REFERENCES

Aitchison, J. ( 1992) Introducing Language and Mind (London: Penguin).

Berko, J., and Brown, R. (1960) 'Psycholinguistic Research Methods'. In P. H. Mussen (ed.), Handbook of Research Methods in Child Development (New York: Wiley), 517-57.

Bickerton, D. (1981) Roots of Language (Ann Arbor: Karoma Press).

Brazil, D. C. (1985) The Communicative Value of Intonation in English, Discourse Analysis Monograph, no. 8 (Birmingham: University of Birmingham).

Chomsky, N. (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).

Clark, H. and E. (1977) Psychology and Language: An Introduction to Language (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich).

Coupland, N., and Jaworski, A (eds), Sociolinguistics: A Reader and Coursebook (London: Macmillan, 1997).

Cruttenden, A (1986) Intonation (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni­versity Press).

Crystal, D. (1975) Prosodic Systems and Intonation in English (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

Crystal, D. (1987) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (Cam-bridge: Cambridge University Press).

Crystal, D. (1988) Rediscover Grammar (London: Longman). Fabb, N. (1994) Sentence Structure (London: Routledge). Fish, S. ( 1980) Is There a Text in this Class? The Authority of Interp­

retive Communities (Harvard: Harvard University Press). Fodor,J. A (1975) The Language ofThought (New York: Crowell). Francis, N. ( 1967) The English Language: An Introduction (London:

English Universities Press). Freeborn, D., with French, P. and Langford, D. (1986) Varieties of

English (London: Macmillan). Halliday, M. (1967) Intonation and Grammar in British English (The

Hague: Mouton). Halliday, M. (1978) Language as Social Semiotic (London: Edward

Arnold).

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240 LINGUISTIC TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Halliday, M., and Hasan, R. (1976) Cohesion in English (London: Longman).

Johnson, M. (1987) The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Mean­ing, I'fiULgination and Reason (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).

Joos, M. (1962) The Five Clocks (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World).

Katz, J. (1972) Se'fiULntic Theory (New York: Harper and Row). Katz, J. J., and Fodor, J. A. (1963) 'The Structure of a Semantic

Theory', Language, 39: 170-210. Lakoff, G. (1987) Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: What Cate­

gories Reveal about the Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).

Lakoff, G., and Brugman, C. (1988) 'Cognitive Topology and Lexical Networks'. In S. Small, G. Cottrell and M. Tanenhaus (eds), Lexical Ambiguity Resolution: Perspectives from Psycholin­guistics, Neuropsychology and Artificial Intelligence (San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann), 4 77-508.

Lakoff, G., and Johnson, M. (1980) Metaphors We Live By (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).

Lakoff, G., and Turner, M. (1989) More than Cool Reason (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).

Leech, G. (1983) Principles of Prag'f~UL[ics (London: Longman). Levin, B. (1993) English Verb Classes and Alternations (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press). Levin, S. (1977) The Se'fiULntics of Metaphor (Baltimore: Johns

Hopkins University Press). Malmkjaer, K. (1995) The Linguistics Encyclopedia (London:

Roudedge). McCarthy, M. (1991) Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Milroy, L. (1987) Language and Social Networks, 2nd edn (Oxford:

Basil Blackwell). O'Connor, J., and Arnold, G. ( 1961) Intonation of Colloquial English

(London: Longman). O'Donnell, W., and Todd, L. (1980) Variety in Contemporary

English (London: Allen & Unwin). Pinker, S. (1994) The Language Instinct (London: Penguin). Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., and Svartik, J. (1985)

A Comprehensive Gram'fiULr of the English Language (London: Longman).

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Searle,J. R. (1976) 'The Classification ofillocutionary Acts', Lan­guage and Society, 5: 1-23. Reprinted in Expression and Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni­versity Press, 1979), 1-29.

Shklovsky, V. (1917) 'Art as Technique', trans. in L. Lemon and M. J. Reis (eds) (1965) Russian Formalist Criticism (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press).

