchd Ihe Carribbean wliosecombined populalion is oveí one [«Ilion peopleChina ís not incliicted ¡n tho devebping country tolab.Ttiis Iniílo highligtiLs the noed lor detailed local level data and tl>e benelit ri groator disaggregation oí global data collection. A direct comparisono( Ihe FAO's "Production Yea/book. 1989," land dassrlication (Col V) and their new "AEZ. Agriculture Towards 2010. 1992," inventory (Col XI) stiows modoiation of ptodicledland tequiremenls for biomass eciergy. Thus iBÍng Col V dala & assuming a 10 vba yield would piovide Botswana with over twenty limes Iheii pfesetitenergy requiremonL However. il Col.XI data is used Ihe figure Jrops to a lar more roafetic tevel of ahout one fith present energy requirements iONLY "good^ land is used In some countries, howfver. notabry India and Bangladosh. piodictions for potential biomass siippV come weí below recordedvalúes eg. Bangladesh ncw obtains about 80% of ils presen! suppry fiom biom ass and India abolir 50% cf 28 & 25% (or respective pretJictod víilues. This
is due to the high level oí agricultiiral residuo use which domínales Ihe domeslíe suppry scene.Tire negative land aren of 47 Mha lor Asia (-CNna) assumos no increases in productrvüies to tho yoar 2025 as il is onry a Irnaar exlra[x)lalion d oxisting lood ptodix:1ion tronds
In India for exarn pie. thRreaieoxIensive áreas of dogr.-.dedlanci (150 Mln) v/hich could beproiluclivolor biom ass growth givenapproprKilo poücies
Cote. VI-XI; data (rom FAO, (1992) "AEZ; New Inventory, AT2010" Fisctter G , & van Veltliuizen K, Ftome.-"Tolal Polential" agricultiiral land definitbn (see above)
Col XII. Total presen! energy use; commercial + Fuolv.'ood ONLY (FAO. "Foresl Producís Yearbook. 1989." Roñe.)Col XIII; Cropland roquired by 2025. assumes a fO% increase in demand for cropland in Developing Coiintrips (ref. IPCC-MI) and no chango for
Industrialisedcounlries (llierefore. col III * 1.5)
Table 3 Sumrnary of biocoodimat. ic data
Idrnlificr
P r t r o l i n a , Pe
Tr ímladc , Pe
B r a m a d o , lia
Ouricaugas, Ba
Inh. imbnpc, Ba
Conde, Ha
Kdides daCunba., lia
Contcndns doSi n cora, Ba
( ' ; i r l i t . n , l ia
l i a n b a l l i a , C<;
Tií inpua, Ce
pncajus, Ce
Sonsa, Pb
¡jflCfltioil
Lat. Lon(>.(°S) r\V)
9.24
7.45
14.13
12.01
11.47
11.49
10.31
13.45
H.ÍM
7. 39
3.44
4:]0
G.45
Pedio A v n l i n o , RN 5.31
(n) vSmira1: Conlr»
Ib) C = Clny, U =
40.30
40.10
41 .40
38.37
38.21
37.37
39.01
41.02
.12.29
3!). 17
•10.59
38.28
38.14
36.23
Aun uníTcmp.ro26
26
22
24
24
24
24
22
22
21
2G
2G
2G
26
and yields for t r ia l planlations in Nortlienst Brazi).1
AnimalItain(mm)
500
700
1000
1500
1370 .
1250
500
700
1 100
650
1100
1 000 .
1000
500
Alti-tndc(ni)
200-500
500-1000
200-500
200-500
200-500
0-200
500-1000
200-500'-•
y-
Age ofS u i t f i b i l i f y ^ ] cxpcti- Pzak
Snil for V. 1 mcnt yictd(ypc* f<>rcstc Spccics'1 ; (yr) (mYha/yr)
S III E.
C i/iv /•;.S/C I/II ^ E.
s/c ii ;„ E.s/c ns nS/C I
C I
'"E.I E.
; ~ ' E.í E.i ''
-E.\
jooo-2000 s n/iv /•;.500-900
500-1000
0-200
200-500
0-200
S/C I
S 11— E.
E., E.
S I I I E.
IÍ/S IV E.
IÍ/S IV E.
cebra \ j 16.2
creba ¡ 6 ]'"' 24.2
/c/r/fcwiis i 5 | .. G2.5
dtjcziana { , 9 ' 89.8i;;c////a 7 -j 39.2
gra?idis ' 7 i J:. 61.9"* /t
cnmnlditl. 5 ' ,. 25. G
camaldiil. - 4 1 8.0
camaldu!. 5 i 60.8
tcrcticornis 5 . * — - 26.0
c/íroirf 3 ; ' 48.0Icrcticomis \ /
l>randis '' 5 , 98.3 •
carnaldut
camaldul _-
8 ^ 39.7
8 ]. ^ 5.9 . ;•
„
/\(I(?/Y1/,'Py i cid( inVbii /yr)
1 1 .
21.
48.
