Regional Quarterly Bulletin on Wildlife and National …Michelia champaca, Altingia excelsa, Lannaea...

Regional Quarterly Bulletin on Wildlife and National Parks Management

REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP), BANGKOKFOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Vol. XXXVIII : No. 4

Featuring

Vol. XXV: No. 4

October-December 2011

Focus on Asia-Pacific Forestr

y Week 2011

REGIONAL OFFICEFOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

TIGERPAPER is a quarterly news bulletindedicated to the exchange of information

relating to wildlife and national parksmanagement for theAsia-Pacific Region.ISSN 1014 - 2789

Address.

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Editor: Janice NaewboonnienAdvisor: P. Durst

Contents

TIGERPAPER is dependent upon your free and voluntarycontributions in the form of articles, news items, and announcements inthe field of wildlife and nature conservation in the region. In order tobetter serve the n eeds of our readers please write to us and send in theinformation you have or let us know if there is any information that youneed. We appreciate receiving your letters and make all efforts torespond.

Front cover: (Photo: Courtesy of FAO)

The opinions expressed by thecontributing authors are notnecessarily those of FAO. Thedesignations employed and thepresentation of the material in theTIGERPAPER do not imply theexpression of any opinion on the partof FAO concerning the legal orconstitutional status of any country,territority or sea area, or thedelimitation of frontiers.

Pakke Tiger Reserve: An Overview...................................... 1Scientific approach for tiger conservation in the Sundarbans... 5A dragon-fly preys on dragonflies.........................................9Study on commercially exported crab species and their ecology in Chilika Lake, Orissa, Sri Lanka.........................12Urban wildlife: legal provisions for an interface zone..............16Study of the reptilian faunal diversity of a fragmented forest patch in Kukulugala, Ratnapura district, Sri Lanka..............19Status and distribution of Grey-crowned prinia in Chitwan National Park, Nepal....................................................... 28

China hosts 24th session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission and 2nd Forestry Week................................. 1Opening Address by Eduardo Rojas-Briales.......................... 7Daily newsletter at Forestry Week........................................10Asia-Pacific Forestry Week Partner Events...........................12- Reflection Workshop of Kids-to-Forests Initiative................12- From Bali to Beijing: Lessons learned and remaning challenges from a decade of work on forest law enforcement and governance in Asia and the Pacific.........13- Pacific Islands Expert Panel...............................................13- REDD+...........................................................................15- Food chain and nutrition issues in forestry...........................16FAO Asia-Pacific Forestry Calendar………………............... 16

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PAKKE TIGER RESERVE: AN OVERVIEWby Pranab Bujarbarua and Prabal Sen

Introduction

Pakke Tiger Reserve is a land of majestic beautylocated in the outer range of the Himalayas at

the junction of western Arunachal Pradesh andnorthwest Assam. It lies between 92°75’to 92°22’ Elongitude and 26°53’ to 27°16’ N latitude in EastKameng District of Arunachal Pradesh and coversan area of 862.95 km2. The reserve is bounded inthe east by the Pakke river and Papum ReserveForest; at the western boundary is the Bhareli orKameng River, Doimara Reserve Forest and EagleNest Wildlife Sanctuary. The Bhareli River alongwith Shergaon Reserve Forest bounds the north; andNameri National Park of Assam touches the southernpart of the tiger reserve.

Geologically the whole area consists of comparativelynew alluvial deposits of clay, sand, silt and smallboulders. Soils are loam, covered with humus. Theterrain of the reserve changes from flat and undulatinghills at an altitude of 200m in the Assam plain up tothe mountains at an altitude of 2000m above meansea level. Many annual and perennial rivers, streamsand nallas criss-cross the entire reserve. Some ofthe main rivers and streams in the area are Pakke,Bhareli, Nameri, Khari and Upper Dikrai, all flowingin southerly directions in the reserve. The area enjoysa tropical to subtropical climate with cold weatherfrom November to March with a mean annualminimum temperature of 12°C, and maximumtemperature of 36°C. Two monsoon cycles, thesouth-west (May-Sept.) and north-east (Nov.-April),shower the area with average annual rainfall of 2,500mm.

The area of the present Pakke Tiger Reserve wasoriginally known as Pakke Reserve Forest and wasdeclared a Game Sanctuary in 1977. Subsequently,it was declared as Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary andTiger Reserve in 1999. In 2002 the area was renamedPakke Tiger Reserve vide notification no. For/CWL/D/26/94/1742-91 dated 23.04.02 under the Project

Tiger scheme of Government of India. It is the 26th

tiger reserve in the country.

Vegetation and flora

In general, the vegetation and forest types of theentire northeast India have already been describedby Champion and Seth (1968). Accordingly, thevegetation of Pakke Tiger Reserve is a mosaic oftropical semi-evergreen and evergreen forest largelycorresponding to the Assam valley tropical semi-evergreen forest (2B/C1). Other forest types of thearea include:

- sub Himalayan light alluvial semi-evergreenforest (92b/C/151);

- eastern Hoolock forest (3/152 b);- upper Assam valley tropical evergreen forest

(IB/C2B);- tropical riverine forests (4E/RS1); and- secondary moist bamboo tract (E1/2/SI).

The high altitude area of the reserve is mainlydominated by sub-tropical broad-leaved forest. Thefloristic composition of the sanctuary is remarkablein its diversity and luxuriance. A total number of246 taxa of angiosperms belonging to 148 generaunder 62 families have been reported from thereserve so far. These figures are based on thesporadic explorations carried out in the buffer areasof the reserve, but the actual number of taxa will bemuch more and it is estimated that there are around600 comprising angiosperms, gymnosperms, fernsand fern allies.

The lofty dense tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests present a complex façade with amultiplicity of species on multistoried canopies.Many trees found have characteristics of northeastIndia and eastern Himalayan flora attaining their bestdevelopment here. Common tall trees of the areainclude Artocarpus chama, Duabanga grandiflora,Pterygota alata, Phoebe goalparensis, Gmelinaarborea, Aglaia hiernii, Tetrameles nudiflora,

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Fig 1: Map of Pakke Tiger Reserve Source: www.pakketigerreserve.org

Terminalia myriocarpa, Alianthus grandis,Stereospemum chelonoides, Terminalia bellerica,Michelia champaca, Altingia excelsa, Lannaeacoromandelica, Michelia champaca, Chukrassiatabularis, Lindera sebifera, Polyalthia jenkinsii,Bombax ceiba, Ficus benghalensis and F.religiosa. Trees that form the second story forestsare Castanopsis indica, Dysoxylumbinectariferum, Albizzia procera, Mesua ferrea,Cryptocarya amygdalina, Aquilaria malaccensis,Alastonia scholaris, Sterculia villosa, Bischofiajavanica, Syzygium cumini, Kydia calicina,Morus laevigata and Mallotus philippinensisThird story trees are comprised of Talaumahogdsonii, Dillenia indica, Bauhinia spp,Baccaurea ramiflora, Euodia glabrifolia,Emblica officinalis, Garcinia cowa, etc. Someof the common large and small shrubs are Ardisiavirens, Brassiopsis glomerulata, Debregesialongifolia, Maesa indica, Micromelum minuotum,Morinda angustifolia, Murraya paniculata,

Saurauia sp., Vernonia volkamerifolia andMussaenda roxburghii. Many orchids of genusBulbophyllum, Coelogyne, Cymbidium,Dendrobium and Eria, along with species ofAgapetes, Hoya, and Loranthus grow as epiphytesin the tall trees of the reserve.

Tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests haveentangling webs of thick liana, wiry climbers,creepers and weak-stemmed stragglers. Some ofthe common liana and climbers of the reserve areTetracera tomentosa, Dalbergia pinnata, Acaciapinnata, Hodgsonia macrocarpa, Schefleravenulosa, Combretum flagocarpum, Entadapursaetha, Tetrastigma sp., Cissus assamica,Dioscorea alata, D. pentaphylla, Argyreiaargentia, A. nervosa, Paederia scandens anddifferent species of Piper. The reserve is one ofthe richest cane areas of Arunachal Pradesh andseveral commercially important cane species growin the moist places of the reserve, particularly in

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the nallas. Common among these are Calamusflagellum, C. tenuis, C. leptospadix, C. gracilis,C. erectus and C. floribundus. Apart from canes,7 species of bamboo have also been reported fromthe area.

The riverine forests are primarily dominated byDillenia indica, Magnolia hodgsonii, Bombaxceiba and Albizzia procera. The larger perennialstreams with small stone and boulder beds aredominated by tall grasses. The subtropical broad-leaved forest of the reserve is confined to the highaltitude areas and dominated by members of thefamilies Fagaceae and Lauraceae. Some of thecommon trees found in the hill tops areCastanopsis echinocarpa, Elaeocarpus aristatus,Beilschmedia roxburghiana, Cinnamomumbejolghota, Exbucklandia populnea and Schimawallichii.

The flora of the reserve has a distinct affinity withIndo-Malayan, Indo-Chinese and Indo-Burmesefloristic elements and are represented by specieslike Bischofia javanica, Mesua ferrea, Micheliachampaca, Albizzia procera, Bombax ceiba,Talauma hogdsonii, Altingia excelsa.

An analysis of the diversity pattern of the plantspecies with >10cm DBH made by laying 10m x10m random quadrats in the buffer areas of thereserve revealed that Phoebe goalparensis withan IVI value of 36.14 is the most dominant speciesin the reserve. Other co-dominant species arePterygota alata, Albizzia procera, Terminaliabellerica, Syzygium cumini, Dillenia indica,Aglaia hierniii, Duabanga grandiflora, Altingiaexcelsa, Pterospermim acerifolium, Terminaliamyriocarpa, Dysoxylum binectariferum andArtocarpus chama. High IVI values in speciesindicate good regeneration and wide ecologicalamplitude.

The vegetation and flora of the sanctuary hasimmense utilitarian value. The area is abundant intree species, many of which are timber-yielding,plus other plants of economic significance likemedicinal, ornamental and also various non-timberforest products. The area is inhabited by variouswildlife viz. elephant, tiger, sambar, deer, wild boar,different species of primates and avifauna and mostof these animals depend upon the plants of the

sanctuary for their food and shelter. In addition,the reserve shares one of the important elephantcorridors with bordering Nameri National Park ofAssam.

Plant and animal relationship

Pakke Tiger Reserve harbors a wide range ofanimals and is one of the richest wildlife refugesin the state of Arunachal Pradesh. Mammals, viz.elephant, gaur, sambar, barking deer, wild boar,serow and goral inhabit the high areas of thereserve. Carnivores such as tiger, leopard, cloudedleopard, wild dog and other lesser cats are alsopresent in significant numbers. Primate species suchas Assamese macaque, Rhesus macaque andCapped langur are very common in the area.Several species of viverrids and mustelids includingBinturong, Yellow-throated Marten, Himalayanblack beer, Malayan giant squirrel, Pallas red-bellied squirrel and Hoary-bellied squirrel are alsoavailable. About 257 species of birds have beenreported from Pakke and its adjoining areas (Duttaet al., 1998); important among these are GreatHornbill, Wreathed Hornbill, Oriental pied hornbill,White-winged wood duck and pheasants. Thereserve is also a safe habitat for many amphibiansand reptiles. Turtles, viz. Indian peacock softshell,Indian Map shell, Assam roofed and Asian leafturtle are also present in the reserve. Apart fromthese, the hill streams are full of fish fauna. Mostof the faunal species found in the reserve are eitherrare or threatened in nature. Ten species, viz.Capped langur, Clouded leopard, Binturong, Gaur,Leopard, Tiger, Indian soft shelled turtle, Peacock-marked soft shelled turtle, Great Indian hornbilland Indian pied hornbill are also included inSchedule I of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act of1972.

Animals depend directly or indirectly on plants fortheir existence (e.g., for food, shelter and breeding).The general theory is that the species richness ofvertebrate communities in tropical forests is dueto the continuous availability of food resources(Orions, 1969). All the carnivores of the reserveare predator species and subsist on a wide base ofherbivorous prey animals, which in turn aresustained by an even wider base of vegetation.The tropical semi-evergreen mixed forestinterspersed with moist bamboo and cane tracts

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with reed-covered stream-beds in the lowermeadow provide adequate shelter for tiger andother prey animals and have excellent foragepotential for herbivores. Sambars and deer have awide range of food preferences including grassesand foliage of herbs, shrubs, bamboo, regeneratingtrees and various fruits. Primate species, inparticular Capped langur, are leaf eaters. Kumarand Solanki (2003) identified 25 food plants ofRhesus macaque from the area including Sterculiavillosa, Chukrassia tabularis, Dillenia indica,Polyalthia jenkinsii, Bombax ceiba, Altingiaexcelsa, Terminalia myriocarpa, Kydia calycina,Morus laevigata, etc. Hornbills, which aregenerally frugivorous, are dependent on the fruitsof different species of Ficus, Artocarpus chama,Aglaia hiernii, Dysoxylum binectariferum,Bischofia javanica, etc. One of the threatenedbirds, White-winged wood duck, also inhabits thegrassland habitat bordering Assam. Several exoticspecies of plants have become naturalized in thearea. One such species is Mikania micrantha,which is also fed on by the primate species of thereserve. It is therefore required to study the longterm consequences of such types of feeding.