Smith, N. (1973) The Acquisition of Phonology: A Case Study (Cam­bridge: Cambridge University Press).

Sperber, D., and Wilson, D. (1986) Relevance: Communication and Cognition (Oxford: Blackwell).

Sweetser, E. (1990) From Etymology to Pragmatics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

Trudgill, P. (1974) The Social Differentiation of English in Norwich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

Trudgill, P. (1990) The Dialects of England (Oxford: Blackwell). Trudgill, P. (1983) On Dialect: Social and Geographical Perspectives

(Oxford: Basil Blackwell). Wales, K. (1989) A Dictionary of Stylistics (London: Longman).

FURTHER READING

GENERAL READING

Aitchison, J., Teach Yourself Linguistics, 4th edn (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1992).

Blake, N., Introduction to English Language (London: Longman, 1993).

Bolinger, D., Language: The Loaded Weapon (London: Longman, 1980).

Burgess, A., A Mouthful of Air (London: Hutchinson, 1992). Chomsky, N., Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin and Use

(New York: Praeger, 1986). Crystal, D., Linguistics, 2nd edn (London: Penguin, 1985). Crystal, D., The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1987). Crystal, D., The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). Doughty, P., et al., Exploring Language (London: E. Arnold,

1972). Finegan, E., Language: Its Structure and Use, 2nd edn (New York:

Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1994). Fromkin,V., and Rodman, R., An Introduction to Language, 5th

edn (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980). Graddol, D., and Goodman, S., English in a Postmodern World

(London: Routledge, 1996). Greenbaum, S., Good English and the Grammarian (London: Long­

man, 1988). Kenworthy, J., Language in Action (London: Longman, 1991). Milroy, J., and Milroy, L., Authority in Language (London: Rout-

ledge, 1991). Pinker, S., The Language Instinct (London: Penguin, 1995). Quirk, R., English in Use (London: Longman, 1990). Quirk, R., The Use of English (London: Longman, 1962). Quirk, R., Words at Work (London: Longman, 1986). Thomas, G., Linguistic Purism (London: Longman, 1990). Todd, L., An Introduction to Linguistics (London: Longman, 1987).

242

FURTHER READING 243

Trask, R. L., Language: The Basics (London: Routledge, 1995). Trudgill, P., and Anderson, L., Bad Language (Oxford: Blackwell,

1990). Wardhaugh, R., Investigating Language (Oxford: Blackwell, 1 993).

PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

Ashby, P., Speech Sounds (London: Routledge, 1995). Carr, P., Phonology (London: Macmillan, 1 993). Geigerich, H., English Phonology: An Introduction (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1992). Hawkins, P., Introducing Phonology (London: Routledge, 1 992). Katamba, F., An Introduction to Phonology (London: Longman,

1988). Kreidler, C. W., The Pronunciation of English: A Coursebook in

Phonology (Oxford: Blackwell, 1 989). Lass, R., Phonology: An Introduction to Basic Concepts (Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1984). Trask, R. L., Dictionary of Phonetics and Phonology (London: Rout­

ledge, 1995).

SYNTAX

Adams, V., An Introduction to Modern Word-Formation (London: Longman, 1 973).

Arts, B., English Syntax and Argumentation (London: Macmillan, 1996).

Baker, C. L., English Syntax (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1 989). Bauer, L., Introducing Linguistic Morphology (Edinburgh: Edin­

burgh University Press, 1 988). Brown, K., and Miller,]., Syntax: A Linguistic Introduction to Sentence

Structure (London: Routledge, 1991). Burton-Roberts, N., Analysing Sentences (London: Longman,

1986). Fabb, N., Sentence Structure (London: Routledge, 1994). Freeborn, D., A Course Book in English Grammar, 2nd edn

(London: Macmillan, 1995).