59
30
2
9
G
9
5
54.5
29.6
5.
45
9
2
18. n46.9
89
32
3
4
4.7. — , j,,-Nncinnnl do Florpstns, Empresa Brnsilcirn de Pcsquisn Af¡roprc\mrin.
f •
rocky, S - sniu ly . '-:.
(c) I - onpPCKiilv wdl-snil
(d) All ;irr spi'rics
í-'
wil.hin
\i
•ti tn Kupporl . trcc
ll(! {¡'MUÍS
•''
F,ticaly¡)t
• i -
írowth, II rr nvcrnj;o
na. Spndnjí »f Lrt'es
í (
*AÍ
-"' ^^ -j
•;f.RiiiLnbility, III = \isunblo witli rcstrícÜóns
in all triáis
- í -JJ• i i
• !.7\ '-.I
; •••
v/íis 3 by
. ' »
j, ' r
¡r
2 niottü'.s. ..;... ._,
- í - '
IV f cnnnnt be tisod f»r
^ ' ' " ,r -I!' :
' - U - N - < •• f • - '. T ;0 ¿ .; • ,;• i "t »• reí ¡ #
,i> i!-" -T 'T : jí ; ,;i t;;; T ;•'• • , ' • » ;!
' )
trccs
í
Table 4 Global Land Use 1882-1989.
Category
ArableLand
Grass-Land
ForestLand
OtherLand3
Totalb
1882
Mha
860
1,500
5,200
5,517
13,077
f í\u
6.6
11.4
39.8
42.2
100
1981
Mha
1,469
3, 172
4,090
4,346
13,077
(%)11.2
24.3
31.3
33.2
100
1989
Mha
1,477
3,304
4,087
4,208
13,077
(%)
11.3
1
25.3
31.3
32.2
100 1
Source: FAO Production Yearbooks 1982 & 1990."Other Land" includes, desert land, stony, rock and steep land in mountains
ice caps (polar regions).Does not include water covered land such as lakes, rivers and marshes.
Table 5 Potential Land For Reforestation.
Source Total AvailableÁreaMha
Comments
Houghton & Woodwell'(1989)
850 350 Mha of which "could be returnedto fores if permanent agriculturawere toreplace shifting cultivación
Grainger(1988)
758 2007 Total degraded tropical landárea of which available land área isestimated at:203 Fallow Forests137 Logged forests87 Deforested watersheds331 Desertified Drylands
Myersc(1989)
300 200 Mha "needs reforestation forreasons othei than the Greenhouseeffect.160 Mha of the 200 Mha above, fromupland watersheds which urgently needreforestation, the rest required aswoodlots.
Massoud(1979)
1,000.5 Based on UNESCO soil map of the world(1973), Massoud estimates the totalland área affected by soils byregión. Defínitions of the levéis ofsalt and its effect on plant growthare species and climate dependant andshould be treated with caution.
Alpert et ¿>1.(1992)
952 Estimated as the total área availablefor halophyte culture.125 Mha of the above is assumed to befeasible due to restirictions forsaline irrigation.
Sekkeringf(1992)
385(11 Tropicalcountries)
Theoretical land available in 11Tropical countries out of 117estimated to have excess landavailable when Forest área isconsidered as unsuitable, andagricultural land is also subtracted.
iKícenovic et al.*(1993)
265 84.5 Mha extra is considered asavailable for agroforestry,Global estímate, which distinguishesbetween land considered "suitable"and that which is llkely to be"availabla."
rces .ughton & Woodwell (1989)
RAINGER (1988) .rers (1989)tssoud (1979)Dert et al., (1992)
¡kkering, (1992)iXicenovic et al. (1993)rthesised by J.Woods.
Decree No.97.628 (of 12/4/89) reqired that the percentage oícharcoal to be obtained from plantations must be as follows:1989 = 40%1990 = 50%1995 = 100%However, the same decree allows the production of 20% of charcoalfrom forest residues and henee in actual practice the máximum amountof charcoal to be produced from plantations would not be over 80% oftotal, as from 1995 onwards.
Table 8 SOME USES OF BIOMASS RESIDUES.
Source
Coconut
NaturalForest
Pubber
HomeCarden
Tea
Palmy-rah
Cinna-™on
Type
Fuel-wood
Shells
Husks
Leaves
Fuel-wood
Charcoal
Fuel-wood
Fuel-woodShellsHusks
Leaves
Fuel-woodBiomass
Fuel-woodBiomass
Fuel-wood
Use asDomest-ic Fuel
Ironing
Cooking
Cooking
Cooking
Cooking
Cooking
IroningCookingCooking
Cooking
Cooking
Cooking
Cooking
Cooking
IndustrialUses
Bricks,til'es;Bakeries
Charcoal
BricksTiles.BakeriestearubbercoconuthotelsPig Iron
BricksTilesBakeriesTeaRubberCoconutHotels
Tea
-
Compete-tive EndUses
Construct-ion (15)
látex cups(20)
Fibre (20)Fertiliser(80)
Cadjans(20)
Poles (5)
Fertiliser(100)Cadjans(15)
Fertiliser(20)
ThatchingFencing(30)
Vegetablesticks (?)