Present status of the Tiger Reserve

Pakke Tiger Reserve is one of the richest refugesof biodiversity in the foothills of Arunachal Pradesh.Apart from valuable plant species, the reservesupports rare and threatened species and 10Schedule I species in the Indian Wildlife ProtectionAct. Although there are no major anthropogenicthreats as yet, the occasional felling of timber,particularly in areas bordering with Assam, posesa threat to the wildlife of the reserve. Since it is animportant elephant corridor, due to habitat lossand scarcity of foods, elephants often migrate tothe nearby cultivated fields and villages causingsevere damage to the crop plants and human lifeas well. Timber felling is substantiated by the spreadof various native and exotic weeds, which areposing a threat to the natural regeneration of treespecies. Although huge quantities of canes areextracted from the reserve, the sustainability ofsuch collections should be maintained. Fishpoisoning in the hill streams by local people is verycommon in the area and creates a threat to thefish fauna. There are also reports of hunting ofwildlife, particularly barking deer, sambar and

primates, which should be checked. Variousdevelopmental activities such as construction ofroads and buildings at the Kameng hydro electricproject are becoming a matter of concern for thevery existence of the reserve. The location of thepower house at Kimi and Tenga Reserve Forest isnot only right on the boundary of Pakke TigerReserve, but in the middle of a rich biodiversityzone. Therefore, the power house should berelocated.

Conclusion

Pakke Tiger Reserve is an important naturalecosystem of scientific, educative and recreativeinterest in the state of Arunachal Pradesh, whereplants and animals live in perfect harmony. Thesalient feature of the vegetation with thecombination of luxuriant semi-evergreen, evergreenand riverine forests is that it harbors a good amountof biological diversity. Although a detailed floristicstudy of the area has yet to be made, it is certainthat the area harbors a vast array of vascular plantswith a number of endemic, rare and threatenedplant species. As far as the protection of tiger andother wildlife are concerned, the maintenance ofintact natural ecosystems is the topmost priority.Therefore, tiger conservation is not merely an effortto save an endangered species, but equalimportance should also be put on preservingbiotypes of sizeable magnitudes.

References

Champion, H.G. and S.K. Seth. 1968. A revisedsurvey of the forest types of India. Managerof Publications, Government of India, NewDelhi.

Dutta, A., Singh, P., Athreya, R.M. and S.Karthikeyan 1998. Birds of Pakhui WildlifeSanctuary in western Arunachal Pradesh.Newsletter for Birdwatchers 38(6): 91-96.

Kumar, A. and G.S. Solanki. 2003. Foodpreference of Rhesus monkey Macacamulatto during the premonsoon andmonsoon season at Pakhui WildlifeSanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh. Zoos, PrintJournal 18(8): 1172-1174.

Orions, G.H. 1969. The number of bird speciesin some tropical forests. Ecology 50: 783-801.

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Authors’ addresses: Pranab Bujarbarua,Department of Botany, Handique Girls’ College,Guwahati -781001, Assam, India(Corresponding Author); Prabal Sen, Action for

Food Production (AFPRO) Task Force, PubSarania, Bye Lane 4 (West), House No. 8,Guwahati- 781 003, Assam, India.

SCIENTIFIC APPROACH FOR TIGER CONSERVATION INTHE SUNDARBANS

by Nirmol Kumar Halder

Introduction

Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is evenlydistributed in its present home in the sub-

continent, especially in the Sundarbans(Bangladesh). Tiger has a wider ecologicaltolerance than other big cats can live in diversehabitats. Although the Bangladesh Sundarbans isrich in suitable tiger habitat, due to various factorslike habitat change, inadequate fresh water supply,lack of prey population in certain places, poaching,human pressure, disease and natural calamity, etc.,the tiger population in the Sundarbans is going todecrease. A detailed inventory on the wildlifepopulation was conducted during 1993-94 underthe Integrated Resource Management Project. Itshowed that there were about 350-400 tigers inthe Sundarbans. The joint tiger census (India-Bangladesh) in 2000 recorded that the BangladeshSundarbans has about 400 tigers. The census wasbased on pugmark surveys. The Sundarbanspossesses potential habitat for sustainableconservation of Bengal tiger through appropriateinitiatives.

Why tiger conservation?

The tiger is a globally threatened species and isone of the few star species in the world. Itsconservation is endorsed by CITES. The needfor its conservation has already been recognizedby the formation of the Global Tiger Forum. Thetiger plays pivotal role in controlling the deerpopulation in the Sundarbans. It is a valuablespecies in the world market. It maintains the foodchain in the Sundarbans ecosystem; consequently,

it is one of the most important factors for this uniqueecosystem and occupies the top of the ecologicalpyramid. It is believed that protecting the Bengaltiger of the Sundarbans is a matter of immenseimportance and value.

The Bengal tiger is facing the following problems:Shortage of prey population at certain places,especially in the northern part of theSundarbans;Destruction of tiger habitat due to humanpressure;Scarcity of fresh water;Scarcity of sufficient high ground for breeding;Onslaught of tidal surges; andEasy access and means of transportation bypoachers.

We must take urgent steps to conserve tigers in theSundarbans.

Role of the Forest Department in tigerconservation

Under Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation(Amendment) Act 1974, tiger was included in thethird schedule of the ordinance of conservation.According to the Wildlife Preservation Ordinance,1973 three sanctuaries were included in theSundarbans. The sanctuaries are known as East,West and South sanctuaries. The total area ofwildlife sanctuaries is 139,700 ha. This is helpfulto increasing habitat, which establishes a broaderbase for a stable population of Bengal tiger andprey populations. But the best way of conservationand management of Tiger in the country is definitely

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to conserve and manage the whole of theSundarbans, stopping anybody from inflicting anydamage to tiger or the prey population or anydamage to the habitat.

A tiger project in the Sundarbans was undertakenby Forest Department. This project is looking atall aspects of tiger conservation, managementresearch, studies, training and education for theofficers and other employees, raising theawareness of people about tiger conservationthrough leaflets, posters, newspapers and othercommunication media.

The first general assembly meeting of the GlobalTiger Forum was held at Dhaka, Bangladesh, 18-20 January 2000. It culminated in the Dhakadeclaration on tiger conservation, whichrecommended 10 major issues to be addressed ona priority basis to secure the future of the tiger inthe wild. The country delegate of IUCN inBangladesh presented a paper in which hementioned that the Forest Department ofBangladesh has succeeded in protecting theSundarbans from encroachment and there is onepermanent human settlement inside the forest. Inthat sense, the entire Sundarbans is protected. Itwas concluded that the Forest Department ofBangladesh must take appropriate initiatives to:maintain the continuity and quality of the tigerhabitat; improve transborder cooperation andpartnership; create linkages between in situ andex-situ conservation; and develop ecotourism (GTFAssembly, 2000).

Need for human resource development on tigerconservation

UNESCO declared the Sundarbans as a WorldHeritage site in 1997 and the Sundarbans has beena RAMSAR site since 1992. Bangladesh ratifiedCITES in 1982, and is also a member of GTF(Global Tiger Forum). Bangladesh is a signatoryto many conservation treaties and conventions, butthere is a lack of resource persons for variousaspects. With this in mind, the Forest Departmentis going to work for tiger conservation. But whenwe will talk about scientific management of Bengaltiger, first we have to develop resource personson this subject not only among the field staff andat the officer level, but also at the grass roots level.

Action plan of the Forest Department forhuman resource development on tigermanagement

The Bangladesh Forest Department is working forconservation and development of habitats for tigeras well as prey populations. This includes:

Capacity building of officers and staff of theForest Department;Training and education at different levels andphases;Research by departmental existing specialists;Creation of awareness among people for tigerconservation; andTraining at grass roots level (Tiger Action Plan,Forest Department).

Need for scientific management of tigers

In Bangladesh, only the Sundarbans has viable tigerpopulations at the present time. Tigers can be foundin a wide variety of environments, although theyrequire adequate cover so they can ambush theirprey (e.g., large herbivores). To conserve tigerpopulations in the Sundarbans proper scientificmanagement is a must. But some basic needs arerequired to adopt the scientific management oftiger:

Assess the population structure of Bengal tigerin the Sundarbans;Identify the habitat of tiger and the suitabilityfor the tiger’s growth;Know what problems tigers are facing;Determine the status of poaching, disease andthe natural condition in which tigers live;Determine the market for tiger trophies (e.g.,different parts of the body) the price and whereit has market demand;Carry on research about the behavior andecology of tiger;Understand the tiger-prey relationship;Find out the status of prey populations;Know the tiger-human conflicts;Research how forest resources are beingexploited;Determine what natural calamities are mainlyresponsible for the decrease in tigerpopulations;Monitor the administrative policy of handlingwildlife in the Sundarbans;

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| Scientific approach for tiger conservation in the Sundarbans |Keep records on tiger populations, includingage, sex, health condition, etc.;Adopt proper survey techniques for gatheringrecent data on tiger;Analyze how seasonal changes affect tigerabundance in the Sundarbans ecosystem;Learn about the feeding habits of Bengal tiger;Examine prey density and biomass; andUpdate the previous tiger action plan.

Important approaches for the scientificmanagement of tiger

Participatory approach

The tidal ecosystem is not so suitable a habitat fortigers, but they were forced to take shelter in thislast natural habitat of Bangladesh due to humandisturbances and the loss of other types offorestland. The size and potentially aggressivenature of tiger towards people, and particularly tofarm livestock, has meant that tiger conservation,following decades of big game hunting, representsa particular challenge (Alderton, 1993). In thisaspect, people in impact zones surrounding theSundarbans are the most important factor. Overthe last century the tiger’s landscape has changeddramatically. An expanding human population hasput increased pressure on the tiger’s habitat, preyand on the tiger itself. Forests and grassland havebeen lost and degraded, land has been fragmentedand unregulated tiger populations have declinedprecipitously both in abundance and distribution.Tiger numbers are now small and isolated in theSundarbans. In the last 25 years these changeshave accelerated, increasing concern over thecontinued existence of tigers (Sunquist et al.,1999). Very often poaching is done with the helpof local people. They can easily identify the areasin which most of the tigers in the Sundarbans arefound, that means its preferred habitat. Theybecome greedy for more money from thepoachers. They do not know the importance oftigers in the natural ecosystem. So first they haveto be awakened about the need for conservationof tigers. The Bangladesh Forest Department hastaken a new approach to gain the participation oflocal people with the help of departmentalpersonnel who are going to train in a differentmanner. About 1.5 million people surrounding theSundarbans are directly or indirectly dependent for

their livelihoods on extracting various forestsproduces. The Forest Department is nowconcerned about finding alternative income sourcesthat will not put pressure on forest. By motivatingthe local people we can involve them in tigermanagement.

People’s involvement can be motivated by thefollowing activities:

Seminars, workshops, meetings;Conveying messages to civil society;Awareness-raising hrough various media;Through advertising with the help of televisionand radio;Direct contact.

Zonation approach

The Sundarbans Reserved Forests include threeWildlife Sanctuaries most likely divided intomanagement zones and buffer zones.

Management zone: This is a subdivision of theSundarbans management area where a definite typeof use of resources is preplanned and implemented.Management zones of the Sundarbans arecategorized into strict protection zone, sustainableuse zone, rehabilitation zone, habitat managementzone, multiple use zone, special use zone andothers (IUCN/CNPPA, 1976). In the case of theSanctuaries, the following zones are included:

i) Strict protection zone: This zone is definedas an area in which rich biodiversity is presentand it is closed to human settlement. The strictprotection zone allows for scientific studies andresearch and controlled outdoor recreationactivities.ii) Rehabilitation zone: This is a degraded areafor the restoration of natural habitat associatedwith biodiversity on a long-term basis and re-zonation to a stricter protection level. Herenatural regeneration is aided with controlledfire, enrichment plantations with indigenousspecies and sometimes with exotics for therestoration process.iii) Recreational zone: The zone in which highrecreational, tourism, educational orenvironmental awareness values are allowedwith priority on sustainable conservation andecotourism.

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iv) Special use zone: This zone is the areacontaining existing infrastructures and fencedcompounds and installations of natural

Management zone East sanctuary South sanctuary West Sanctuary

Strict protection zone 38,976 43,772 162,060

Rehabilitation zone 518 744 2,296

Recreational zone 1,055 590 2,449

Special use zone 5 15 24

Total 40,554 45,121 166,829

Source: Final report on FRMP, 1997

Table 1: Areas of the management zones (in ha)

Buffer zone: Buffer zone is defined as a strip ofland/water body outside each sanctuary, butadjoining it. This zone is intended to be managedto provide a social fence and at the same time usedfor controlled economic activities such as seasonalfishing, gathering of fuelwood, small-sized timber,golpata, honey, wax and other forest productcollection and seasonal hunting of game species.