244 LINGUISTIC TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Greenbaum, S., An Introduction to English Gram'T/Ul,r (London: Longman, 1991).

Horrocks, G., Generative Gram'T/Ul,r (London: Longman, 1987). Hurford, J. R., Gram'T/Ul,r: A Student's Guide (Cambridge: Cam­

bridge University Press, 1987). Katamba, F., Morphology (London: Macmillan, 1993). Leech, G., A Communicative Gram'T/Ul,r of English (London: Long­

man, 1994). Leech, G., Deuchar, M., and Hoogenraad, R., English Gram'T/Ul,r

for Today (London: Longman, 1982). Matthews, P. H., Morphology, 2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press, 1991). Newby, M., The Structure of English: A Handbook of English Gram­

'T/Ul,r (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). Radford, A., An Introduction to TransfoT'TIUJ,[ional Gram'T/Ul,r (Cam­

bridge: Cambridge University Press). Radford, A., Syntactic Theory and the Structure of English: A Mini­

malist Approach (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

Thomas, L., Beginning Syntax (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993). Wekker, H., and Haegman, L.A., A Modern Course in English

Syntax (London: Croom Helm, 1985). Young, D. J., Introducing English Gram'T/Ul,r (London: Routledge,

1984).

SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS

Aitchison, J., Words in the Mind: An Introduction to the Mental Lexicon (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1994).

Blakemore, D., Understanding Utterances: An Introduction to Prag­'T/Ul,ticS (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992).

Chierchia, G., and McConnell-Ginet, S., Meaning and Gram'TIUJ,r: An Introduction to Se'TIUJ,ntics (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990).

Ferris, C., The Meaning of Syntax (London: Longman, 1993). Goatly, A., The Language of Metaphors (London: Longman, 1996). Green, G., Pra~tics and Natural Language Understanding (New

York: Erlbaum, 1988). Grice, H. P., Studies in the Way of Words (Harvard: Harvard Uni­

versity Press, 1991). Hofman, T. R., Realms of Meaning (London: Longman, 1993).

FURTHER READING 245

Hudson, R., Word Meaning (London: Routledge, 1995). Hurford, J. R., and Heasley, B., Semo,ntics: A Coursebook (Cam­

bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). Jackson, H., Gram'TIUJ,r and Meaning (London: Longman, 1990). Jackson, H., Words and Their Meanings (London: Longman,

1988). Jeffries, L., Meaning in English (London: Macmillan, 1998). Lakoff, G., and Johnson, M., Beyond Cool Reason (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1989). Lakoff, G., and Johnson, M., Metaphors We Live By (Chicago:

University of Chicago Press, 1980). Leech, G., Principles of Pra~ics (London: Longman, 1983). Leech, G., Semo,ntics, 2nd edn (London: Pelican, 1981). Levinson, S., Pra~ics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1983). Lyons, J., Semo,ntics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1981). Palmer, F. R., Semo,ntics, 2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-

versity Press, 1981). Ricoeur, P., The Rule of Metaphor (London: Routledge, 1986). Saeed, J ., Se'TIUJ,ntics (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997). Saussure, F. de., Course in General Linguistics, ed. C. Bally and

A Sechehay, trans. W. Baskin (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966). Thomas, J., Meaning in Interaction: An Introduction to Pra~ics

(London: Longman, 1995). Thomas, 0., Metaphor and Related Subjects (New York: Random

House, 1969). Tsohadtzidis, S. L., Foundations of Speech Act Theory (London:

Routledge, 1994). Waldron, R. A, Sense and Sense Development, rev. edn (London:

Deutsch, 1979).

SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Coupland, N., and Jaworski, A (eds), Sociolinguistics: A Reader and Coursebook (London: Macmillan, 1997).

Fasold, R., The Sociolinguistics of Language (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990).

Holmes, J., An Introduction to Sociolinguistics (London: Longman, 1992).