Suitabil-ity forTransport
Good
Fair
fair
poor
Good
Good
Fair
PoorPoor
Poor
Fair
Poor
Good
Poor
Good
FutureAvailab-ility
Stable
Stable
Stable
Stable
Declining
declin-ing
Rising
RisingRising
Rising
Rising
Rising
Rising
Rising
Rising
Source: Howes (1989).Estimated percentage consumed by alternativo end use in parentheses
Table 9a . BIOMASS RESIDUE RESOURCES & LAND REQUIREMErJTS FOR ENERGY PROVISIÓN (35 & 70GJ/cap) IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIE5
The three main sources of residues are eslimated in terms of the total energy contení of potenliatty harvestable residues. Total eneigy use is compared with the energycontení of recoverable residues (1/4 of the potentially harvestable residues). Biomass yields of 10 t/ha/yr are not necessarily realistic on all land, bul ate chosen as aconvenient midpoint for biomass energy production on a large scale in the fulure; yields of less than 1 t/ha to more than 30 t/ha are presently experienced.
FOOTNOTES TO TABLE 9a:COLUMNSI & II data from FAO, "Production Yearbook, 1989," Rome.III-V total energy content of Potentially Harvestable residues estimatedfrom three major sources namely:
a) crop; residue coefficients are derivad from the ratio of By-product (Potentially Harvestable Residues) :Product (CommercialProduction data from FAO Production Yearbook 1989). Average valúes:Cereals (1.3; 12 GJ/t), Vegetables & Melons (1.0; 6 GJ/t), Roots &Tubers (0.4, 6 GJ/t), Sugar Beet (0.3, 6 GJ/t) and Sugarcane (0.55,16 GJ/t).b) forest; Potentially Harvestable residues are assumed to equalall residues generated during cutting and processing. For eachcountry total Cut is calculated as 1.67 times "RoundwoodProduction."(FAO Forest Products Yearbook, 1989). Residues ariseat the site of cutting are assumed to be 40% of Total Cut, and atthe milis, assumed as 50% of "Industrial Roundwood". [Globally,"Industrial Roundwood" and "Fuelwood + Charcoal" are each egual toabout half of "Roundwood Production." (15 GJ/t)], but such a ratiocannot be used at the country or regional leveí because of thecountry differences between cutting for fuelwood and forindustrial roundwood. Calculation of on site residues from thetotal cut are not possible in the case of use for fuelwood andcharcoal because of widely 'differing local practices; thus weassume a 40% residue from the total cut for both industrialroundwood and fuelwood + charcoal.c) dung; Animáis populations are derived from WRI,"WorJEd Resources;1990-91." Washington, D.C. 20006. Each category is assigned a dungproduction coefficient which estimates the average daily dry dungproduction for each type of animal (Taylor e£ al., 1982; SenelwaA,K, Hall D,0,. 1991) le. Cattle (3 kg d'1; 15 GJ/t), Sheep & Goats(0.5 kg d-1; 17.8 GJ.t), Pigs (O.ó kg d"1), Equines (1.5 kg d' 15GJ/t), Camels & Buffaloes (4.0 kg d"1; 14.9 GJ/t) and Chickens (0.1kg d'1; GJ/t). It is then assumed that 50% of total production isPotentially Harvestable. Recoverable Dung is then assumed to be25% of Potentially Harvestable Dung ie. l/8th of total production,dry weight.
VII Present commercial energy consumption is calculated usingFAO,"Energy Statistics Yearbook, 1989," . FAO's, Forest Products Yb.1989, is used for "Fuelwood + Charcoal." No attempt is made to estímateany other form of Biomass Energy use.VIII uses Col.VII to calcúlate Present per capita energy use.IX & X assumes total energy usage of either 35 or 70 GJ/cap/yr toestímate present and future total energy consumption for each country.70 GJ/cap is approximately twice the present energy consumption fordeveloping countries, and is predicted to occur in the next century.XI-XII show percentage of "present energy consumption" (col.VII)and"total energy consumption" at 35 GJ/cap (col.IX) which could be providedby 25% of recoverable residues alone.XIII-XIV indícate potential land use for biomass growth. A biomassproductivity of 10~ t/ha/yr is used to shov? the land área needed for eachcountry, to provide the energy requirements given in col.IX (35GJ/cap).XV & XVI shows land needed to provide 35 GJ/cap. using 25% of the ofpotentially harvestable residues and biomass growth @ 10 t/ha/yr.
Table9b. BIOMASS RESIDUE RESOURCES & LAND NEEDS FOR ENERGY PROVISIÓN (140 & 310 GJ/cap) IN INDUSTRIALISED COUNTRIES
The thfee main sources of residues are estimaled in lerms of the total energy contení of potentíalty han/estable residues. Total enetgy use is compared with the energy conteníof rocoverable residues (1/4 of potentially harvestable residues) as a fue!. Yields of 10 t/ha/yr are not necessarily fealistic on all land, bulare chosen to represen! a convenient global midpoint for biomass production on a large scale in llie future; in practice yields of less (han 1 t/ha to morethan 30 t/ha are presently experienced.
