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1. Hyman DJ, Henry A, Taylor A. Severe rhabdomyolysis related to cerivastatin without gemfi-brozil. Ann Intern Med. Jul 2 2002;137(1):74.

2. Psaty BM, Furberg CD, Ray WA, Weiss NS. Potential for conflict of interest in the evaluation of suspected adverse drug reactions: use of cerivastatin and risk of rhabdomyolysis. JAMA. Dec 1 2004;292(21):2622–2631.

3. Lindner A, Charra B, Sherrard DJ, Scribner BH. Accelerated atherosclerosis in prolonged maintenance hemodialysis. N Engl J Med. Mar 28 1974;290(13):697–701.

4. Munger KL, Levin LI, Hollis BW, Howard NS, Ascherio A. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of multiple sclerosis. JAMA. Dec 20 2006;296(23):2832–2838.

5. Menacker F. Trends in cesarean rates for first births and repeat cesarean rates for low-risk women: United States, 1990–2003. Natl Vital Stat Rep. Sep 22 2005;54(4):1–8.

6. Lydon-Rochelle M, Holt VL, Easterling TR, Martin DP. Risk of uterine rupture during labor among women with a prior cesarean delivery. N Engl J Med. Jul 52001;345(1):3–8.

7. Tofovic SP, Dubey R, Salah EM, Jackson EK. 2-Hydroxyestradiol attenuates renal disease in chronic puromycin aminonucleoside nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol. Nov 2002;13(11): 2737–2747.

8. Dooley AC, Weiss NS, Kestenbaum B. Increased risk of hip fracture among men with CKD. Am J Kidney Dis. Jan 2008;51(1):38–44.

9. Ariyo AA, Thach C, Tracy R. Lp(a) lipoprotein, vascular disease, and mortality in the elderly. N Engl J Med. Nov 27 2003;349(22):2108–2115.

10. Carpenter RG, Irgens LM, Blair PS, et al. Sudden unexplained infant death in 20 regions in Europe: case control study. Lancet. Jan 17 2004;363(9404):185–191.

11. Travis LB, Curtis RE, Glimelius B, et al. Bladder and kidney cancer following cyclophosph-amide therapy for non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. J Natl Cancer Inst. Apr 5 1995;87(7):524–530.

12. Mell LK, Davis RL, Owens D. Association between streptococcal infection and obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette’s syndrome, and tic disorder. Pediatrics. Jul 2005;116(1): 56–60.

13. Henley DV, Lipson N, Korach KS, Bloch CA. Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils. N Engl J Med. Feb 1 2007;356(5):479–485.

14. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Intussusception among recipients of rotavirus vaccine – United States, 1998–1999. JAMA. Aug 11 1999;282(6):520–521.

15. Lang IA, Galloway TS, Scarlett A, et al. Association of urinary bisphenol A concentration with medical disorders and laboratory abnormalities in adults. JAMA. Sep 17 2008;300(11): 1303–1310.

16. Smith NL, Psaty BM, Heckbert SR, Tracy RP, Cornell ES. The reliability of medication inven-tory methods compared to serum levels of cardiovascular drugs in the elderly. J Clin Epidemiol. Feb 1999;52(2):143–146.

17. Belanger CF, Hennekens CH, Rosner B, Speizer FE. The nurses’ health study. Am J Nurs. Jun 1978;78(6):1039–1040.

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18. Avorn J. In defense of pharmacoepidemiology – embracing the yin and yang of drug research. N Engl J Med. Nov 29 2007;357(22):2219–2221.

19. Aronoff S, Rosenblatt S, Braithwaite S, Egan JW, Mathisen AL, Schneider RL. Pioglitazone hydrochloride monotherapy improves glycemic control in the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes: a 6-month randomized placebo-controlled dose-response study. The Pioglitazone 001 Study Group. Diabetes Care. Nov 2000;23(11):1605–1611.

20. Nissen SE, Wolski K. Effect of rosiglitazone on the risk of myocardial infarction and death from cardiovascular causes. N Engl J Med. Jun 14 2007;356(24):2457–2471.

21. Manson JE, Hsia J, Johnson KC, et al. Estrogen plus progestin and the risk of coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med. Aug 7 2003;349(6):523–534.