The gathering of forest products and fishing shallbe strictly prohibited in the buffer zones. Controlledoutdoor recreational activities such as fishing,hunting, boating, etc., shall be allowed in this zone.A strip of about 5-kilometer wide around eachsanctuary will serve as a buffer zone (Rosario,1997).

Table 2: Buffer zones

Buffer zone of each sanctuary

Area (ha.)

East sanctuary 27,699 South sanctuary 23,705 West sanctuary 15,095

Source: Final report on FRMP, 1997 Integrated management approach

An integrated management approach introducesdifferent sectoral management systems to attain aspecific goal. In forestry practices it not only dealswith trees, but is also about soil, water, the forestmicroclimate, land use patterns, watersheds andcommunities in or surrounding the forest. So whenthere is a combination of various sectoralmanagement approaches like forest managementwith land use management, soil science, ResourceManagement Information System (RIMS),

watershed management, while also giving priorityto community development surrounding the forest,then it is easy to achieve sustainable benefits fromforest because every sectoral management iscorrelated with each other. In the Sundarbanswildlife management is integrating habitatmanagement of wildlife, land use management,water resource management, RIMS, communitydevelopment of impact zones, etc. Especially fortiger management an integrated managementsystem is a must. For example, to conserve tigerin the Sundarbans, the participation of local people

importance such as Bangladesh Naval Baseand Bangladesh Port Authority at Nilkamalinside the south sanctuary.

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| Scientific approach for tiger conservation in the Sundarbans | Dragon-fly preys on dragonflies |

has a potential role, which means giving priorityto their awareness about the needs of tigerconservation.

Conclusion

Conservation of tiger is now a global concern.Without proper scientifically field knowledge theplanning, management and conservation of tigerare impossible. At present, no scientific provenfield data is available on tiger on the Sundarbansand there is no doubt that without human resourcedevelopment tiger conservation is quite impossible.So the Forest Department must take adequate stepsto collect data on tiger population, behavior, habitat,etc., with the help of trained people, which willeventually help measures on the planning of tigermanagement in the future.

References

Alderton, D. 1993. Wild cats of the world.Bladford, Villiers House, London. 1-192 pp.

2000. Assembly meeting of Global Tiger Forum.Dhaka, Bangladesh, January.

CNPPA/IUCN. 1976. Criteria wherebyproperties forming part of the naturalheritage may be included in the “World

Heritage List.” IUCN, Morges. (Report toUNESCO).

2000. Joint Tiger Census Report. BangladeshForest Department, Ministry of Environment,Banvaban, Dhaka

Sunquist, M., Kranth, K.U. and F. Sunquist. 1999.Ecology, behavior and resilience of tigerand its conservation needs. In: (Eds.)Seidensticker, J., Christie, S. and Jackson, P.Riding the Tiger: Tiger conservation inhuman-dominated landscapes. CambridgeUniversity Press, London. 5-18 pp.

Rosario, E.A. 1997. The conservationmanagement plan of the wildlife sanctuariesin the Sundarbans Forests (Final report).In: The conservation management plan, pp.61-63. Mandala, Agricultural DevelopmentCorporation, Dhaka, Bangladesh

No date. Tiger action plan. Forest Department,Ministry of Environment, Bangladesh.

The author is one of the members of IUCN/SSC/CSG, Assistant Chief, Ministry of Planning,Bangladesh, currently deputed for MSc. inTropical Forestry and Management, DresdenUniversity of Technology, Dresden, Germanyunder DAAD Scholarship; e-mail:[email protected]

A DRAGON-FLY PREYS ON DRAGONFLIES

by Imesh Nuwan Bandara, Nilusha Somaweera and Nayana Wijethilaka

The group Odonates, which includes dragonfliesand damselflies, is a dominant predatory insect

group in the world and shows an ancient evolution.Sri Lanka is home to 120 species of odonates, ofwhich 57 are endemic to the island (IUCN, 2006).Adult odonates, being fast flyers, are not frequentlypreyed on by other insects due to the difficulty incatching them.

During some of our recent field work sessions inSegiriya – 07° N and 80°45’ E (Matale district),Laggala – Pallegama – 07°32’ N and 80°49’ E(Matale District), Kithulgala - 07°00’ N and80°24’E (Kegall district), Gannoruwa – 07°17’ Nand 80°35’ E, Doluwa – 07°11’ N and 80°36’ Eand Teldeniya - 07°17’N and 80°46’ E (Kandydistrict), we observed a dragonfly-like dipteran

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preying on dragonflies. This insect was nearly 30– 35 mm in size with piercing and sucking-typemouth parts with a short proboscis. The body wasstout and hairy. The thorax was globular with twopairs of horizontally-placed wings which wereshorter than the abdomen. The last segment of theabdomen was elongated; the tapered abdomen waseither curved upwards or downwards with respectto different individuals who may have belonged todifferent species. The long and strong legs werebristled to aid in prey capture. Apparently the insectmorphologically mimics a dragonfly to aconsiderable extent. They were observed feedingon Diplocodes trivalis (Little blue Darter), Acisomapanorpodies (Asian Pintail), Trithemis aurora(Crimson Dropwing) and Neurothemis tullia tullia(Pied parasol) in the field. Most of the prey werelarger than the fly itself. They were active duringthe daytime. They were observed to fly fast andwere found to inhabit low vegetation and usuallyperch on branches in open sunny areas. They usedtheir bristly legs to intercept the prey by grasping itaround the head or back. Usually 1 – 2 individualswere observed within the given areas. The needle-like mouthparts were used to suck up the prey.Moreover, they were also observed to feed onhousefly-like dipterans and lepidopterans.

The above-described dipteran that was observedpreying on dragonflies was identified as a robberfly belonging to the Family Asilidae; Order Diptera;Suborder Brachycera Genus; a poorly studied groupof insects in Sri Lanka.

The robber flies are an abundant and divers familywithin the order Diptera that are known for theirpredatory behaviour. Asilidae diversity can beattributed to their broad distribution; most speciestend to occupy a selective niche. As their commonname implies, robber flies have voracious appetitesand feed on a vast array of other arthropods, whichmay help to maintain a healthy balance among insectpopulations in various habitats (Joern and Rudd,1982; Shurovnekov, 1962).

Robber flies are opportunistic predators, their dietoften reflecting prey availability in a particularhabitat. Diet was more than 85% composed ofinsects from the Orders Diptera, Coleoptera,Hymenoptera and Homoptera, and furthermore,

large species tended to consume a greater diversityof prey taxa (Shelly, 1986).

As with other aerial predators, robber flies haveexcellent vision characterized by two conspicuous,prominent compound eyes. The mouthparts of thisfamily have been modified to form a stabbingproboscis. Asilidae adults attack wasps, bees,dragonflies, grasshoppers, other flies, Lepidopteransand some spiders. The robber fly injects saliva thatcontains nerve toxins and digestive enzymes intoits prey, which quickly paralyzes the prey andliquefies its tissues. The robber fly then sucks outthe insides.

The ecological relationship between predator andprey is one which is beneficial to the predator anddetrimental to the prey. The result of this interactionis adaptations in prey species to avoid being killed,while adaptations in predators result in greaterhunting abilities. Aggressive mimicry is themimicking of something seen as desirable by theprey so that it is not startled by the predator whichcan then get close to the prey unnoticed. This mayalso provide the flies with protection against potentialpredators, while enabling the robber flies to moreeasily approach and attack the dragonfliesthemselves.

It’s an uncommon strategy among arthropods andextends to levels where mimicry is shown amongtaxa in different classes (e.g., Mantids oftenresemble brightly coloured flower parts and sit andwait for their prey). However, in most situationsthe mimic is the prey species and the occasionswhere aggressive mimicry is found is an uncommonsituation where the predator mimics the prey.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Professor J.P.Edirisinghe, Department of Zoology, Faculty ofScience, University of Peradeniya, for her valuablecomments on the manuscript. Special thanks toMr. Ruchira Somaweera for his encouragementon the preparation of the article.

References:

Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. (Ed.). 2006. Fauna of SriLanka: Status of Taxonomy, Research and

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Conservation. The World ConservationUnion, Colombo, Sri Lanka & Governmentof Sri Lanka. viii + 308pp.

Joern, A. and N.T. Rudd. 1982. Impact ofpredation by the robber fly Proctacanthusmilbertii (Diptera: Asilidae) on grasshopper(Orthoptera: Acrididae) populations.Oecologia 55: 42-46.

Shelly, T.E. 1986. Rates of prey consumptionby Neotropical robber flies (Diptera:Asilidae). Biotropica 18: 166-170.

Shurovnekov, B.G. 1962. Field entomophagouspredators (Coleoptera, Carabidae, andDiptera, Asilidae) and factors determiningtheir efficiency. Entomological Review 41:476-485.

Authors’ addresses: c/o Department of Zoology,Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya,Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.

Robberfly preys on dragonfly (Photo: Nuwan Bandara)

Robberfly preys on housefly (Photo: Nayana Wijayathilaka)

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STUDY ON COMMERCIALLY EXPORTED CRAB SPECIESAND THEIR ECOLOGY IN CHILIKA LAKE, ORISSA, INDIA

by Sandeep Ranjan Mishra, Debiprasad Sahoo, Hemanta Kumar Sahu &

Srustidhar Rout

Introduction

About 600 crab species occur in Indian waters;however, only a few of them are used for humanconsumption. Most important among these areScylla serrata, S. tranquedarica, Portunuspelagicus, P. sanguinolentus, Charybdis crustia,and C. ferita. Scylla serrata, commonly calledMud-crab or Green-crab, forms the mainstay ofthe crab fishery of India and is economically themost important. It has a wide distribution, occurringabundantly along both east and west coasts of India.It is the most popular species in the Indo-Pacificregion because of its size, meat quality, high priceand export potential. Crabs, both alive and dead,are exported from India to Japan, the USA, France,Hong Kong and Malaysia.

In India, the crab fishery is small scale and is basedmainly on capture fishery. Crabs (e.g., Scyllaserrata and Neptunus pelagicus) constitute a minorfishery of some importance in certain parts ofChilika Lake. Though these crabs are caughtthroughout the year from all over the lake, themarketable catches come from the southern andcentral sectors with the peak fishing season beingAugust to October. Crab fishery provides anadditional source of livelihood for the five-monthperiod from August/September to January after themain prawn fishing season is over. Important crabfishing grounds of the lake were estimated recentlywith an annual landing as 64.525 tonnes. Large-sized crabs dominate the catch during July toFebruary and small ones constitute the bulk duringMarch to June. The average carapace length ofmale and female specimens in different monthsranged between 93.74 mm and 135.62 mm. Oneof the most important aspects of the abundanceof crabs in the northern and central sectors areasis the availability of the plankton (Bhatta, 1992).

Study area

Chilika Lagoon was designated a Ramsar Site(Wetland of International Importance) on 1October 1981. The water spread of the lagoonvaries between 1,165 km2 in the monsoon seasonto 906 km2 during the summer and extends overPuri, Khurda, and Ganjam districts. The lagoonitself can be broadly divided into four naturalsectors based on salinity and depth: SouthernZone; Central Zone; Northern Zone; and OuterChannel.

One of the submerged (potential) islands coveringan area of 15.53 km2 was notified as Chilika(Nalabana) Wildlife Sanctuary on 17 December1987. The whole area of the Chilika Lake,excluding the area notified as a Sanctuary, wasdeclared a closed area for a period of five yearswith effect from 16 December 2002. 546 speciesof angiospermic plants belonging to 379 generaand 107 families, over 100 phytoplankton genera,20 species of weed and 7 pteridophytic specieshave been documented so far in the lagoon andthe islands.

Several villages and towns around the lagoon areclosely associated with the wetland. About 70%of this population depends on fishing as their meansof livelihood. This wetland is the habitat for thelargest congregation of waterfowls in India. Overa million birds congregate in this water body forfeeding and roosting. Migration commences in lateSeptember and the birds remain up until April, butthe peak congregation period is mid-December tomid-January. Birds belonging to over 230 species(32% aquatic, 22% waders and 46% terrestrial,including 14 birds of prey species) are seen in thislake. Of these, 95 species are intercontinental andlocal migrants. The other vertebrate fauna includes

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217 species of fish (freshwater, estuarine andmarine species), 7 species of amphibians, 30species of reptiles (12 species of lizards and 18species of snakes) and 18 species of mammals.Two major crab species (i.e., Scylla Serreta and

Neptunus pelagicus) available in Chilika are ofcommercial importance. The population ofIrrawady dolphins (locally known as BhuasuniMagar) in the lake is threatened due to intensivefishing and plying of mechanized boats in the lake.