I & II data from FAO, "Productíon Yearbook, 1989, " Rome.TII-V show the total energy content of Potentially Harvestable residuesestimated from three major squrces namely:
a) crop; residue coefficients are derived from the ratio of By-product(Potentially Harvestable Residues) :Product (Commercial Productiondata from FAO Production Yearbook 1989). Average valúes (20% moisture,HHV's): Cereals (1.3; 12'. 77 GJ/t) , Vegetables & Melons (1.0; 6.38GJ/t), Roots & Tubers (0.4, 6.38 GJ/t), Sugar Beet (0.3, 6.38 GJ/t)and Sugarcane (0.55, 17.33 GJ/t, oven dry).b) forest; Potentially Harvestable residues are assumed to equal allresidues generated during cutting and processing. For each countrytotal Cut is calculated as 1.67 times "Roundwood Production."(FAOForest Products Yearbook, 1989). Residues arise at the site ofcutting are assumed to be 40% of Total Cut, and at the milis, assumedas 50% of "Industrial Roundwood". [Globally, "Industrial Roundwood"and "Fuelwood + Charcoal" are each equal to about half of "RoundwoodProduction." (15.96 GJ/t HHV, 20% moisture)], but such a ratio cannotbe used at the country or regional level because of the countrydifferences between cutting for fuelwood and for industrialroundwood. Calculation of on site residues from the total cut are notpossible in the case of use for fuelwood and charcoal because ofwidely differing local practicas; thus we assume a 40% residue fromthe total cut for both industrial roundwood and fuelwood + charcoal.c). dung; Animáis populations are derived from WRI/'fitorJd Resources;1990-91." Washington, D.C. 20006. Each category is assigned a dungproduction coefficient which estimates the average daily dry dungproduction for each type of animal (Taylor et al., 1982; Senelwa A,K,Hall D,0,. 1991) ie. Cattle (3 kg d~l; 15 GJ/t), Sheep & Goats (0.5 kgd'1; 17.8 GJ.t), Pigs (0.6 kg d'1), Equines (1.5 kg d' 15 GJ/t), Camels& Buffaloes (4.0 kg d-1; 14.9 GJ/t) and Chickens (0.1 kg d~l; GJ/t).It is then assumed that 50% of total production is PotentiallyHarvestable. Recoverable Dung is then assumed to be 25% ofPotentially Harvestable Dung ie. l/8th of total production, dry weight.
VII; Present commercial energy consumption is from BP, "Statistical Reviewof World Energy, 1990." FAO, "Forest Products Yearbook, 1989," forFuelwood and Charcoal use only. No attempt is made to estímate any otherform of Biomass Energy use by the FAO.VIII. Present per capita energy using Col.VII data.IX assumes total energy use of 140 or 310 GJ/cap. thus estimating presentand future energy consumption by country.X-XI show the percentage of eitner "present energy" use or energy use at140 or 310 GJ/cap (from cois. VII and IX resectively) provided by 25% ofrecoverable residues alone.XII-XIII indícate potential land use for biomass growth at a productivityof 10 t/ha/yr, to provide 140 or 310 GJ/cap (Col. IX). Col.XII shows totalland needed for each country, and XIII the percentage of total land área.XIV & XV uses 25% of recoverable residues and 10 t/ha/yr to provied 140 or310 GJ/cap., showing the total and percentage of each country's land árearequired.
TABLE 10 ESTIMATED TOTAL ENERGY CONSUMPT1ON BY COUNTRY & REGIÓN 1 4
r AO frjei cna/coat consumpton data is comparer1 wrtf a total -jgness ccnsumpcon esomate tor each country
Col. I. Commercial energy consumption data was derived from three data sources; i) NorthAmerica, Western Europe and USSR (BP, 1991), ü)Eastern European andDeveloping countries predominantly IEA (1990) iii) remaming country datafrom the UN (1987).
Col. II. Fuelwood = "Fuelwood + Charcoal" as from FAO Forests Products Yea/Book; 1990. FAOestimates totai wood cut for firewood and for conversión to charcoal;no other form of biomass use for energy eg. residues.
Col. III. Biomass energy consumption data was derived from: i)FAO "Fuefwood+ Charcoal" (FAO, 1990), ii)the Biomass Users Network (BUN), whichestimates all forms of biomass use for energy; so far detailed studies navebeen carried out for only 55 developing countries (Hali, 1991), ii¡) the United NationsStatistical Office, which includes various forms of biomass use for energy íntheir Energy Balances & Electricity Profiles publication (UNSO, 1990).Due to the sparseness of biomass energy use data Ín both industrialisedand developing countries, where no data ,s published we have estimated biomassuse in developing countries by assuming that the per capita consumption ofbiomass for energy is 1 tonne of wood equivalent (twe)/capfor rural inhabitants and 0.5 twe/cap for urban inhabitants. 1987 populationdata is from FAO Agrostat datábase (1990) (FAO, 1991). Thus the order ofpreference for data sources was BUN>UNSO>per capita (Popn.) estímate.