22. Prentice RL, Langer R, Stefanick ML, et al. Combined postmenopausal hormone therapy and cardiovascular disease: toward resolving the discrepancy between observational studies and the Women’s Health Initiative clinical trial. Am J Epidemiol. Sep 1 2005;162(5):404–414.

23. Michaelsson K, Lithell H, Vessby B, Melhus H. Serum retinol levels and the risk of fracture. N Engl J Med. Jan 23 2003;348(4):287–294.

24. Smeeth L, Cook C, Fombonne E, et al. MMR vaccination and pervasive developmental disor-ders: a case-control study. Lancet. Sep 11–17 2004;364(9438):963–969.

25. Fried LP, Borhani NO, Enright P, et al. The Cardiovascular Health Study: design and rationale. Ann Epidemiol. Feb 1991;1(3):263–276.

26. Cardo DM, Culver DH, Ciesielski CA, et al. A case-control study of HIV seroconversion in health care workers after percutaneous exposure. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Needlestick Surveillance Group. N Engl J Med. Nov 20 1997;337(21):1485–1490.

27. Papadakis MA, Teherani A, Banach MA, et al. Disciplinary action by medical boards and prior behavior in medical school. N Engl J Med. Dec 22 2005;353(25):2673–2682.

28. Wolfe RA, Ashby VB, Milford EL, et al. Comparison of mortality in all patients on dialysis, patients on dialysis awaiting transplantation, and recipients of a first cadaveric transplant. N Engl J Med. Dec 2 1999;341(23):1725–1730.

29. Schiffl H, Lang SM, Fischer R. Daily hemodialysis and the outcome of acute renal failure. N Engl J Med. Jan 31 2002;346(5):305–310.

30. Palevsky PM, Zhang JH, O’Connor TZ, et al. Intensity of renal support in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury. N Engl J Med. Jul 3 2008;359(1):7–20.

31. Waber RL, Shiv B, Carmon Z, Ariely D. Commercial features of placebo and therapeutic efficacy. JAMA. Mar 5 2008;299(9):1016–1017.

32. Mehta RL, McDonald B, Gabbai FB, et al. A randomized clinical trial of continuous versus intermittent dialysis for acute renal failure. Kidney Int. Sep 2001;60(3):1154–1163.

33. Preliminary report: effect of encainide and flecainide on mortality in a randomized trial of arrhythmia suppression after myocardial infarction. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) Investigators. N Engl J Med. Aug 10 1989;321(6):406–412.

34. Weiss NS, Koepsell TD, Psaty BM. Generalizability of the results of randomized trials. Arch Intern Med. Jan 28 2008;168(2):133–135.

35. Juurlink DN, Mamdani M, Kopp A, Laupacis A, Redelmeier DA. Drug–drug interactions among elderly patients hospitalized for drug toxicity. JAMA. Apr 2 2003;289(13): 1652–1658.

36. Pitt B, Zannad F, Remme WJ, et al. The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure. Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med. Sep 2 1999;341(10):709–717.

37. Lassen MR, Ageno W, Borris LC, et al. Rivaroxaban versus enoxaparin for thromboprophy-laxis after total knee arthroplasty. N Engl J Med. Jun 26 2008;358(26):2776–2786.

38. Hu FB, Stampfer MJ, Manson JE, et al. Dietary fat intake and the risk of coronary heart dis-ease in women. N Engl J Med. Nov 20 1997;337(21):1491–1499.

39. Psaty BM, Koepsell TD, Lin D, et al. Assessment and control for confounding by indication in observational studies. J Am Geriatr Soc. Jun 1999;47(6):749–754.

40. Mehta RL, Pascual MT, Soroko S, Chertow GM. Diuretics, mortality, and nonrecovery of renal function in acute renal failure. JAMA. Nov 27 2002;288(20):2547–2553.

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41. Kent DM, Price LL, Ringleb P, Hill MD, Selker HP. Sex-based differences in response to recombinant tissue plasminogen activator in acute ischemic stroke: a pooled analysis of randomized clinical trials. Stroke. Jan 2005;36(1):62–65.