Figure-1: Map of Chilika Lake showing different sectors

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Methodology

The study was carried out over a period of ninemonths, from October 2004 to June, 2005. Foursectors were surveyed to assess the status of crabsalong Chilika Lake. The data was collected inregular intervals of seven days from gill-netters.Outboard motor boats were used to collect thedata from the selected sectors. In addition to thefield survey, secondary information was alsocollected from different sources such as localcoastal villagers and fishery departments. Data wascollected directly from the field. The month-wiseabundance of the number of species was noted.Hydrogen ion concentration (pH), salinity,dissolved oxygen and depth of water were alsorecorded.

Crabs that are found among rocks and tide poolswere collected with a fine mesh hand net and awide bore pipette. Crabs are generally easy tocollect and most often hand picking, netting anddraping are the commercial fishing practices.

The biomass of the entire study area was surveyed.For calculating the biomass the quadrat method(1.0m x 1.0m) was used to collect the data onbiomass in gm. First the phytoplanktons werecollected in polythene; after complete drying it wasweighed. It was found that the availability of crabspecies was related to the abundance of thebiomass. Crabs were preserved in formalin forlaboratory purposes. Crabs were narcotized firstwith a few menthol crystals or by adding a fewdrops of chloroform and then preserved informalinated spirit for a day or two to make theatomizing muscles as well as their breaking planesrigid. After this crabs were preserved in 6-10%formalin for the laboratory studies.

Results and discussions

During the nine-month (October 2004 - June 2005)study of the crustaceans (in particular crabs) ofChilika Lake, it was found that the ecology of thespecies is highly diversified. Their distribution isrelated to the biomass concentration, temperaturevariation and salinity concentration. There areabout 32 species of crabs found in Chilka Lake,out of which 5 species were chosen for more in

depth study ( i.e., N. pelagicus, M. linaus, Spidercrab, P. sangunlentus and S. serrata).

The salinity profile in the lake exhibits a wide rangeof variation (0-34%) both in its subsurface andbottom water through different sectors and seasons.In general, the southern sector recorded a higheraverage salinity while the northern sector recordeda lower average salinity. The salinity profile in thenorthern sectors and outer channel fluctuatedwidely between 0-14.5% to 34% respectively. Theannual sweet-saline mix regime of the lake in turnindicates other cyclic changes in the lakeenvironment triggering interesting changes in theoverall biotic profile of the lake. Based on the“Venice system” the lake water masses werecategorized. The range of pH values observedvaried widely from 7.0-10.66 over two seasonsduring the course of studies. Sector-wise thesouthern and central sectors showed a lower andlesser range of variation in pH (7.9-8.7) than thenorthern sector, which recorded a higher averagepH range (7.2-10.66) and is host to luxuriantgrowth of aquatic weeds. The range of pH valuesfor bottom water shows similar behavior sectorwise/season wise.

The dissolved oxygen content in the subsurfacewater shows wide variations in different sectionsof the lake. The northern sector recorded a higheraverage D.O. concentration, coinciding withperiods of high phytoplankton production or aninflux of riverine inflows into the lake.

All the species that were studied are mostly foundin all study sectors. The highest numbers of crabswere found in the northern and central sectors.The majority of the species were found in thenorthern sector, probably due to the ecologicalconditions. The abundance of the five speciesunder observation was greater in the central sectorthan in the southern sector.

Crab species abundance in relation to biomass

Large aquatic plants are abundantly found in thenorthern sectors. Potamogeton pectinatus, Najasfalcioulata and Halophila ovata are the dominantspecies (Bhatta, 1992). The average biomass is inthe range of 0.03-0.27 m (K.V. Rama Rao). Twopeaks of net plankton production occur – the first

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around April-August and the second duringOctober-January, the former being the moredominant. In August/September to January theabundance of crabs in these sectors graduallyincreases. Chilika Lake is rich in both planktonicand benthos biomass, which provides a suitableenvironment for the crabs in the lake. As theplanktonic and benthos biomass is very rich in thelake, Scylla serrata and Portunus pelagicus areseen in all sectors (Mishra, 1988). During the studyperiod the abundance of crab species was seen tobe directly proportional to the biomass as theydepend on it for their feeding.

Crab species abundance in relation totemperature

The water temperature of the lake stays in therange of 17.5°C-32°C (data collected from CDA).This provides good ecological conditions for thecrabs to breed and sustain a good population. Allthe species under study, except P. sangunlentus,showed an overall increase in their population withthe rise in temperature in all the sectors. This meansthat all the species of crabs (except P.sangunlentus) grow optimally when thetemperature increases. But P. sangunlentus doesnot show any sign of growth under the temperaturefor optimal growth and reproduction.

Crab species abundance in relation to salinity

The ecological condition in the lake ranges fromsaline to brackish to even fresh water. The salinityof the lake shows extreme annual cyclic changesin the range of 0.1%-36.02 % (Bandyopadhyay etal., 1991). The northern, central sector goes nearlyfresh water in the flood season. This suggests thatthe crabs residing in the lake are adaptable tochanges in the salinity of water. The salinityincreases slowly beginning in March and is highestin April. It is evident that three crab species (N.pelagicus, M. linaus and Spider Crab) showincreases in their populations up to March whenthe salinity starts increasing, but after that they allshow decreases in their population size during April.The two other species – P. sangunlentus and S.serrata – show variable responses to the changein salinity. The population size of the former starts

decreasing from January and the latter shows asudden rise in population in April.

Effect of other physiochemical parameters oncrab populations

Other physiochemical properties of the lake thathelp maintain the crab populations are dissolvedoxygen (0.8-13.0ppm), pH (6.7-9.7) and depth (30-229 in cm). Salinity and pH levels influence crabcatching to a great extent. When the salinity andpH increases the crab catch is much less, and whenthe salinity and pH decreases or is 50:50 the crabcatch increases. It was also found that the full moonis also an important factor for the occurrence ofthe crabs.

The study further revealed the impact of thechemicals, medicines and pesticides used in theprawn hatchery that drain into the sea waterindirectly through rivers, which adversely affectsthe natural life cycle of crabs. The most importantlocal issue is the sustainability of fishing in thelake. Prawn and crab became the main catchesaccounting for 45% and 17% respectively duringthe 1980s. (data collected from local sources andCDA) and the pen and cage culture was graduallyreplaced by the Jano and Bahani technique. Prawnculture also attracted non-fisherman to the tradesince it does not require any traditional knowledgeof fishing. Catching juvenile crabs, over-exploitation of lake marine products, growth ofweeds, declining salinity and lake shrinkage haveall adversely affected the biodiversity of the lakeand also the population of the crabs.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the ViceChancellor, North Orissa University, Orissa forgranting permission to undertake this study alongChilika Lake, Orissa. Thanks also to all theofficials of the Forest Departments, DFO, ACFand FRO Balugaon for accompanying the studyin the field. And hearty thanks to the ChiefExecutive, Chilika Development Authority, forpermission to utilize the library for referencecollection and the laboratory at Chandraput(Balugaon).

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References

Bhatta, K.S. 1992. Distribution and ecology ofHydrophytes in Chilika Lagoon, Orissa.Paper presented at the Workshop onApplication of Remote Sensing inEnvironmental Management.

Mishra, P.M. 1988a. Physico-chemical andbiological properties of Chilika Lake withspecial reference to fishery development.Abstract, National Seminar on Conservationand Management of Chilka. Department ofScience, Technology and Environment, Govt.of Orissa. BBSR.

Mishra, P.M. 1988. Fishery development ofChilika Lake. In: S.N Patro (Ed) Chilika,The pride of Our Wetland Heritage. Orissa

Environment Society, Bhubaneswar, PP 40-43.

Parida, N.C. 1970. A note on the Chilika crabScylla serrata. In: The Chilika LakeDirectorate of Fisheries, Government ofOrissa, Cuttack pp 66-69.

Tikader, B.K. 1983. Threatened animals ofIndia. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

WWF. 1992. Chilika Lake. In: Directory ofIndian Wetlands. Prepared by the World WideFund for Nature and the Asian WetlandBureau, pp 149-154.

Authors’ address: Department of Wildlife andConservation Biology, North Orissa University,Baripada, Orissa; Email:[email protected]

URBAN WILDLIFE: LEGAL PROVISIONS FOR ANINTERFACE ZONE - A CASE STUDY

by A.K. Sanyal, J.K. Dey and P.L. Kankane

Since ancient times, our philosophy has heldthat relations between nature and society and

between biological diversity and human beings arecritical for achieving the goals of conservation.Recently, we had an opportunity to study such anassemblage in a century-old club campus in thesouthern part of Kolkata, surrounded by a densehuman population, where a healthy breedingpopulation of jackals has been thriving for manyyears. We would like to convey our concern abouthabitually calling such assemblages “man-animalconflicts.” The existing legal provisions dealing withsuch circumstances, under the Indian Wildlife(Protection) Act, 1972, were also analyzed.

A golden jackal (Canis aureus) population of40-45 individuals resides permanently within thepremises of the Tollygunge Club Ltd., which hasa 10-foot-high concrete wall around the club builtapproximately 20 years back. Thus, most of themembers of the existing jackal population were

born and brought up within the club perimeters. During colonization, many exotic and indigenousplants were systematically planted in the area;therefore, it now hosts 118 species of plants, 93species of birds, 12 species of mammals, 7 speciesof reptiles and 5 species of amphibians, along withmany fishes, mollusks and butterflies. The jackalshave become habituated to living with humansafter so many years, but their inherent habitssometimes frighten the club members, who areseeking input on the population, carrying capacityand feeding habits of jackals. Consequently, thepresent study was carried out under the shadowof so-called man-animal conflicts.

Results and discussion

Primarily, what was found is that the jackalpopulation of the Club has adapted to theirsurroundings and display quite different behaviorfrom their cousins in the wild. The most important

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adaptation is their predominantly diurnal habits andunconcerned attitude towards human beings. Themost suitable explanation would be that due to longassociation, both man and animal have acceptedeach other in their shared social space. Historically,there are no records of jackals posing any threatto humans, except perhaps on the rare occasionwhen an animal is infected by rabies.

The transect census method yielded an estimated40-45 jackals (including four juveniles and twopups) inhabiting the club at present. Though thebasic social unit of the golden jackal is a matedpair or a mated pair and their young (helpers), asmuch as 30% of the club population (16 animals)are singles, which indicates that the jackal groupsin the Club are not as cohesive as in the wild.Probably they feel more secure within thepremises; hence, consistent groups may be formedonly during the breeding and rearing periods.Though it was difficult to draw a dividing linebetween the groups, the total population of jackalsmay be separated into approximately 7-8 loosefamily groups. Most of them are confined tosouthern part of the club, except for two groupsroaming in the north. None are found in the centralconstructed area; however, this area may fall withinthe feeding range of some of the groups. In thewild, hunting jackal families hold territories of 2-3km2 throughout the year, portions of which aremarked with urine by either the male or the femalejackal to ward off intruders. However, in presentcase, the healthy breeding population of jackals inthe 100 acre area of the club is an indication thatthe carrying capacity of club is still in favor ofjackals, especially when no fighting was observedto defend territories. Also, it is known that once apopulation of canids reaches its saturation point,they control their own numbers. Therefore, wecan conclude that the jackal population is yet toreach its point of saturation.

The jackal is an opportunistic feeder and not apersistent hunter, with a diet consisting of 54%animal source and 46% plants. It is a very capablehunter of small- to medium-sized prey such asrabbits, rodents, birds, insects, fish and monkeys.This is an important habit that contributes to theirsuccessful survival in spite of various actions takenby the club authorities to see that the club refugeis not accessible to them. Rodents, birds and their

eggs, reptiles, frogs, fish, mollusks, soil arthropodsand fallen fruits are available in plenty in the clubenvirons, enough to sustain the jackals. If averagegood health is any indication, then food and foodhabits are not limiting factors as far as the jackalsof the club are concerned.

Where then did the conflict originate? It is in thehuman brain, not in the jackal. Man’s fear leadsto the conclusion that jackals are wild animals sothey must pose a potential hazard to club visitorsand hence should be removed from the clubpremises. Even the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972,gives protection to human beings under suchcircumstances and provides measures on how torehabilitate such animals. The State ForestDepartment is empowered to take decisions to thiseffect. So, there is no chance for them to remainwithin the Club boundaries.

The Tollygunge Club case is an isolated one andunique in the sense that the jackals were trappedin a private property and the natural habitat wasaltered drastically during their occupancy. In nature,animals migrate due to population pressure,migratory habits or non-availability of food so asto occupy newer areas. In the wildland-urbaninterface (WUI), the situation is altogetherdifferent. Moreover, it focuses our attention onthe lack of data available on animal movements,spatial assessment of the WUI across the countryand the absence of legal provisions to support suchanimals/populations. Hence, we discuss WUI andassociated issues below.