Col.IV & V. The different biomass energy consumption estimates (col. II& ill) are added to the commercial energy consumption data from col I.
CoL VI & Vil. Per capita total energy consumptton (includmg biomass, Col. IV & Vil)is calculated using 1987 population data from the FAO's AGROSTAT datábase (1990).(see table 10 for regional population breakdown)
Col. VIH & IX. the percentage share of total energy consumption provided by biomassis calculated by dividing col. II by IV (col. VIII) and Col. :i l by V (Col. IX)
Table 11 SELECTED SUGARCANE AND PLANTATION WOOD FEEDSTOCK COSTSIN VARIÓOS DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
1 Country
1 Brazil31 (1992)1 constant1 1988 US$
1 Thailand(1990)
1 Costa Rica1 (1988)c
1 Jamaica1 (1985)
Feedstock Costs in US$/GJ
Sugarcane
Tops &Leaves
1.19(CEST)f1.49(STIG)
1.68-1.45
0.95-1.42
0.58-2 .02
Bagasse
1.18 (CEST)1.68 (STIG)
-
0.28-1.10
0.97-2.21
PlantationWood
1.09-3.17(for theNortheastRegión. )
-
2. 51-3. 17
1.00-1. 50
ElectricityProduction
Costsc/kWhe •
Technology
CEST
13 .45-7.06
-
4.8-5. 1
4.8
STIG
6.70-4.40
-
4. 1-4.0
-
>urce: Tugwell et al. (1988).
:osts of both the biomass feedstock and electricity vary as a result ofiredicted increases in productivity from the present (52 t/ha/yr) to futureigarcane yields (71 t/ha/yr.) The efficiency with whích the tops & leaves are¡ollected is also predicted to improve from about 50% of total production:resently to about 75% of total production in the future with further gains.imited for environmental reasons.(thanol in Brazil now (1992) costs about US$7.9/GJ or an average 18.5C/1.
:hese prices are competetive with oil costing US$ 2.19/GJ or US$19/barrel.
:osts vary here due to increasing transport distances; even at furtheristances sugarcane residues are competetive with fossíl fuel alternativesstimated to cost (constant 1985 US$): US$2.45-3.84/GJ for fuel oil, US$2.35-,09/GJ for importad coal and US$3.79-4.22/GJ for indigenous coal.
The cost (1985 US$) of sugarcane residues is dependant on the processing:hnology, with briquetting generally costings less than pelletizing. Inmaica, also, the costs of biomass fuels are competetive with fossil fuels:sidual fuel oil, US$2.9-4.00/GJ; Distilled fuel oil, US$5.4-7.50/GJ; andported coal, US$1.43-2.08/GJ.
lectricity costs are estimated from the feedstock costs cf the biomass. Forgarcane residues the feedstock is derived from both the tops & leaves andgasse produced from crushed sugarcane.
EST stands for Condensing Extraction Steam Turbine which is a robust andture technology of relatively low efficiency (25-35%) compared to STIG (Steamjected Gas turbine, about 40% efficient).
Wood humidity.Charcoal production efficiency.Useful life of kiln.Annual Charcoal production (appx).Volumetric efficiency charcoal
to pig iron.
5m36 - 44 steres (1)
4 hrs (2 raen)5 hrs (2 men)96 hrs96 hrs
33% (in weight)1.8 - 2.0 steres per lm"
charcoal(2)25 - 30%1.8-2.4stere/ha/yr4 years5,400 m
4.2-3.2 (3)
Sourcenotes
(1)
(2)
(3)
Rosillo-Calle et al. (in press)
Between 21.7-26.5 m (lm =1.66 steres) However, this ratio varíesin practice according to the type of wood- e.g. one stere of dryeucalyptus wood is about 0.6 m , although this is not always thecase.The Volumetric conversión efficiency rate varíes considerably,depending on the type of kiln, management, wood characteristicsetc. EfficieneÍes of 2.2-1.6 are also common.Volumetric efficiency charcoal to pig iron depends on many factors- from charcoal quality (eg density to the type of the pig ironkiln. In the most modern kilns efficiencies of up to 2.6m /charcoal per one tonne of oig iron have been achieved. In thefuture an efficiency of 1.9 m charcoal (and even better) can beexpected to be achieved.
Hosahalli (S.India). Wood Gasifier Based Electricity Generation.
.
Gasifier
Engine + Gensetc
Voltage Stabiliser +Accessories
Wood Cutter
Building
Energy Forest
Total
Capital cost of 5 kW wood gas-based and dieselsystem (Indian Rupees3)
WoodgasSystem
16,000
28, 600
6,000
3,000
5,000
5,000
63,600
Diesel-onlySystem
—
28, 600
6,000
—5,000
-
39,600
Source: Ravindrinath" (1993) .
aThe 1992 exchange rate is assumed to be Rs. 25 = US$1.