42. Terry PD, Miller AB, Rohan TE. Obesity and colorectal cancer risk in women. Gut. Aug 2002;51(2):191–194.

43. Ware JH. The limitations of risk factors as prognostic tools. N Engl J Med. Dec 21 2006; 355(25):2615–2617.

44. United Kingdom Small Aneurysm Trial Participants. Long-term outcomes of immediate repair compared with surveillance of small abdominal aortic aneurysms. N Engl J Med. May 9 2002;346(19):1445–1452.References

233

BookID 177561_ChapID BM_Proof# 1 - 19/08/2009

AAgeno, W., 68Ariely, D., 63Ariyo, A.A., 16Aronoff, S., 40Ascherio, A., 5Ashby, V.B., 60Avorn, J., 40

BBanach, M.A., 56Belanger, C.F., 38Blair, P.S., 21Bloch, C.A., 27Borhani, N.O., 50Borris, L.C., 68Braithwaite, S., 40

CCardo, D.M., 52Carmon, Z., 63Carpenter, R.G., 21Charra, B., 5Chertow, G.M., 100Ciesielski, C.A., 52Cook, C., 46Cornell, E.S., 35Culver, D.H., 52Curtis, R.E., 23

DDavis, R.L., 23

Dooley, A.C., 15, 40Dubey, R., 11

EEasterling, T.R., 11Egan, J.W., 40Enright, P., 50

FFischer, R., 63Fombonne, E., 46Fried, L.P., 50Furberg, C.D., 4

GGabbai, F.B., 64Galloway, T.S., 30Glimelius, B., 23

HHeckbert, S.R., 35Henley, D.V., 27Hennekens, C.H., 38Henry, A., 4Hill, M.D., 114Hollis, B.W., 5Holt, V.L., 11Howard, N.S., 5Hsia, J., 41Hu, F.B., 93Hyman, D.J., 4

Author Index

234 Author Index

BookID 177561_ChapID BM_Proof# 1 - 19/08/2009 BookID 177561_ChapID BM_Proof# 1 - 19/08/2009

IIrgens, L.M., 21

JJackson, E.K., 11Johnson, K.C., 41Juurlink, D.N., 66

KKent, D.M., 114Kestenbaum, B., 15, 40Koepsell, T.D., 66, 100Kopp, A., 66Korach, K.S., 27

LLanger, R., 41Lang, I.A., 30Lang, S.M., 63Lassen, M.R., 68Laupacis, A., 66Levin, L.I., 5Lin, D., 100Lindner, A., 5Lipson, N., 27Lithell, H., 43Lydon-Rochelle, M., 11

MMamdani, M., 66Manson, J.E., 41, 93Martin, D.P., 11Mathisen, A.L., 40McDonald, B., 64Mehta, R.L., 64, 100Melhus, H., 43Mell, L.K., 23Menacker F., 11Michaelsson, K., 43Milford, E.L., 60Miller, A.B., 118Munger, K.L., 5

NNissen, S.E., 40

OO’Connor, T.Z., 63Owens, D., 23

PPalevsky, P.M., 63Papadakis, M.A., 56Pascual, M.T., 100Pitt, B., 66Prentice, R.L., 41Price, L.L., 114Psaty, B.M., 4, 35,

66, 100

RRay, W.A., 4Redelmeier, D.A., 66Remme, W.J., 66Ringleb, P., 114Rohan, T.E., 118Rosenblatt, S., 40Rosner, B., 38

SSalah, E.M., 11Scarlett, A., 30Schiffl, H., 63Schneider, R.L., 40Scribner, B.H., 5Selker, H.P., 114Sherrard, D.J., 5Shiv, B., 63Smeeth, L., 46Smith, N.L., 35Soroko, S., 100Speizer, F.E., 38Stampfer, M.J., 93Stefanick, M.L., 41

TTaylor, A., 4Teherani, A., 56Terry, P.D., 118Thach, C., 16Tofovic, S.P., 11Tracy, R.P., 16, 35Travis, L.B., 23

VVessby, B., 43

WWaber, R.L., 63Ware, J.H., 137

235Author Index

BookID 177561_ChapID BM_Proof# 1 - 19/08/2009

Weiss, N.S., 4, 15, 40, 66Wolfe, R.A., 60Wolski, K., 40

ZZannad, F., 66Zhang, J.H., 63

237

BookID 177561_ChapID BM_Proof# 1 - 19/08/2009

AANOVA tests

blood pressures mean comparison, 183p-value, 182

BBias types, screening test

lead time bias, 135–136length bias sampling, 136–137overdiagnosis bias, 137referral bias, 134–135