Wildland–urban interface

The wildland–urban interface (WUI) is the areawhere human habitats meet or intermingle withundeveloped wildland vegetation. The WUI is thusa focal area for human-environment conflicts suchas habitat fragmentation, introduction of exoticspecies and biodiversity decline. Urban andsuburban development in or near wildlandvegetation poses a major threat to the environment.Housing development causes habitat loss andfragmentation, threatens wildlife populations andresults in declines in the biodiversity. It has beenestimated that 50% of all federally-listed threatenedand endangered species in the United States are inperil due to urbanization. Urban and rural growth

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in the India has been strong in recent decades, yetwe do not have any data to provide a frameworkfor scientific inquiries into urban growth effectson the environment and to inform both nationalpolicymakers and local land managers about theWUI and associated issues like potential man-animal conflicts zones.

Wider scope: the legal angle

In the Indian scenario where the human populationexploded from 445 million in 1961 to 1.18 billionin 2010, man-animal encounters are inevitable. Butwhat is not widely known is that they arecustomarily termed as man-animal conflicts andusually the animals face the onus of such situations.They are usually termed as intruders and conflictcreators, despite the fact that human beingsintruded into their habitat long ago. Even theWildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, does not encouragesuch intrusions and provides measures for how torehabilitate such animals. Under thesecircumstances, the animals that lost their earlierterritory will never regain it. The best example ofsuch a scenario is the good work of the GujaratForest Department, due to whose efforts the lionpopulation is not only increasing but is now visiblein newer areas of their historical range were theyhave not been sighted in the recent past. Theseanimals sometimes, in absence of natural prey,even visit nearby human habitations and also preyupon their livestock. The Government of India hasintroduced a system of compensation if there isloss of property or livestock due to such a situation.It is working well, but in the long run it isunfavorable to continued survival of such animalsand easy to brand them conflict creators andphysically remove them from the site. Therefore,it is the right time to review the provisions in theAct as far as so-called man-animal conflicts areconcerned. We should encourage such intrusionsand immediately declare such areas protected(Conservation Area/Conservation Reserve/Sanctuary) under the Act. At the same time, thepayment of compensation should be graduallywithdrawn and the process of shifting humanhabitations outside the animals’ home range shouldbe initiated, after a period of about three yearsfrom date of the first and regular sightings ofanimals in the newly occupied areas. Effectivemanagement plans should also be developed

ensuring a sufficient build up of naturallypropagating prey base/vegetation in such areas. Aseparate section may be introduced in the Actdealing exclusively with interface zones of man-animal interactions which favors animals regainingtheir earlier territories. The ever-increasingencroachment into wilderness can only be stoppedby enforcing such legal actions.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the former Director,Zoological Survey of India, for assigning thestudy, to the Tollygunge Club authorities forproviding logistic support during the surveyperiod, and to the Forest Department,Government of West Bengal, for coordination.

References

Mookherjee, K. 1995. Birds and Trees of Tolly.Tollygunge Club Limited, Kolkata.

www.Animal Diversity Web.Radeloff, V. C., Hammer, Hammer, R. B.,

Stewart, S. I., Fried, J. S., Holocomb, S.S.and J.F. McKeery. The Wildland–UrbanInterface in the United States. EcologicalApplications, 2005, 15(3), pp. 799–805.

Johnson, M.P. 2001. Environmental impacts ofurban sprawl: a survey of the literature andproposed research agenda. Environment andPlanning 33, 717–735.

Theobald, D.M., Miller, J.R., and N.T. Hobbs.1997. Estimating the cumulative effects ofdevelopment on wildlife habitat. Landscapeand Urban Planning 39, 25–36.

McKinney, M.L. 2002. Urbanization,biodiversity, and conservation. BioScience52, 883–890.

Czech, B., Krausman, P.R. and P.K. Devers.2000. Economic associations among causesof species endangerment in the UnitedStates. BioScience 50, 593–601.

Authors’ address: Dr. A.K. Sanyal, Dr. J.K. Deyand Dr. P.L. Kankane, Zoological Survey of India,M Block, New Alipor, Kolkata-700 053, India.

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STUDY OF THE REPTILIAN FAUNAL DIVERSITY OF AFRAGMENTED FOREST PATCH IN KUKULUGALA,RATNAPURA DISTRICT, SRI LANKA

by D.M.S. Suranjan Karunarathna, A.A. Thasun Amarasinghe and D.M.G.

Introduction

Sri Lanka, despite its small area of 65,610 km2,has an estimated population of 18.7 million

people (IUCN Sri Lanka, 2005). It is one of thebiologically richest countries in South Asia andconsidered as a global hot spot in biologicaldiversity (Bossuyt et al., 2004; Gunatilleke et al.,1995; Gunawardene et al., 2007; Meegaskumburaet al., 2002). Its natural forest areas constituteover 12% of the total land area (Tan, 2005).Favorable environmental factors such as highrainfall and humidity and the high density ofundergrowth found in this region support a richdiversity of herpetofauna (Karunarathna et al.,2008). However, the natural forests in the islandare rapidly diminishing as a result of the expansionof settlements and agricultural land, leading toadverse impacts on the rich biodiversity(Bambaradeniya et al., 2003; Giri and Chaturvedi,2001).

The loss of natural forests over the past 100 yearshas led to the extinction of nineteen species ofPhilautus and one species each of Adenomus andNannophrys (Manamendra-Arachchi andPethiyagoda, 2005; Meegaskumbura et al., 2007).Based on published sources, 200 species of reptileshave been recorded in Sri Lanka to date, of which111 (55.5%) are endemic (De Silva, 2006;Manamendra-Arachchi et al., 2006; Manamendra-Arachchi et al., 2007; Samarawickrama et al.,2006; Wickramasinghe, 2006; Wickramasingheand Munindradasa, 2007; Wickramasinghe et al.,2007) .

The wet zone forests harbor more than 60% ofthe indigenous herpetofauna of Sri Lanka(Bambaradeniya, 2006; De Silva, 1996).Furthermore, a high percentage of endemism can

be seen in the southwest lowland forests wherealmost 90% of the endemic vertebrates areconcentrated (Bambaradeniya et al., 2003; IUCNand MENR, 2007; Senanayake et al., 1977;Wijesinghe and Dayawansa, 2002). Previousstudies have focused on the avian, butterfly andfish diversity of Kukulugala Forest (Jayaneththiand Maduranga, 2004; Sirimanna, 2005), whilethis paper hopes to enhance the current knowledgeof reptilian diversity and conservation in this foresthabitat.

Study area

Kukulugala Forest (KF) is situated within thewestern boundary of Ratnapura District,Sabaragamuwa Province, and is located 15 kmaway from Bulathsinhala town. The study area islocated between 6°38’30.52" – 6°40’ 51.00"northern latitudes and 80°15’07.39" –80°17’35.25" eastern longitudes. The forestecosystem forms an important part of the forestcover of the Dumbara Manana Village (Sirimanne,2005) and covers an area of 2,000 acres withinthe Ayagama secretariat division. It can becategorized as a lowland evergreen rain forest(Gunatilleke and Gunatilleke, 1990). This lowlandwet forest consists of dominant tree species suchas Dipterocarpus sp., Mesua sp., Doona sp.,Schumacheria castaneifolia, Artocarpus nobilis,Calophyllum inophyllum, Mangifera zeylanica,Humboldtia laurifolia, Oncosperma fasciculatumand Canarium zeylanicum (Karunarathna andAmarasinghe, 2007).

The general forest floor is covered with cascadinglarge boulders and leaf litter. Kukulugala Mountain,also known as “Horanae Kanda” in the Sinhalalanguage, rises 705m above sea level. The areasupports a rich hydrological network which includes

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| two waterfalls – Ritigas Ella and Miyunu Ella.Among the number of small streams whichoriginate from this mountain, Thaberum ela andEra-Hadapana ela are the major tributaries thatflow throughout the year (Karunarathna et al.,2004). The average annual rainfall is around 3,849mm, with most rainfall occurring from Decemberto May. The weather gradually becomes drier fromJuly to October. The mean annual temperature inthe Kukulugala Forest is 28.7°C, with a maximumof 32°C and minimum of 21.3°C. The study areais accessible via the Horana – Bulathsinhala roador via the Rathnapura – Panadura road (Jayaneththiand Maduranga, 2004).

Materials and methods

The present study was carried out from November2001 to February 2002. A pilot field visit wasconducted in the study area to identify the majorforest habitats in order to determine a suitable fieldmethod. Fieldwork was then conducted for a totalof 20 days (9 hrs / day) over the 4-month studyperiod. Each field visit comprised of four nightand two day surveys per week (two field visitsper month x 3). General area surveys were carriedout in three elevation types (<200m / 200m – 400m/ >400m) within the KF and with sampling using100 X 2 m transects. One hour was spent at eachof the 72 randomly selected transects that werelocated within several habitat types found in thearea. Surveys were conducted both day and nightand flashlights were used at night.

All habitats such as water bodies, rock crevices,logs, trees, decaying vegetations and bushes up to5 m, were thoroughly searched for the presenceof specimens. All collected species were examinedcarefully and noted down before being releasedback into the same habitat. Some reptile specieswere carefully identified using a 10X Triplet brandhand lens. All species and color morphs werephotographed alive, using a digital camera. Thespecimens were studied by visual encounter survey(VES) according to Sutherland (1997). Followingthis, the species were divided into abundancecategories as follows; very rare (1-2), rare (3-5),uncommon (6-10), common (11-15) and verycommon (>15) species. The diagnostics used forspecies identification followed: Deraniyagala(1953, 1955); Das and De Silva (2005); De Silva

(1980); De Silva (1990); Greer (1991); Whitakerand Captain (2004); and Wickramasinghe andSomaweera (2003).

Results

During the survey a total of 58 species, representing33 species of serpentoid reptiles and 25 species oftetrapod reptiles were recorded from the mainecosystems of the KF. Although the diversity ofserpentoid reptiles was higher than tetrapod reptiles,the abundance of the former was higher. Theybelong to 12 families, 41 genera and include 21endemic reptile species (11 serpentoid reptiles and10 tetrapod reptiles). The endemic relict generaAspidura, Balanophis and Cercaspis and tetrapodreptiles of Lyriocephalus, Ceratophora,Lankascincus and Nessia were found in KF.According to IUCN Sri Lanka (2000), out of the58 species recorded, 25 (43.1%) are threatenedspecies and according to IUCN and MENR (2007)4 endangered and 7 vulnerable species have beenrecorded in KF.

The reptile fauna of the KF includes 2 non-marineturtles, 23 lizards and 33 snake species. Therelationships of these species are diverse. Some,such as Geckoella triedrus, Aspidura guentheri,Balanophis ceylonensis, Oligodon calamarius,Lankascincus gansi and Otocryptis wiegmannioccur in the same habitat at the same elevation.Different families recorded a different number ofspecies as follows: Bataguridae (N=1) 1.72%,Trionychidae (N=1) 1.72%, Agamidae (N=6)10.34%, Gekkonidae (N=9) 15.52, Varanidae(N=2) 3.45%, Boidae (N=1) 1.72%, Typhlopidae(N=1) 1.72%, Cylindrophidae (N=1) 1.72%,Elapidae (N=2) 3.45%, Viperidae (N=4) 6.90%,Scincidae (N=6) 10.34% and Colubridae (N=24)41.38%. The reptilian diversity of KF isrepresented by 4 very rare, 12 rare, 12 uncommon,15 common and 15 very common species.

Discussion

Most of the species were recorded after a rainshower, particularly in the well-shaded canopy-covered areas. Several species were also recordedwithin the well-wooded home gardens that weredominated by native plant species. As most of thesampling was conducted during the day time, the

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data collection was biased towards lizards. Hadwe spent equal time at these sites at night, thesnake species recorded would probably have beenhigher. Even diurnal snakes are more easily foundat night while sleeping in vegetation where theircamouflage is ineffective in torch light. Out of the58 species, the middle area of KF contained ahigher number (57) of reptiles than lower areas(56) and upper areas (25 species in KF). Accordingto the present survey the most abundantHerpetofauna family is Colubridae, whileBataguridae, Trionychidae, Boidae, Typhlopidaeand Cylindrophidae were the least abundant.

The results of this study showing the higherdiversity in middle and lower forest habitats aremainly due to the availability of a number ofmicrohabitats, including man-made habitats thatare favorable for reptiles. The lower diversity ofthe upper forest habitats may be due to the opencanopy, resulting in the exposure of the forest floorto high temperature and winds, and resulting inincreased disturbance, desiccation and predation.Melanochelys trijuga, Lissemys punctata, Varanussalvater, Atretium schistosum, Xenochrophisasperrimus and Xenochrophis piscator specieswere not recorded in the upper forest area. Thismay be due to the lack of large water bodies. Thesnakes Chrysopelea ornata and Liopeltiscalamaria were recorded only once during thestudy period.