Life of gasifier is taken to be 50,000 hours and maintenance cost is takenas 5% for an operation level of 20 hours a day.
°Life of the engine is taken to be 20,000 hours and the annual maintenancecost is taken as 10% for 20 hours of operation a day.
Table 16
Compositional data and heating valúes for biomass and coal fdry basisl.
FeedstocH
R i ornas s
Red Alder
BlackLocust
Poplar
Douglasf ir
Casua-rina
Euc.i Granáis
Leucaena
Sugar-caneBagasse
Coal
WestKentuckybitumin-ous
IllinoisNo. 6Bitumin-ous
1 WyomingI subbitum-[ inous
I East Texas1 Lignite• • ' '
Proximate analysispercent by weight
Volatile Fixed Ashcarbón
87.10 12.50 0.40
80.94 1 8 . 2 6 0 .80
8 2 . 3 2 16 .35 1 .33
87.30 12 .60 0.10
7 8 . 9 4 19 .66 1.40
8 2 . 5 5 16.93 0.52
80.94 17 .53 1 .53
73.78 1 4 . 9 5 11.3
33.12 48 .18 18.7
37.50 43.40 18.1
44.68 46.12 9.20
44.55 38 .86 16.6
Ultímate AnalysisPercent by Weight
C H 0 N S Ash
49.55 6.06 43.78 0.13 0.07 0.41
0.01 1.0550 .73 5 . 7 1 4 1 . 9 3 0 . 5 7
48.45 5.85 43 .69 0 .47 0 . 0 1 1.53
' 0 .02 0.1050 .64 6.18 43.00 0 .06
48.61 5 .83 43.63 0 .59 0 .02 1.59
0.01 0.494 8 . 3 3 5 . 8 9 45.13 0.15
49.20 6.05 4 2 . 7 4 0 . 4 7 0.03 1/51
44.80 5 .35 39 .55 0 . 3 8 0 .01 9 . 9 1
65.78 4 . 6 2 4.86 i. 26 4 .74 18. y
65 .34 4.20 6 . 5 9 1 .02 4 . 5 5 18.3
68.75 4.89 15.55 0.89 0.69 9.24
60 .98 4 . 45 15.82 1.08 1.08 16.6
HHV
GJ/t
19.30
19.38
19.38
20.37
19.44
19.35
19.07
17.33
27 .81
2 6 . 6 7
26.78
24.36
kg Nper GJ
0.067
0.243
0 . 2 4
0.03
0.30
0.08
0 .25
0 .22
0.45
0.38
0.33
0.44
kg CperGJ11
25.7
25 .7
25.0
24 .9
25.0
25.0
25.8
25.6
2 3 . 6
24 .5
25.7
25.0
a. Williams &Ib. calculated
Larson (1993)frora data in table.
TABLE 17 Large Scale Danish Biogas Plants
V. Ujcrmit i to-
S-ilCSLÍ \ | ) cnd t iuw
Income
SalesExpciiduurc'ncomc
S'KovsgirdSalesExpcndiiuretncomc
DuviadcS-!cs
Expcnditurc
tacóme
SindingSalesGxpcndilun:íncomc
Saics
Expendí tu relocóme
KcvningcSaics[2*pcnd¡curcIncome
LintrupSales£x pcndiiure[ncomc
Ribe
SalesExpcnditurcIncomi
KcaÜKtaJ
!9S9or19SS/S9
Ipublísliedl lSUCCi í
1.020-1.300-280
1.106822284
¡.793¡.675
118
569264305
1.027
1.842
-815
1.977
8631.114
1990 or ! 1991 or1989/90 199(1/91
(publishcd C p u b l i N l i c dligurcs) l i g u r ü S )
1. 567 1.9751.394 l 1.487
173 4SS
1.450 ! 2.0691.343
!07
2.0361.220
816
543304239
2.6682.047
621
3.3181.7851.533
562436126
2.0881.759
329
6801.822
- 1.142
2.200• 131
2.3021.239
1.063
534361173
3.4882.1591.329
3.7552.5301.225,
930895
35
5.8503.0SS1.762 ,
4.3783.906
472
Ü^aPbm Plum
budiei. buájci.IWJW I993or1991/92 1992/93
2.502I.SÜÍ-
69-1
2.Cv.<1 1.510
2.776IJ3S1.43$
615293322
5.120I.S653.255
4.8632.2522.610
1.043
570478
6.9503.6003360
7.6044.0503.554
2.7752. 1 OS
667 '*:
2.9251.725
1.2001*-
Ifcttkcvcii
¡i 992,11 ¡CCS) '
i
3.425 ;1.3SO
2.04*
615293322
5.3251.940
3.385'
5.0582.343
"5.715
1.091593
498.-
7.2283.7443.484
7.903. ' 4.212
•¿.ooo
350
2.300
2.40Q
470
2.700
3.696 2.600
Tcble III. CompanyfuicnccsfQr thc nine centralizcd biogas plañís.