246 LINGUISTIC TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Milroy,]., and Milroy, L.,RealEnglish (London: Longman, 1993). Mongomery, M., An Introduction to Language and Society (London:

Routledge, 1995). Trudgill, P., Dialects (London, Routledge, 1994). Trudgill, P., Dialects of English (London: Longman, 1991). Trudgill, P., Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society,

rev. edn (London: Penguin, 1983). Trudgill, P., The Dialects of England (London: Blackwell, 1990). Williams, G., Sociolinguistics (London: Routledge, 1992).

5TYLISTICS

Brown, G., Listening to Spoken English (London: Longman, 1990). Carter, R., Language and Literature (London: Routledge, 1982). Carter, R., and Simpson, P. (eds), Language, Discourse and Litera-

ture (London: Routledge, 1988). Cook, G., The Discourse of Advertising (London: Routledge, 1992). Coulthard, M., An Introduction to Discourse Analysis (London:

Longman, 1985). Crystal, D., Investigating English Style (London: Longman, 1973). Freeborn, D., Style: Text Analysis and Linguistic Criticism (London:

Macmillan, 1996). Haynes, J., Introducing Stylistics (London: Routledge, 1993). Haynes, J., Style (London: Routledge, 1995). Knowles, G., Patterns of Spoken English (London: Longman,

1987). Salkie, R., Text and Discourse Analysis (London: Routledge, 1995). Short, M., Exploring the Language of Poems, Plays and Prose (Lon­

don: Longman, 1996). Stenstrom, A., An Introduction to Spoken Interaction (London:

Longman, 1994). Wales, K., A Dictionary of Stylistics (London: Longman, 1990). Wright, L., and Hope, J., Stylistics (London: Routledge, 1995).

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

Aitchison, J., The Articulate Mammal (London: Routledge, 1989). Garnham, A., Psycholinguistics: Central Topics (London and New

York: Methuen, 1985).

FURTHER READING 247

Levelt, W., Speaking: From Intention to Articulation (Cambridge, MA, and London: MIT Press, 1989).

Peccei, J. S., Child Language (London: Routledge, 1994). Pinker, S., Language Learnability and Language Development (Cam­

bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984). Stenberg, D., An Introduction to Psycholinguistics (London: Long­

man, 1993).

INDEX

This index lists the terms, topics and authors discussed in the book. Page numbers in bold type indicate the main discussion of an entry.

accent, 194, 200-1, 214 acceptable/unacceptable, 16-17 accommodation, 201 addresser/addressee, 201-2 adjectivals, 83 adjective, 82-4 adverb(ial), 84-5 Aitchison, J., 227 allomorph, I 07 allophone, 19,61-2,63 amelioration, 150-1 anaphora, 202-3 antonymy, 151 aphasia, 24 applied linguistics, 188 argument, 85 articulation

manner of, 57-9 place of, 66-7

aspect, 85-8 assemblage error, 203-4 assimilation, 43, 61 Austin, J. L., 13, 103, 149, 180-1

Bakhtin, M., 26, 219 Bally, C., 189 bidialectalism, 210 Bloomfield, L., 8, 132 Broca's area, 37, 198 Brugman, C., 154

caregiver language, 204 cataphora, 204 channel, 204-5 childlanguage,205-9 Chomsky, N., I, 7, 9-12, 14, 16,

17-18, 26, 80-1, 99, 121, 140, 177, 193

citational form, 69 clause, 88-9

as exchange, 97 as message, 97-8

as representation, 94-7 elements, 88 kernel, 90 verbless, 90

coarticulation, 37, 43, 61 code,209-10 code-switching, 210 cohesion/coherence, 210-12 collocation, 152 comparative linguistics, 3, 188 competence, 17-18

textual, 211 componential theory, 146, 155-9 computational linguistics, 188 conjunction (conjunct), 91 connective, 91 connotation, 151-2 consonants, 43 context, 212-13

linguistic, 212 macro v. micro, 213 situational, 212 verbal, 212

conversion, 101, 105 cooperative principle, 149, 159-62,

183 maxims of, 160

Coulthard, M., 220 covert prestige, 213-14 Creole, 230-1 critical linguistics, 192 Crystal, D., 109

dative movement, 122-3 deep structure, 10, 81, 99, 121-2 defamiliarisation, 192 deixis, 214-15 derivational complexity theory, 215 descriptive linguistics, 8 determiner, 91-2 determiner phrases, 92, 139 diachrony, 18-19 diacritic, 44, 49, 73, 74