Hemiphyllodactylus typus and Lepidodactyluslugubris are parthenogenic species that arerestricted to the large boulders and crevices of oldhouses in the KF. Cnemaspis jerdoni, C.tropidogaster and H. depresas are distributedmoderately inside the forest, even those areas richin rocks and the houses of human habitats.Geckoella triedrus was only observed under largelogs on the forest floor. The second most recordedspecies, Hemidactylus brookii, was foundoccupying every conceivable niche (terrestrial andarboreal) within the KF. Several gecko eggs wereobserved in rock crevices in the middle area ofthe forest. The villages have much more aversionto geckos, perhaps through superstition orsqueamishness.

Melanochelys trijuga and Lissemys punctata aregenerally active during the rainy season and found

in the vicinity of temporary water bodies. Calotesliolepis and Lyriocephalus scutatus are diurnal,arboreal lizards commonly found in undisturbedclosed canopy forest. The ground dwellingCeratophora aspera is easily camouflaged by thedark brown leaf litter in very shaded areas and isgenerally found in pairs, but during this surveyonly a single specimen was recorded. Otocryptiswiegmanni was generally found in shady placesnear streams, where some egg clutches were alsorecorded. They generally dig holes in the sandysoil into which they lay 3-6 eggs at one time. Duringsome night surveys groups of Cercaspis carinatuswere observed digging in the soil and feeding onthe eggs of Otocryptis wiegmanni. This indicatesthat Cercaspis carinatus are social feeders. Thisbehavior was also observed from a previous surveyat Beraliya Mukalana forest.

Conservation

It is evident that the Kukulugala Forests providessuitable wildlife habitat, particularly for reptiles.Habitat loss and deterioration remains the dominantthreat to KF reptile populations. Some areas ofthe KF are being felled to clear land for tea andrubber plantations. This poses a major threat, notonly for reptiles, but also for the other flora andfauna of the area and its surrounds. In addition,the villagers kill snakes that have been incorrectlymisidentified. This preliminary survey indicates thatthe KF is high in reptilian diversity. However, thisstudy was conducted over a short period of timeand therefore, it is recommended that similarsurveys be conducted over longer periods of timeto truly assess the reptilian faunal diversity in thearea.

According to IUCN and MENR (2007) 4Endangered and 7 Vulnerable species have beenreordered in KF; this is a critical point. The slash-and-burn technique of shifting cultivation involvesintermittent clearing of a forest patch foragricultural practices, which destroys the habitatsof several endemic reptile genera. This and otherhuman activities that involving the cutting of treesinside the forest will contribute to the decline ofsuch arboreal reptile species. Tree-dwelling reptiles,particularly those belonging to the genusCnemaspis, Lyriocephalus and Lankascincus, showirregular distribution due to their habitat specificity.



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A point which has perhaps been overlooked asregards monitoring by members of the localcommunities, is that it helps to raise awarenessabout the value of species and habitats. It isrecommended that awareness programmes onmanaging the forest and its resources areconducted for the local communities, which couldin turn contribute to the protection of these species.If this awareness can be integrated intoconservation and management efforts, then thelikelihood of its success will be higher thanotherwise might be the case. Measures should alsobe taken to declare the Kukulugala Forest as aForest Reserve under the Forest Department dueto its high diversity of endemic and threatenedspecies.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Miss. Asha De Vos(IUCN – Sri Lanka) for reviewing the manuscript.They also would like to thank Mr. MendisWickramasinghe, Mr. Naalin Perera, Mr. BhathiyaKekulandala, Mr. Sampath Goonathilake, Mr.Vimukthi Weeratunga and Mr. DilupChandranimal (IUCN – Sri Lanka) and Mr. KelumManamendra-Arachchi (WHT – Wildlife HeritageTrust of Sri Lanka) for giving valuable literatureand comments. Finally, thanks to Mr. RamyanathSirimanna, Mr. Chamila Soysa, Mr. TiranAbeywardena, Mr. Chandana Asela, Mr. ToshanPeiris, Mr. Panduka Silva, Mr. AnushkaKumarasinghe, Mr. Niranjan Karunarathna andMr. Asanka Udayakumara (YZA – YoungZoologists’ Association) for help during the fieldvisit and other work in Kukulugala Forest area.

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Karunarathna, D.M.S.S., Abeywardena, U.T.I.,Amarasinghe, A.A.T., Sirimanna, D.G.R. andM.D.C. Asela. 2008. Amphibian faunaldiversity of Beraliya Mukalana ProposedForest Reserve. Tigerpaper 35(2): 12-16.

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Meegaskumbura, M., Manamendra-Arachchi, K.,Schneider, C.J. and R. Pethiyagoda. 2007.New species amongst Sri Lanka’s extinctshrub frogs (Amphibia: Rhacophoridae:Philautus). Zootaxa 1397: 1–15.

Samarawickrama, V.A.M.P.K., Ranawana, K.B.,Rajapaksha, D.R.N.S., Ananjeva, N.B.,Orlov, N.L., Ranasinghe, J.M.A.S. and V.A.P.Samarawickrama. 2006. A new species of theGenus Cophotis (Squamata: Agamidae)from Sri Lanka. Russian Journal ofHerpetology 13(3): 207–214.

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Sirimanna, D.G.R. 2005. An Avifaunal study ofthe Kukulugala proposed forest reserve,Ratnapura district, Sri Lanka. Loris24(1&2): 29-32.

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Tan, B.C. 2005. New species records of SriLanka Mosses. In: Yeo, D.C.J., P.K.L. Ng,and R. Pehiyagoda. Contribution toBiodiversity Exploration and Research in SriLanka. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology,Supplement No. 12. p. 5-8



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Wickramasinghe, L.J.M. 2006. A New Species ofCnemaspis (Sauria: Gekkonidae) from SriLanka. Zootaxa 1369: 19-33.

Wickramasinghe, L.J.M. and R.K. Somaweera.2003. Distribution and Current Status ofthe Endemic Geckos of Sri Lanka. Gekko3(1): 2–13.

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Wickramasinghe L.J.M., Rodrigo, R.K.,Dayawansa, N. and U.L.D. Jayantha. 2007.Two new species of Lancascincus(Squamata: Scincidae) from SripadaSanctuary (Peak Wilderness), in Sri Lanka.Zootaxa 1612: 1-24.

Wijesinghe, M.R. and P.N. Dayawansa. 2002. Theamphibian fauna at two altitudes in theSinharaja rainforest, Sri Lanka.Herpetological Journal 12: 175 – 178.

Authors’ addresses: D.M.S. SuranjanKarunarathna, IUCN – International Union forConservation of Nature, Sri Lanka Country office,No. 53, Horton place, Colombo 07, Sri Lanka(E-mail: [email protected]); A.A. ThasunAmarasinghe, Taprobanica Nature ConservationSociety, No. 146, Kendalanda, Homagama, SriLanka (E-mail: [email protected]); andD.M.G. Niranjan Karunarathna, The YoungZoologists’ Association of Sri Lanka, Departmentof National Zoological Gardens, Dehiwala, SriLanka.

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Table 1 - Description of the habitat types in three study areas of Kukulugala Forest in Ratnapura District, Sri Lanka. Study Area Description of Habitat

1). Lower area of the KF (<200m)

Mixed cropping with woody and non woody plants like Mangifera indika, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Dipterocarpus spp., Chaetocarpus spp., Myristica spp. and Cinnamomun spp. trees grows up to 25 m, shade is about 60%, and leaf litter content is high and moderately wet. Among the most abundant understorey tree species were Garcinia spp and Gyrinops spp. In lowland forest area of KF are perennial flowing water bodies, 1m to 10m wide. Rarely home gardens.

2). Middle area of the KF (200m – 400m)

Plants like Dipterocarpus spp., Chaetocarpus spp., Chaetocarpus spp., Mesua spp., Myristica spp., Shorea spp. and Calophyllum spp. trees very dominant, growing up to 40 m; shade is about 80%, and leaf litter content is very high and wet. Flowing water bodies, 1m to 4m wide; visibility high and turbidity low. Large rock boulders areas with seasonally moist cascade habitats.

3). Upper area of the KF (>400m)

Plants like Strobilanthes spp. very dominant. Rock boulders and grassy areas with seasonally moist cascade habitats. Shade is 30% with small trees. The bushes and trees 1m to 5m tall and randomly distributed with open soil. Bamboo species along with those of Eriocaulon spp. and Osbeckia spp. common also in the open grasslands near rocky outcrops. Leaf litter content is very low and dry; flowing water bodies, 1m or 2 m wide.

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Table 2. Checklist of the Reptiles fauna recorded from Kukulugala forest. (Abbreviation: TR – threatened / † endemic genus / * endemic / VR – very rare / R – rare / UC – uncommon / C – common / VC – very common) species. (Source: IUCN Sri Lanka, 2000; IUCN and MENR, 2007).

Family and Scientific Name

Common Name

Status IUCN 2000

Status IUCN & MENR 2007

Total Individuals and Percentage

Species Abundance

Tortoises and Turtles

Bataguridae

Melanochelys trijuga Black Turtle TR 13 (1.83) C Trionychidae Lissemys punctata Flapshell Turtle TR VU 11 (1.55) C Lizards

Agamidae Calotes calotes Green Garden Lizard 24 (3.38) VC

Calotes liolepis Whistling Lizard * TR VU 3 (0.42) R Calotes versicolor Common Garden Lizard 31 (4.37) VC Ceratophora aspera Rough Horn Lizard *† TR EN 3 (0.42) R Lyriocephalus scutatus Hump Snout Lizard *† TR 5 (0.70) R

Otocryptis wiegmanni Sri Lankan kangaroo Lizard *

TR 13 (1.83) C

Gekkonidae

Cnemaspis jerdoni Jerdon's Day Gecko * TR 18 (2.54) VC Cnemaspis tropidogaster

Roughbelly Day Gecko TR EN 29 (4.09) VC

Geckoella triedrus Spotted Bowfinger gecko *

TR 2 (0.28) VR

Gehyra mutilata Four-Claw Gecko 11 (1.55) C Hemidactylus brookii Spotted House Gecko 38 (5.36) VC Hemidactylus depressus Kandyan Gecko * TR 10 (1.41) UC

Hemidactylus frenatus Common House Gecko 22 (3.10) VC Hemiphyllodactylus typus

Slender Gecko EN 3 (0.42) R

Lepidodactylus lugubris

Scaly Finger Gecko EN 7 (0.98) UC

Scicidae Lankascincus fallax Common Lanka Skink *† 56 (7.90) VC

Lankascincus gansi Gans's Lanka Skink * TR 6 (0.84) UC Lygosoma punctatus Dotted Skink 16 (2.25) VC Mabuya carinata Common Skink 18 (2.54) VC Mabuya macularia Bronzegreen Little Skink 10 (1.41) UC

Nessia burtonii Threetoe Snake Skink *† TR 3 (0.42) R



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Varanidae Varanus bengalensis Land Monitor 12 (1.69) C

Varanus salvater Water Monitor 8 (1.12) UC Snakes

Boidae Python molurus Indian Python TR 13 (1.83) C Typhlopidae Rampotyphlops braminus

Common Blind Snake 24 (3.38) VC

Cylindrophidae

Cylindrophis maculatusSri Lanka Pipe Snake *† TR 10 (1.41) UC Colubridae Ahaetulla nasutus Green Vine Snake 16 (2.25) VC Ahaetulla pulverulentus

Brown Vine Snake 2 (0.28) VR

Amphiesma stolata Buff Striped Keelback 13 (1.83) C Aspidura guentheri Ferguson’s Roughside *† TR 4 (0.56) R

Atretium schistosum Olive Keelback Watersnake

14 (1.97) C

Balanophis ceylonensis Sri Lanka Keelback *† TR VU 3 (0.42) R Boiga ceylonensis Sri Lanka Cat Snake 6 (0.84) UC

Boiga forsteni Forsten’s Cat Snake 4 (0.56) R

Cercaspis carinata The Sri Lanka Wolf Snake *†

TR VU 11 (1.55) C

Chrysopelea ornata Ornate Flying Snake TR 1 (0.14) VR Coelognathus helena Trinket Snake 19 (2.68) VC Dendrelaphis bifernalis Boulenger’s Bronze Back 7 (0.98) UC Dendrelaphis caudolineolatus

Gunther’s Bronze Back VU 4 (0.56) R

Dendrelaphis tristis Common Bronze Back 15 (2.11) C Liopeltis calamaria Gunther's Reed Snake VU 1 (0.14) VR Lycodon aulicus Common Wolf Snake 13 (1.83) C

Lycodon osmanhili Flowery Wolf Snake * TR 9 (1.27) UC Oligodon arnensis Common Kukri Snake 11 (1.55) C

Oligodon calamarius Templeton’s Kukri Snake *

TR VU 5 (0.70) R

Oligodon sublineatus Dumerul’s Kuki Snake * TR 5 (0.70) R Ptyas mucosus Common Rat Snake 28 (3.95) VC Sibynophis subpunctatus

Jerdon’s Polyodent 10 (1.41) UC

Xenochrophis asperrimus

Sri Lanka checkered Keelback *

TR 16 (2.25) VC

Xenochrophis piscator Checkered Keelback 12 (1.69) C

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Elapidae Bungarus ceylonicus Sri Lankan Krait * TR 3 (0.42) R

Naja naja Common Cobra 22 (3.10) VC Viperidae

Hypnale hypnale Merrem’s Hump Nosed Viper

11 (1.55) C

Hypnale nepa Millard's Hump Nosed Viper *

TR 5 (0.70) UC

Trimeresurus trigonocephalus

Green Pit Viper * TR 7 (0.98) UC

Vipera russelli Russell’s Viper 12 (1.69) C

Species composition in three habitat and elevation types in KFA.