1. The oldescplañís, VesterHjerinitslev and Vegger, iiave received about DKK 145m tu tkeform of tcn;porcrilyinierest-free laansfrornthe County ofNorth Juliana \viih no repayment rtquired untilfurther notice. As a cor.-scqucnce, interest and repayment are Icss significan! ritan for rlie cthcr plañís, and correspondías to íhis (hercquired bicorne is íower.
2. Vtsier Hjernúislev, Vegger, Skovsgaard and Fangei liave ai! liad HCW eiígiaelgtntrator ttnits insialled. Salesare therefore expected to be considcrably improved infuíure years. '• . .•
j, Sinding. Revninge, Lintrup and Ribe anticípate increascd sales ofgas, priiiiarily because their teeihingtroubies are ej:pectcd (o have becn overeóme.
4. Calculated annuaí average ofcapitaüsed servicing obligaíions, mciuding operattonal crediis and es:imatedrc-inves(menr(J992 pnces). This calcularían ísprimañly boitnd up with (he actual debí, whiclt in icsturn de-pends on the construction subsidies received, and tlie financial performance np todale; -
5. The situation offrozen construction debts is spcciaifor the plañís ai Vesttr Hjennitslev and Veggcr. Thereforeihe annuaí average ofcapiíalised servicing obligations lias not bcen calculatcüfor [líese plañís.
Source: OEA, Dcnmark, 1992
Figure 1
20 -
1
o -0 5 - .0 1.5
ReLition b^wetn tout pUní m¿rtfr ai h-rvat and fíf£foen interctftethrou'hous íbe grauñng itnsan, for ¡eUcud C¡ plana grown undcr ctxditians rutk chut itx cropsare ivellfertiüzed and thc svpply of water is a¿¿quatt jar
20 -i
>*^^
JS *J
E ^• S irta, a !0*fl í^EQ
Soybean {C3 plantj
Waize (C4 plant)
700 1.100 1.300
Carbón dioxide concentraronmg m-3
1.900
VárLjrjoíi ofwaicr-use ffficíencjf C&UF-) with increaílngfoncer.írtiüon of srmotphencCO2for ttleeiedplañí ¡ptcits (80]. The WJE u me^urcd in mü^ams o/CO, (nf¡) f.xed Inphotarynchaií perpam ofwaur trdrjpircd. Th¿ armospneric concínrraiian o/CO-'u-íi; 655 T.?m'3 (353ppm) in ¡990.
Sourc'e: Hall et al. (1992)
Figure 2
ANNUAL MOISTURE INDEX (P / PET)
FIGURE WorL¿ map ofthe annu¿l moisrure inaac libe rafia efthe cr.n-Msl precipitarían (P) wpotfnriaievaporranspsranon (PET)], a measvre of motsrure availabtlitj fhrplant rrcitrth [81]. Ár.anr.u^l moisrurc irukx ofUn ¡han on¿ imptia a weter déficit, ushich uñíl llmiipiar.tgrcmríh, u>hiL:_a ratio grcattr :h¿n or.e implía tha: thtrt is cecea waur, so ihei ruitoffmifht ocrvr.
NET PRIMARY PRODUCTiVITY (g d.mf/ m2/ year)
FIGURE : WorLl map ofnef primary pro¿tácrivity in rrami ofdijplznt mAtitr per ¡¿-¿are rnper year. (Nose chai one gram per stj¡¿urf mcler p& yccr - 0.01 tonr.fi ptr heciarr per year.) Thepftrnary productivín •jzlittí ¡houm here u/fre obtainea by aveTapnf valúa obtcir^a jrommoetfií—¡he so-¿¿LUcí Miami cruz 'acruaíevapotransptration~bajcd strmQ:¿~ trtodcls
Source: Box & Meenterayer C1991J
ioon c PH
90-
80-
70-
60-
The NeihorlandsBolgium
FranceGermany í West
EastEuropo í Cíochoslovakia
Bulgaria
CanadáNew York State
Poland
World /" Moxico
4 USSíVchinoAsia
África ^ _
1750 1800 1850 1900
Yoar1950 1980
I ; igure The wheat crop prodüction Índex (CPI)trend for the Netherlands from 1750 to the pre-sent. The wheat CPI for other countries in aboutl ' J ' / í ) 75 is also shown for comparison.
Source: Buringh (1987)
i _,
t ha
India
Pakistán
Bangladesh
600 800 1000—1— —i—1200 1400
Year
1600 1800 2000
Figure Average rice yield in Japan , year 600to present. The modern average yields of othernations are íocated on the yield curve for Japan .
Source: Hopper (1976)
CRnU)
Figure 4
Plantation Rotation Length and
Standing Stock at 3, 6 & 12 tC/ha/yr.
80
70 -
60
50
X.uo
r' 40c?