Bisphenol A (BPA), 25Bivariate statistics

categories, 159–160correlation, 160–162quantile-continuous variable plots, 162

Breast cancer, case report//case seriesand bisphenol A (BPA), 25causation factors, 26limitations

comparison group lack, 26disease rate, 25–26highly select individuals and sampling

variation, 26suggestive results, 27

CCase-control studies

advantages, 51case selection

disease specific definition, 48incident disease, 48–49

control selectionnumber of, 50same opportunity health system, 49–50same underlying population, 49

similarity matching, 50data analysis

odds ratio theory, 53–54practical calculation, odds ratio, 55relative outcome chance estimation,

56–57relative risk and odds ratio, 55–56

disadvantagesobservational study design, 52recall bias, 52in relative risk estimation, 53

measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccina-tion, 45–47

Categorical variables, 154Censoring, survival analysis

definition, 220Kaplan–Meier method, S(t) estimation, 220

Chi-Square tests, 182Clinical research articles

confounder evaluation, 99effect modification, 117–118exposure and outcome data, 18–19misclassification assessment of, 89–90study population, 16

Clinical research hypothesis testsANOVA tests

blood pressures mean comparison, 183p-value, 182

chi-square tests, 182t-tests, 181–182

Clinical research designcausation factors

association strength, 22biological plausibility, 24exposure-varying association, 23–24randomized study evidence, 22temporal relationship, exposure and

outcome, 22–23

Subject Index

238 Subject Index

BookID 177561_ChapID BM_Proof# 1 - 19/08/2009 BookID 177561_ChapID BM_Proof# 1 - 19/08/2009

Clinical research design (con’t)exposure and disease outcome

in clinical research article, 18–19definition, 17specifying and measurement, 18

interventional vs. observational study designs, 20–21

study populationin clinical research article, 16definition, 14generalizability, study findings, 15–16venous thromboembolism (VTE), 14

Cohort studiesadvantages

multiple outcome analysis, 38temporal relationship discerner, 38–39

data analysisattributable risk, 44incident proportion vs. incidence rate,

41–42relative risk, 42–44

disadvantagesconfounding, 39disease examination inability, 39–40

identification, 34incident disease outcome evaluation,

34–35measurement factors

retrospective vs. prospective data collection, 37–38

timing, exposure and outcome, 36–37uniformity, 37validity, 35–36

medication use evaluation/pharmacoepidemiology

advantages, 41limitation and disadvantage, 40–41

Confidence interval interpretation, 169Confounding

in clinical research article, 99exposure and outcomes, 93–94factors evaluation

causal pathway association, 96–98exposure association, 94–95outcome association, 95–96

ghrelin and late-night snacking, 110–111indication, 100interpretation, study result, 109matching control method

cohort vs. case control studies, 107definition, 106multiple confounders, 107pros and cons, 108subjects number, 107

observational study, 92–93randomization control method, 109randomized trial, 92regression control method, 108–109restriction control method

describtion, 102indication, 103pros and cons, 102–103

scientifically meaningful vs. statistical association, 98–99

stratification control methodadvantage and disadvantage, 105describtion, 103–105stratum-specific relative risk, 105

unadjusted vs. adjusted associations, 110Continuous variables, 154Cox’s proportional hazards model

follow-up time, 226–227Kaplan–Meier plots, 224–225odds ratio, 225

C-reactive protein values, 156Crivastatin, 4Cross-sectional studies

disadvantage, 30follow-up data availability, 30–31prevalence measurement, 29–30

Cyclophosphamide, 23

DData analysis, case-control studies

odds ratio theory, 53–54practical calculation, odds ratio, 55relative outcome chance estimation, 56–57relative risk and odds ratio, 55–56

Deep venous thrombosis (DVT), 140–142Diagnostic test

likelihood ratio nomogramclinical conditions, 150negative ultrasound test, 149positive rapid strep test, 146pre and post-test probabilities, 144

medical testingconsidering elements, 139–140deep venous thrombosis (DVT),

140–142eczema, 142rapid strep test, 143streptococcal pharyngitis, 142–143ultrasound test, 141–142