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50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

No. ofFamilies

No. ofGenus

No. ofSpecies

No. ofendemics

No. ofIndividuals

<200m 200m – 400m >400m

Species composition of amphibian families in KFA.

1.72%

1.72%

1.72%

1.72%

3.45%

1.72%

10.34%

41.38% 15.52%

10.34% 6.90%3.45%

Bataguridae

Trionychidae

Agamidae

Gekkonidae

Varanidae

Boidae

Typhlopidae

Cylindrophidae

Elapidae

Viperidae

Scincidae

Colubridae



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STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF GREY-CROWNEDPRINIA (Prinia cenereocapilla) IN CHITWAN NATIONALPARK, NEPAL

by Dhirendra Kumar Pradhan and Sunita Ulak

Figure 1: Location of Study Area

Introduction

The avifauna of Nepal is exceptionally diverse;about 863 bird species have been recorded

(BCN, 2006). Nepal’s species richness is partlyattributed to the wide range of altitude, climate andvegetation in the country. Nepal represents thePalaearctic and Indomalayan bio-geographicalregions and is a major floristic province of Asia,encompassing a unique and rich diversity of life.Nepal possesses a disproportionately large diversityof flora and fauna at genetic, species and ecosystemlevels (HMGN/MFSC 2002).

Grey-crowned prinia (Prinia cenereocapilla) isa small, globally-threatened, grassland-nestingbird. It is categorized as vulnerable by BirdlifeInternational. This species is endemic to the Indiansub-continent. In Nepal, it is confined to a fewprotected areas. Nepal’s Chitwan National Parkis probably the largest stronghold of Grey-crownedprinia in the world (Baral, 2002). Grey-crownedprinia frequents dense forest and secondarygrowth, particularly around forest clearings andedges from the fringe of the plains up to 1,350 m(Ali and Ripley, 1968; 1998). It also occurs in

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shrubby grasslands, especially those close to Shorearobusta forest. Its main habitat is forest edges andgrasslands. Its world population is estimated to beless than 10,000 (Birdlife International, 2002).

Due to its small body size and drab-colouredplumage, it is likely that both the government andthe established larger conservation organizationshave overlooked the welfare of this bird. One ofthe prerequisites of the management of a wildlifespecies is to establish a database for the species,including the status and distribution (Baral, 2002).The establishment of protected areas like ChitwanNational Park has provided protection to the Grey-crowned prinia population, but due to lack ofadequate information about its status anddistribution it is very difficult to predict their longterm survival. This study aimed to generate somedata, especially about the status and distributionin Chitwan National Park.

Study area

Chitwan National Park (CNP) was established in1973 as the country’s first national park. It coversan area of 932 km2 and lies between 27°15'-27°35’N and 83°45'-84°58’E. The park is an innervalley between the Siwalik Hills in the south andthe Mahabharat Hills to the north, ranging in altitudefrom 150m to 815m above sea level. CNP ispopularly known as a bird paradise and was nameda UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979. CNP isalso home to more than 570 species of flora, 56species of mammals (of which 17 species arecarnivores), more than 500 species of birds, 47species of reptiles, 9 species of amphibians, 126species of fish and 150 species of butterflies(DNPWC 2005).

Material and methods

A preliminary reconnaissance survey wasconducted to determine the potential habitat ofGrey-crowned prinia. This was done throughdiscussions with park authorities (park rangers andgame scouts), local natural guides and an expertfrom Bird Conservation Nepal. On the basis of aliterature review and close consultation with thefield birders, it was known that this species isclosely associated with Themeda grassland andShorea robusta forest, so by using participatory

tools, potential areas (mixtures of Themeda grassesand Shorea robusta forests) were identified on thebase map of CNP and these areas were thoroughlyvisited on bicycle. The areas chosen for laying thetransects were Kasra (the park HQ area), Lamital, Tiger Tops areas, Old Padampur, Kachaouni,Khagendra Malli, Sunachuri, Amrite, Dhurba,Dumaria, Sukhibar, Bhimle, Bankatta and Saurahaareas.

Transect survey

Open width line transects were adopted as the maintechnique. Several factors restricted the selectionof transects such as danger from large animals suchas tiger, wild elephant, rhino, sloth bear. To avoidpotential risk and to maximize the visibility, existingdirt foot trails were followed.

The basic information about the line transects wasobtained from Bibby et al. (1992, 1998). The actualfieldwork was conducted twice, in May 2005 andAugust 2005. Variable distance line transects wererandomly laid out in the potential habitat asindicated from a reconnaissance survey. Allobservations were recorded, and the frequenciesof distance at which individuals/groups of birdsseen were used to estimate an optimum strip width(Rodgers, 1991). Environmental data wererecorded every 100 m. Data such as the point wherethe birds observed, habitat features, geographicinformation and estimated distance to the right orleft of transect between bird and the observer wererecorded. To maximize the level of precision,interval estimations of distance were made. Thelength of transects reached up to 10 km. Thevariation in the length of transects was mainly dueto habitat structure and inaccessibility due to densegrass cover or the presence of dangerous mammals.Bird surveys were not carried out on rainy, stormyor strongly windy days to avoid biases due to thechange in intensity of bird activities.

Density was simply calculated by using theformulae D = {n / (L x r x 2)}Where:D = density per sq. kmL = total length of transectsn = no of birdsr = single mean angular sight distance

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And numeric figure 2 is for each side of the transect(Rodgers, 1991)

Distributional map of Grey -crowned prinia

The locations of transects and the points wherebirds were sighted were recorded in GPS. Thisgeo information was fed into GIS software (ArcView 3.2) to prepare a distributional map/spotmapping of the species within CNP.

Results and discussions

Status and distribution of Grey-crowned prinia

Grey-crowned prinia was recorded in the Kasraarea, Bhimle, Tamor Tal, Dhurba, Tigertops,Souraha, Sukhibar, Gaida camp, Sunachuri,

Khagendra malli and Bankatta areas. The densityof the Grey-crowned prinia in the surveyed areaswas found to range from 8.3 ~ 9.3 per km2. Thelargest numbers of Grey-crowned prinia wereobserved in Sunachuri and Kachauni areas. Thisbird species was seen in association with Grey-breasted prinia (Prinia hodgsoni), Yellow-eyedbabbler (Chrysomma sinense), White-tailedstonechat (Saxicola leucura), and Chestnut-cappedbabbler (Timalia pileata). Though Grey-crownedprinia can be seen all year round, its sightings arehigher in August and September. This bird specieswas found to be active on sunny days after mildrain showers. The reason for this could be thatthe bird comes out to feed on insects when smallholes are full of water following rain. Grey-crowned prinia is a perching bird; its flying heightwas estimated at about 10 m.

Chart: 1 Sighting of Grey -crowned prinia in different location within CNP

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Kasara

Bankatta

Dhurba

Sunachuri

Kachauni

Khagendra …

Tiger Tops

Total

Sighting of of Grey crowned Prinia in CNP

Habitat preferences

A few bird species show a strong preference forcertain vegetation or grassland types; such birdspecies are specialists while others which do notshow such strong preference over certain grassspecies or vegetation and occupy a wide range ofgrass types and habitat structures are generalists(Baral, 2001). Grey-crowned prinia, a grasslandbird, is strongly associated with Themedaarundinacea grass species. Themeda grasslandassemblages are found in the well-developed soiland close to Shorea robusta forest. Themedagrassland is also characterized by the presence ofsome woody species components. This type ofgrassland, which is the dominant grassland type inChitwan, is not found in open areas far from forest

edges (Peet et al., 1999). Environmental datashowed that Grey-crowned prinia and Pale-footedbush warbler (Cettia pallidepes) are highlycorrelated with Themeda arundinacea grasslandextended in moist Shorea robusta forest withscattered clumps of Apluda mutica, Narengaporphyrocoma and Imperata cylindrica. Othersecondary vegetation comprises tree species suchas Eugenia oporculata, Bombax ceiba, and shrubslike Malotus philipinensis. More than 70% of thebirds were sighted in Themeda-dominated habitatand the rest were sighted in Narengaporphyrocoma, Imperata cylindrica and othergrass species with scattered clumps of Themeda.

Grey-crowned prinia was absent in grazed areasand in the moderately grazed areas (with

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Distribution of Grey-crowned prinia in CNP

Saccharum grassland). Plain prinia (Priniainornate) and Ashy prinia (Prinia sociatis) wererecorded in greater numbers than other species.Grey-crowned prinia was not present in large opengrasslands where Themeda grassland appeared lessfrequently or was absent.

Conclusions

In Chitwan National Park, the density of the Grey-crowned prinia was estimated to range from 8.3 ~9.3 per km2. The density of this species has notbeen estimated elsewhere in Nepal, but it is reportedto occur in Bardia National Park, Shukla PhantaWildlife Reserve and Laukah Daha area of ParsaWildlife Reserve.

Grey-crowned prinia is a specialist bird and prefersgrasslands dominated by Themeda arundinaceaand Apluda mutica. Themeda grasslandassemblages are found close to the moist Shorearobusta forest. Themeda grassland is alsocharacterized by the presence of some otherwoody species like Bombax ceiba, Terminalia

species, Mallotus philipinensis andCoolebrokia oppositifolia. The sightings ofGrey-crowned prinia were high in the forestedges created naturally or artificially in thecourse of habitat management and trails formedby human movement inside the park.

Sunachuri, Kasara, Kachauni, Tiger tops,Bankatta, Old Padampur, Khagendra Malli andDhurba were found to be main habitats of theGrey-crowned prinia. These areas are all facingserious problems from cutting and burning ofgrasses, illegal collection of forest products andgrazing by livestock. At the same time,controlling cattle grazing has been a cumbersometask for park authorities and is also inevitablebecause the park boundary is not fenced. Weakenforcement of grazing controls motivated localpeople to graze inside the park. These issuesare serious because the local people have beenenjoying access to the park resources long beforethe park was established. There is continuingshrinkage of forest resources outside the parkbecause of exploitation by local people and a

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growing number of unproductive cattle. This willeventually be detrimental for the long-term survivalof Grey-crowned prinia and other threatenedspecies in and around the park.

Recommendations and practical implicationsfor conservation

Grey-crowned prinia is one of the least knownglobally-threatened bird species. Educating thepeople, especially those residing in the peripheryof CNP, is the most important method forimplementing conservation measures for thisspecies. Furthermore, an intensive awarenesscampaign among park officials and local naturalistsshould be launched to increase knowledge of thisspecies among them.

Forest products, especially grasses, are importantfor people living adjacent to the park. Themedagrass is locally used by ethnic groups such as theTharus, Bote, Derai and Kumal for paneling ofhouses, weaving baskets and making fish traps.Local traditions can continue with optimalexploitation and careful management of resources.

Habitat management in CNP and other protectedareas in Nepal is focused on mega fauna. Birdsand small animals seem to be overlooked. Grey-crowned prinia is not getting the proper attentionthat it deserves. Therefore, habitat managementshould also focus on the management andconservation of small creatures of the ecosystemas well. Generally, it is believed that habitatmanagement for big animals will simultaneouslymanage the habitats of small animals, but differentanimals have different habitat requirements.Therefore, Themeda grassland should be managedscientifically for better conservation of Grey-crowned prinia.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Dr. Peter Clyne,Asian Programme Director, Wildlife ConservationSociety, USA, and Dr. Hem Sagar Baral, BirdConservation, Nepal, for providing informationand literatures and also thanks to the WildlifeConservation Society and Rufford Small GrantFoundation for funding this study.

References

Ali, S. and S.D. Ripley. 1987. Compacthandbook of birds of India and Pakistan,second edition. Oxford University Press,Delhi, India.

Baral, H.S. 2001. Community structure andhabitat associations of lowland grasslandbirds in Nepal. University of Amsterdam,Netherlands.

Baral, H.S. 2002. Status, Distribution, andecology of Grey-crowned prinia with newdata from Nepal. Danphe Vol.11. BCN,Kathmandu, Nepal

BCN. 2006. Birds of Nepal: An OfficialChecklist. Department of National Parks andWildlife Conservation, and Bird ConservationNepal, Kathmandu.