Ced
. 30 ->
20 •-
10 - —
4 5 6 8 9Rotation length (YEARS)
10 11 12
3 tC/ha/yr -•- 6 tC/ha/yr —h- 12 tC/ha/yr
6
O 5enoío,00
co 4coen
C/3OOLÜ_lü>OLUU.
< 1HOh-
0
o
Delivered cosí of wood fromplantations in Northeast Brazil
Northeastaverage
HighV Estimate
Bioclirnatic Región Lowestímate
5 10 15 20
YIELD. .(DRY TONNES PER HECTARE PER YEAR)
25 30
K-00úHÍO
líslimoled hiplí , low, nnd nverngc costs of plontntion grown wood vcrsus oliintaüonyíeld. Average co^ts hy liinclimnlic región nre sliown, ns nrc tho avenipe cosls
in Üio Northeast.Source: Carpentieri et al (1993)
0000
u. .
coOOQOo
3
O
Plantalion wood cost-supplycurve for Northeast Brazil
o
1
V
Bioclimatic Región
2000
~r ~r ~r^1000 6000 0000
MILLION GJ PER YEAR
IV
10000 2000
H-00eMn>Lncr
PlnnLntion woud cosl-supply curve fcir Norl.hcnsL lim/.il. The im;rn(;o rosl. MIKÍ 1.11ccslnnnlcd Lotnl volunic of wood LhnL can bo prmlucod in onch of tlio fivo hiocÜmntic rof;ionsshow»Sourc'e: Carpentieri et al (1993)
Purchasing power.oí sugar (1975 = 100%)
Year
Barréis oí oilpertonne sugar
Compared wilh1975(%)
Sugar price($ pertonne)
Compared wilh1975(%)
1973(Jan)
76.6
183
230
57
1973 1975(Dec) (Average)
43.8
105
224
56
41.9
100
401
100
1982(July)
5.1
12
115
29
1984(Dec)
2.8
7
80
20
1989(July) .
19.4
46
301
75
1990.(July)
16.8
40
269
67
1990(Dec)
9.5
23
218
54
Source: Hall ar.d de Groot, 1986. Updaled from commodily price statislics, InternationalSugar Associalion and Instituto oí Petroleum, London.
Cnno-
Figure 7
Steam and air • Steam and air
Biomass
S'.eamand airAsh..
Gasifiertop
Gas i f i e rbottom
tempe tature
iiomass
Fixed-bed gas i f ie r (dry ash)
1=—*- Gas
5
Biomais
AJr
il i i i
4 'Gas
< i
Gasifiertop
bottom
Temperature
B u b b H n g f!u!dlzed-b«d gas l f ie r
f7=—»- Gas
Biomass Char-bed
Orculatíng í!uldir«d-b«d gasffier
FIGURE : Qpmtinf principia íruL trmpcr&tvrf proftln fcr fixíd-btd (tep) tn¿r) ¡asijífn, and ¡he o^netin^principie for í a
Kigurc í). Alternativo commcrcia! gas turbinc cyclos iuclcd witb na tu rn l gas: opcn-cyclc [jíisturbinc (OCGT), uppcr left; cogcncrotion cycle, upper right; stcam-injcetcd gas turbinc (STIG),lower riglit; and gas turbine/combíncd cycle (GTCC), lowcr left.
Source: Williams & Larson (1992)
Global Trends in Áreas and ProductionofCereals (1961-1990)
ÁREAS AND PRODUCTION OF CEREALSINDUSTRIALISED REGIÓN (1961-1990)
1000
900
o
0.
4001961 1968 1975
YEAR1982
Arable Land Cereal Production I
500
400
LUce
2001989
' " • i l A<> AGROSTAT DATABASE (1990)
FAO TECHNICAL PAPERS
FAO ENVIRONMENT AND ENERGY PAPERS
8
7
a
9
101112
13
Natural resources and the human environment for foodand agricultura, 1980 (E F S)Environmental impact assessment and agricultura!development, 1982 (E F S)Management and utilizaron of rnangroves in Asia andthe Pacific, 1982 (E)Mangrove management ¡n Thailand, Malaysia andIndonesia, 1985 (E F S)Rural energy planning in China and other developingcountries of Asia, 1985 (E)Natural resources and the human environment for foodand agriculture in África, 1986 (E F)Report on natural resources for food and agriculture inthe Asia and Pacific Región, 1986 (E)Report on natural resources for food and agriculture inLatín America and the Caribbean, 1986 (E S)Environmental guidelinesfor resettlement projects in thehumid tropics, 1988 (E F S)Solar drying of fish and paddy, 1989 (E)The briquetting of agricultural wastes for fue!, 1990 (E)A new approach to energy planning for sustainable ruraldevelopment, 1990 (E)Bioenergy for development - Technicai andenvironmental dimensions, 1994 (E)
Availabllity: January 1994
AicEFIJS
ArabicChíneseEnglishFrenenPortuguesaSpanish
Multil -Multilingual* Out of print** In preparation
The FAO Technicai Papers are available through the authorízed FAOSales Agents or directly from Distribution and Sales Sectíon, FAO,Víale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