248

dialect, 215-18 eye, 217

dialect continuum, 218 diglossia, 218-19 discourse (analysis), 219-21 displacement, 221-2 distinctive feature theory, 20 distinctive features, 44-6

acoustic, 46 articulatory, 45 classificatory, 45 manner, 46

distribution, 19 dominance, 126

elision, 46 entailment, 162-4 ethnography of communication, 195,

222 ethnomethodology, 195 extension, 164

generalisation, 164 transference, 164

Faulkner, W., 211 feature, 20, 200, 225

in generative grammar, 102 specifications, 20

field of discourse, 223 finite, 92-3 }U'phenomenon,223 Fish,S. 192 Fodor,J., 156, 177,227 force, 150, 164-5 foregrounding, 192 fortis, 72 Francis, N., 143

Giles, H., 201 given/new, 98 glottal stop, 73, 48, 200 glottis, 35, 73 grammar, 20-1, 78

descriptive, 79-80 functional/systemic, 12-13, 81-2,

93-9, 191 generative, 80-1,99-100 prescriptive, 80 traditional, 80 transformational, 10-11, 81, 121-4 universal, 12, 80-l, 127-9

graph(eme), 46-7 Grice, H. P., 149, 159-62, 167

INDEX 249

Halliday, M., 12-13, 81, 93-9, 191 historical linguistics, 188 Hymes, D., 193

ideational function, 13, 93 idiolect, 224-5 image schemas, 154-5 immediate constituency analysis, 8-9,

100-l implicature, 149, 167-8

conventional, 167 non-conventional, 167

Indo-European, 3 inference, 168-9 inflections, 77 International Phonetic Alphabet,

xi-xii, 47-50 interpersonal function, 13, 93, 221 intonation, 50-7, 220 isochrony, 69 isogloss/isograph, 225

Jackendoff, R. 158 Jakobson, R., 45, 190-1 Johnson, M., 148, 154, 171, 172 Jones, D., 40 Jones, Sir W., 3 Joos, M., 234

key, 52 Katz, J., 156, 159, 170, 177

Labov, W., 14, 193, 194,216, 228, 229 Lakoff, G., 148, 154, 171,172 language, 25

arbitrariness of, 6 binary model of, 7 creativity of, 9 functions of, 13 hierarchically organised, 78 rule governed, 1 underspecifies meaning, 143, 197

language universals, 12, 127 langue, 7, 21-2 Leech, G., 144, 161 Ienis, 72 level (of analysis), 22-3 Levin, B., 157 Levin, S., 170, 171 lexeme, 101-2 lexicon/lexis, 102-3 liaison, 57 limitation, 169 linguistic variable, 194

250 INDEX

logic, 147 formal, 149 natural, 149, 167, 185-9

logical connectives, 148, 186 logical form, 10

marked/unmarked, 23 meaning, 142, 144

associative, 151-2 contextualised!decontextualised,

145 definitions theory of, 143 extra-linguistic, 165 reflected, 153 sentence, 144 stylistic, 152 utterance, 144

medium, 225 mentalese, 226-7 metaphor, 148, 169-72 Milroy, J., and L., 195 modal auxiliaries, 104 mode, 225 modularity, 12, 227 mood/modality, 103-4 morph, 107 morpheme morphology, 2, 39, 78, 104-9