Dichotomous outcome variable, 220, 225Differential misclassification

description, 84–85laparoscopic cholecystectomy, 89

239Subject Index

BookID 177561_ChapID BM_Proof# 1 - 19/08/2009

maternal alcohol use and birth defect, 86–89

recall bias, 88–89Distribution of sampling means

definition, 173properties

normal (bell-shaped) distribution, 174–175

population mean, 175population variance, 175–178

Disease frequency measurementimportance, 5incidence

proportion, 8–9rate, 7

prevalence, 5–6relationship, prevalence and

incidence, 9rhabdomyolysis

cerivastatin, 4diagnostic tests, 3–4statin effect, 4

stratification methoddefinition, 9latex allergy study, 10person, characteristics of, 10place, characteristics of, 10–11time, characteristics of, 11

Drug development phases, 61–62DVT. See Deep venous thrombosis

EEffect modification

clinical research articleskidney dysfunction, hypertension,

117–118menopausal status, obesity, 118

concept of, 113–114evaluation of

epidemiologic, 116statistical, 116–117

relative and absolute scales, 118–120synergy, exposure variables

eczema, 115laryngeal cancer, smoking and heavy

alcohol use, 114vs. confounding, 115

Erythropoietin (EPO) therapy, 60–61

GGeneralizability, 165Ghrelin, 110–111

HHazard ratio, Cox model, 226–227Histogram plots

C-reactive protein values, 155–156systolic blood pressure values, 155

HIV vaccine trial, 73Hypothesis testing

clinical research common testsANOVA test, 182–183chi-square test, 182T-tests, 181–182

conducting experimentsblood pressure, 178–180distribution create procedure, 178p-value, 180standard deviation, 178

distribution of sampling means, properties, 173

bell-shaped appearance, 174–175population mean, 175population variance, 175–177

imperfect systempower, 185–187type I errors, 183–184type II errors, 184

null hypothesis, 172–173study hypothesis, 172

KKaplan-Meier estimation

and censoring, 222–224survivor function S(t) test, 221–222

LLaparoscopic cholecystectomy, 89Likelihood ratio nomogram, diagnostic test

clinical conditions, 150negative ultrasound test, 149positive rapid strep test, 146pre and post-test probabilities, 144

Linear regressioncross sectional scatter plot, 191multiple linear regression

interpreting results, 202–204multivariate model, definition, 201–202

regression modelsconfounding, 205effect modification, 205–207

univariate linear regressionabsolute vs. relative fit, 194–195data points and regression line, 197–201equation and definitions, 193

240 Subject Index

BookID 177561_ChapID BM_Proof# 1 - 19/08/2009 BookID 177561_ChapID BM_Proof# 1 - 19/08/2009

Linear regression (Con’t)interpreting results, equations, 195–197residual value and sum of squares,

193–194vitamin D and interleukin 6, 189–192

Logistic regression modelapplication, 213–214odds outcome, 212–213predictor evaluation, 212probability outcome, 211

Log-link regression model, 210–211Logrank test, survival analysis, 219

MMeasles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccination,

45–47Misclassification

assessment, clinical research article, 89–90definition, 75–76differential

describtion, 84–85laparoscopic cholecystectomy, 89maternal alcohol use and birth

defect, 86–89recall bias, 88–89

non-differentialexposure, definition and impact, 78–81outcome, definition and impact, 84over and under-diagnosing rash,

outcome, 81–83supramycin and drug rash, exposure, 77

Multiple linear regressioninterpreting results

clinical research articles, 203–204covariates, kidney function, 204estimated values, 202regression coefficients, 204relative differences, 202–203

multivariate model definition, 201–202

NNested case-control study, 50Neuropsychiatric syndrome, dose–response

relationship, 23Non-differential misclassification

exposure, definition and impact, 78–81outcome, definition and impact, 84over and under-diagnosing rash, outcome,

81–83supramycin and drug rash, bi-directional

exposure, 80Non-linear regression

logistic modelapplication, 213–214odds outcome, 212–213predictor evaluation, 212probability outcome, 211

log-link model, 210–211Poisson model, 210

Nonselective misclassification. See Non-differential misclassification

Null hypothesis, 168

OOdds ratio theory, case-control study

incidence proportion calculation, 53–54practical calculation, 55and relative risk, 55–56

PPercentiles, 158–159Pharmacoepidemiology, cohort study

advantages, 41limitation and disadvantage, 40–41

Poisson regression, 210Population, definition, 163–164Prostate specific antigen (PSA), 129–132

RRandomized controlled trials

analysiseffect measurement, journal articles,

68–69numbers needed, patients, 69subgroup and natural variation effect,

71–73conductance

biologic vs. clinical endpoints, 65block randomization method, 64comparison group, 62–63placebo, 63

drug development phases, 61–62equipoise, 61erythropoietin (EPO) therapy, 60–61HIV vaccine trial, 73intention-to-treat-analysis

predictable change, relative risk, 71switching and stopping

therapy, 70–71kidney transplant and mortality study, 60limitations

clinical applicability, 67environment generalizability, 66–67

241Subject Index

BookID 177561_ChapID BM_Proof# 1 - 19/08/2009

misclassification and sampling variation, 68

narrowly focused research, 67population generalizability, 65–66

Random sample, statistical inference, 163–164Rapid strep test, 143Recall bias, case-control studies, 88–89Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator

(rtPA), 114Regression models

confounding, 205effect modification, 205–206

Reliability vs. validity, screening test, 123–124

Rhabdomyolysiscerivastatin, 4diagnostic tests, 3–4statin, 4

SScreening test

association vs. predictioncoronary heart disease, 138C-reactive protein (CRP), 137

bias typeslead time bias, 135–136length bias sampling, 136–137overdiagnosis bias, 137referral bias, 134–135

disease process, preclinical and clinical phases, 122

diseases qualitiespreclinical phase, 123recognition and treatment, 123screened population, 122

general principles, 122qualities of

general qualities, 123reliability and validity, 123–124

reliability ofintra-individual variation, PSA, 133measurement tools and individual,

variation, 132–133measures, 133–134

validity ofcontinuous values, 129–132false negative test results, 128false positive test results, 129hepatitis C antibody testing, 126–127positive and negative predictive value,

125–129prostate cancer, prostate specific

antigen screening, 130

receiver operating characteristic curve, 131–132

sensitivity and specificity, 124–125Single data point residual value, 194Standard error, mean, 175, 177–178Statisitics measurement

bivariate statisticscategories, 159–160correlation, 160–162quantile-continuous variable plots, 162

univariate statisticsbinary data, 159histograms, 154–156location and spread, 156–157quantiles, 158–159

variables types, 153–154Statistical evaluation, 116–117Statistical inference

clinical research, 169confidence intervals, 165–169generalizability, 165population, definition, 163–164p-value definition, 168sample size and variance, 164

Statistical test. See T-testsStratification method, disease frequency

measurementdefinition, 9latex allergy study, 10person, characteristics of, 10place, characteristics of, 10–11time, characteristics of, 11

Study hypothesis, 172Study population

in clinical research article, 16definition, 14generalizability, study findings

clinic-based study, 15community-based study, 16health network-based study, 15–16

venous thromboembolism (VTE), 14Survival analysis

censoring, 220–221Cox’s proportional hazards model

follow-up time, 226–227Kaplan–Meier plots, 224–225odds ratio, 225

dichotomous outcome variable, 220, 225event-free survival probability, 220first occurrence analysis, 220–221incidence measure limitations

crude handling, 216–217oversimplification, 216

Kaplan-Meier estimation

242 Subject Index

BookID 177561_ChapID BM_Proof# 1 - 19/08/2009

Survival analysis (Con’t)and censoring, 222–224survivor function S(t) test, 221–222

statistical testlimitations, 219–220logrank test, 219

survivor function, 217–219Systolic blood pressure values, 155

TT-tests, 181–182

UUltrasound testing, DVT, 141Univariate linear regression

absolute vs. relative fit, 194–195body mass index (BMI) and grocery store

trips, 197–198

data points and regression lineinfluential points, 197–198non-linear associations, 198–199regression equation, study data, 199–201

equation and definition, 193interpreting results

binary covariates, 196–197continuous covariates, 195–196

residuals and sum of squares, 193–194systolic blood pressure, 200

Univariate statisticsbinary data, 159histograms, 154–156location and spread, 156–157quantiles, 158–159

VVariables types, 153–154Venous thromboembolism (VTE), 14