agglutinative rules, 107 derivational, 104, 105 fusional rules, 107 inflectional, 104, 105 problems of segmentation, 105-6

morphophonology, 40, 59-60

node, 126 nomenclaturism, 176 non-verbal communication, 175, 235,

227-8 normalisation, 38 noun, 109-12

observer's paradox, 228-9 Orwell, G., 226 over-extension, 229

paradigmatic, 6, 23-4 parole, 7, 24-6 pejoration, 173 performance, 26-7 phone,61 phoneme, 39, 60-2 phonetics, 2, 33-8

acoustic, 34 articulatory, 34-6

auditory, 36-8 note on, xi-xii

phonological rules, 5, 62-5 nasalisation, 64 velarisation, 64

phonology, 2, 39-40 generative, 71

phonotactics, 65-6 phrase, 112-14 phrase structure grammar, 114 phrase-marker, 114 pidgin, 229-32 Pinker, S., 227 pitch, 50 politeness principle, 161 polysemy, 173 post-modification, 113 pragmatics, 2, 13, 149-50 pre-modification, 113 preposition, 114 prepositional phrase, 114 presupposition, 173-5 principles-and-parameters theory, 129 productivity, 27 pronoun, 114-5 prosody, 39, 201

metrical, 70 proto-language, 208 prototype theory, 232-3 psycholinguistics, 11, 196-9

reader-response theory, 192 received pronunciation, 200 reduction, 67 reference, 175-6

exophoric/endophoric, 215 register, 152, 233-5 relevance theory, 161 rewrite rule, 81, 114, 138 rheme

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, 235-7 Saussure, Ferdinand de, 5-7, 18, 21,

24, 28, 30, 146 schwa, 67 Searle, J. R., 13, 103, 149, 182-4 selection restrictions, 177 semantic field, 177-8 semantic space, 5 semantics, 2, 145-9

cognitive, 153-55 truth conditional, 184-7

semiotics, 210

sense relations, 180 antonymy, 151 homonymy, 165-6 hyponymy, 166 incompatibility, 168 meronymy, 169 polysemy, 173 synonymy, 184

sense, 146, 179-80 sentence, ll5-18

garden-path, 224 sentence fragments, 115 Shklovsky, V., 192 sign, 6, 27-8 signifier/signified, 28 Smith, N., 224 social networks, 195 sociolect, 216 sociolinguistics, 14, 193-6 sonority, 68 speech act theory, 13, 149-50, 180-4 Sperber, D., 161 Spooner, W., 203 Standard English, 216-17 structuralism, 7, 28 style-shifting, 23 7 stylistics, 189-93

affective, 192 general, 190 literary, 192

stylostatistics, 193 suprasegmental, 39, 50 surface structure see deep structure Sweetser, E., 172 syllable, 67-71 synchrony, 28-9 syntagmatic, 6, 29-31 syntax, 2, 77-9

tenor, 237-8 tense, 118-19 textual function, 13, 94, 211, 221 thematic relations, 191

theme, 97-9 theta roles, 120 theta theory, ll9-21 tone units, 53

INDEX 251

trace theory, 123-4 transitive/transitivity, 124-5 tree diagram, 125-7 Trudgill, P., 193, 194, 214, 216, 222 truth

analytic and synthetic, 146-7 correspondence theory of, 148 relations, 163

truth conditional semantics, 184-7

under-extension, 238

verb, 129-31 auxiliary, 130 factive, 174 lexical, 130-1

voice, 71-3 vowels, 73-6

cardinal system, 40-3 diphthongs, 74 monophthongs, 74 triphthongs, 76

Wales, K., 224 well-formed/ill-formed, 31-2 Wernicke's area, 37, 198 Wilson, D., 161 Wittgenstein, L., 178 word, 132-3

identification criteria, 133 orthographic, 132 phonological, 132

word-classes, 133-5 categorisation criteria, 134 grammatical, 135 lexical, 135

X-bar theory, 81, ll3, 135-41