Bibby, C.J., Burgess, N.D. and D.A. Hill. 1992,1998. Bird Census Technique. AcademicPress Limited, London.

Birdlife International. 2002. Threatened birds ofthe Asia: the Birdlife International Red DataBook. Cambirdge, UK, Birdlife International.

Department of National Parks and WildlifeConservation. 2005. Information booklet ofChitwan National Park.

HMGN/MFSC. 2002. Nepal BiodiversityStrategy. Government of Nepal,Mishra, H. R. 1984. A delicate balance: tigers,

rhinoceros, tourist and park managementvs. the needs of the local people in RCNP,Nepal.

Peet, N.B., Watkinson, A.R. Bell, D.J. and B.J.Kattel. 1999. Plant diversity in thethreatened subtropical grasslands of Nepal.

Rodgers, W.A. et al. 1991. Techniques for wildlifecensus in India – a field manual. WildlifeInstitute of India, Dehradun.

Corresponding author: Dhirendra KumarPradhan, Assistant Forest Officer, Department ofForest, Kathmandu, Nepal. Currently EU,Erasmus Mundus Scholar on Sustainable TropicalForestry at University of Bangor, UnitedKingdom.Email: [email protected]

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Vol. XXV: No.4 October-December 2011

1

FOREST NEWSFOREST NEWS

Vol. XXV: No. 4 Oct-Dec 2011

The 24th session of the Asia-Pacific ForestryCommission was held 7-11 November 2011, inBeijing, China, at the invitation of the Governmentof China. Approximately 200 participants,including delegates from 29 member countries andone United Nations organization; representativesfrom 3 non-member countries and 10 regional andinternational inter-governmental and non-governmental organizations participated in thesession. The Heads of Forestry from 18 membercountries attended. The Commission wasconvened as the core event of Asia-Pacific ForestryWeek, which attracted more than 750 participantsfrom over 45 countries. Special plenary sessionswere organized on three separate mornings of

Forestry Week, focused on forest governance,improving forestry communications and theoutlook for forestry. Forty-five parallel eventswere organized by partners during ForestryWeek. An Information Market featured 24organizational booths, 25 posters and 3 photoand drawing exhibitions.

The objectives were to discuss and assesstechnical and policy issues and trends ofrelevance to forestry in the region; to developand advance mechanisms for regional and sub-regional cooperation in addressing forestryproblems; and to advise FAO on policy

CHINA HOSTS 24th SESSION OF THE ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY COMMISSION AND 2nd FORESTRY WEEK

Vol. XXV: No. 4 October-December 2011

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formulation and on priorities for its forestryprogrammes in the region.

Opening ceremony

The Opening Ceremony for Forestry Weekfeatured addresses by the Minister of the StateForestry Administration, Government of China; theSecretary-General of the Asia-Pacific Network forSustainable Forest Management and Rehabilitation(APFNet); the Assistant Director-General of theFAO Forestry Department; and the Director of theUnited Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF).Prominent keynote speakers included Mr. AndrewSteer, Special Envoy for Climate Change, WorldBank; Mr. Tim Rollinson, Director-General,Forestry Commission, Government of the UnitedKingdom; and Ms. Anggun Cipta Sasmi, FAOGoodwill Ambassador.

State of forestry in the Asia-Pacific region: newchallenges – new opportunities

The Commission considered the state of forestryin the region. Delegates noted the relevance of theoverall theme of Asia-Pacific Forestry Week, “Newchallenges – new opportunities” and particularlyemphasized prospects to turn challenges intoopportunities.

The Commission noted significant progress inenhancing forest cover, including achievements inafforestation, reforestation and forest rehabilitation.Several countries reported the establishment ofambitious forest expansion targets and “greening”initiatives. Delegates highlighted efforts to developand enhance coastal protection forests andrehabilitate mangrove areas. Several countriesreported on forest plantation development, forestsector revitalization plans, and urban forestryinitiatives.

Delegates noted increasing emphasis onparticipatory approaches, community forestry, anddevolution of forest use rights. Forestrycontributions to poverty alleviation and livelihooddevelopment were emphasized, including the needto strengthen and support community forestmanagement capacities.

The Commission recognized the need for dynamicinstitutional structures that evolve to meet newand emerging challenges. Several countrieshighlighted institutional strengthening initiatives.Challenges associated with unstable politicalenvironments were noted.

The increasing demands for forest ecosystemservices were noted, including those provided byplanted forests. Delegates highlighted theimportance of biodiversity conservation, soil andwater protection, recreation and ecotourism, butnoted that efforts to implement payment systemsfor ecosystem services are constrained by highestablishment and transaction costs.

Delegates recognized that impacts of climatechange are increasingly in evidence in the form ofextreme weather events in the region and bioticdisturbances. The need for increased emphasis onadaptive and mitigative measures to respond toclimate change was noted. The Commission notedurgent needs to develop, strengthen andstandardize methodologies for measuring carbonsequestration, accelerate REDD readiness, anddevelop capacities to participate in, and respondto, an increasing range of carbon marketmechanisms and carbon-related frameworks. TheCommission expressed concern at the high costsassociated with REDD compliance.

The Commission welcomed the numerouscollaborative efforts reported, includingestablishment of subregional forestry networks,collaborative work related to the improved use ofcriteria and indicators for sustainable forestmanagement, and transboundary cooperation onissues such as wildlife migration and water.

The governance challenge: impacts on forests,lessons learned and strategies for the future

A special Asia-Pacific Forestry Week plenarysession highlighted the importance of governancein achieving the desired balance among social,economic, ecological and climatic values. Thesession emphasized the following points: i)acknowledging that illegal logging is a majorchallenge is, in itself, significant progress; ii)participation of all stakeholders, includingcommunities, is critical for success in addressing

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governance challenges and ensuring social justice;iii) transparency, accountability and access toinformation are core elements of good governance;iv) laws and regulations need to be suited to localconditions and developed in the context of localcultures; and v) new financial instruments andmechanisms, including payments for ecosystemservices and REDD+, will contribute significantlyto improved forest governance.

FLEG-T: continuous improvement in forestgovernance

The Commission acknowledged that significantgovernance challenges continue to affect forestryin the region. Countries reported on concretemeasures to improve forest governance, especiallyin relation to regulatory frameworks andinstitutional arrangements. Several countriesreported significant progress in developinglegislation and methodologies to support improvedforest governance, including more stringent timberlegality verification and enforcement procedures,increased enforcement capacities, certification,guidelines for national companies operating abroad,criteria and indicators for sustainable management,and new monitoring techniques and technologies.

Progress in implementing APFC and FAO-supported activities in the region

The Commission highlighted the central importanceof activities to reduce deforestation and forestdegradation and alleviate poverty. Delegatesstressed the important contribution of non-woodforest products (NWFPs) in supporting rurallivelihoods, particularly of the poorest and mostvulnerable.

New media – new messages: forestrycommunications in Asia and the Pacific

Another special Asia-Pacific Forestry Week plenarysession examined experiences with the use of newmedia channels to market messages related toimportant forestry initiatives.

Key points raised in the session included: i) thereis a need to improve forest-related communicationsto increase awareness and update entrenchedperceptions; ii) a wide variety of new media tools

and innovative communication channels areavailable, but presently underutilized by the forestsector; iii) forestry organizations are competing inmany spheres, intra- and extra-sectorally, includingfor financial resources, political attention, land andmarket share. Effective communications are a keyto success in implementing programs and achievingobjectives.

Journey to 2020: the future for forestry in Asiaand the Pacific

This special Asia-Pacific Forestry Week plenarysession offered a diverse range of perspectives onhow the complex future that confronts forestry inthe region may unfold. The following key pointsemerged: i) the immediate future for Asia-Pacificeconomies will be difficult and no economy willbe insulated from the current financial crisis; ii) inthe longer term, “green economy” concepts relatingto the earth’s capacity to sustain human populationsand demands will gain increasing importance; iii)forestry for future economies is about forests fordevelopment and forests for people; iv) forestgovernance and benefit sharing will be important;and v) the positive vision of REDD+ is compelling,but outcomes remain uncertain and strong effortsare needed to ensure the desired results.

Heads of forestry dialogue: defining the forestsector’s role in the emerging “green economy”concept

A special Heads of Forestry dialogue provided anopportunity for direct exchange of views amongdelegates on defining the forest sector’s role indefining the forest sector’s role in the emerging“green economy” concept.

Forests provide natural capital that assists manyother sectors to participate in the “green economy”.The Commission emphasized that the “greeneconomy” should not be a “top down” process,nor should it commoditize nature, compromisenational growth, or constitute a trade barrier. The“green economy” should support participatoryapproaches, contribute to new livelihoods, includeequitable sharing of benefits among stakeholders,assist in poverty alleviation, and build on low-carbon economies. It was emphasized that theconcept of “green economy” should complement,


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and not replace, the concept of sustainabledevelopment.

Climate change adaptation and ecosystemresilience

Delegates noted the importance of mitigating andadapting to, the impacts of climate change. TheCommission emphasized the importance ofincorporating climate change actions into nationalprograms, plans and strategies.

The Commission noted that climate changereduces biodiversity and ecosystem resilience andincreases the risks of fire and of pest diseaseincursions. The importance of strengtheningmonitoring systems to assess the impacts of climatechange was noted.

Delegates noted that the poorest, including forestdwellers, are the most vulnerable to the impactsof climate change. Delegates also observed thatdiscussions on REDD+ should emphasizesimplicity, flexibility and cost effectiveness.

Responding to increased demands in firemanagement

The Commission recognized that fire should bemanaged in an environmentally responsible mannerto ensure properly functioning and sustainableecosystems into the future. Delegatesacknowledged that effective management ofwildfire for any particular area of land depends onthe management objectives for the land.

Results and recommendations

State of forestry in the Asia-Pacific region: Newchallenges – new opportunities

The Commission requested FAO to collaboratein promulgating forestry information relatedto mitigation against natural disasters, includingproviding collaborative support for aninternational conference on forests and naturaldisasters being planned for early 2012 inJapan.The Commission requested that FAO giveadditional attention to monitoring, reportingand verification aspects of forestry including:

(i) potential needs to review and clarify forestdefinitions; (ii) preparation of voluntaryguidelines and other support for conductingforest inventories and assessments, withparticular focus on requirements for REDD+reporting; and (iii) development of GlobalForest Resources Assessment (FRA) reportingmethodologies that provide greater interpretivecapacity for key forestry statistics; and supportto strengthen capacities for reporting to theFRA 2015 assessment.

FLEG-T: continuous improvement in forestgovernance

The Commission urged FAO to collaborate withpartner organizations to assist with thedevelopment of measures in national forestprogrammes to support and build capacities forforest law enforcement and improvedgovernance.The Commission recommended that FAOcollaborate with other partners, including theAsia Forest Partnership, to continue awareness-raising efforts, sharing of experiences, anddevelopment of capacity to address forest lawenforcement and governance challenges.The Commission recommended that FLEG-Tawareness-raising activities should encompassbroader groups of stakeholders, including thejudiciary, customs officials, extra-sectoralgovernment officials and others.The Commission requested FAO, incollaboration with donors and otherdevelopment partners, to facilitate countries insharing FLEG-T experiences and seekcollaborative solutions to improve forest lawenforcement and governance.

Progress in implementing APFC- and FAO-supported activities in the region

The Commission requested FAO to provideincreased support to build capacities and raiseawareness in relation to REDD+, FLEG-T andgreening activities, including in ruralcommunities.The Commission endorsed the key prioritiesidentified by the second Asia-Pacific ForestrySector Outlook Study and urged FAO to

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support efforts to promote, promulgate andinterpret the findings.The Commission requested FAO to supportstudies on the roles that forests can play inemerging “green growth” frameworks, andassist member countries in formulating andimplementing related policies and programs.The Commission requested FAO to collaboratewith donors and partners to support thedevelopment of REDD+ readiness anddemonstration activities.

Climate change adaptation and ecosystemresilience

The Commission urged FAO to assist countriesto share experiences in climate changeadaptation and to help further refine nationalclimate change adaptation strategies.The Commission requested FAO to helpcountries develop national action plans onclimate change adaptation.

Responding to increased demands in firesmanagement

Delegates observed that they had not hadsufficient time to fully review and considerthe paper (on Integrating the management ofwildfire-related risks in rural land and forestmanagement legislation and policies) tabledby Australia and New Zealand. TheCommission therefore recommended thatmember countries further review the paper andits recommendations and consider it more fullyat the next session of the Committee onForestry.

Other business

The Commission agreed to establish a ForestryCommunications Working Group, under theauspices of the Commission, to pursue thefollowing objectives: (i) share experiences andknowledge related to forestry communicationsamong member countries and internationalpartner organizations; (ii) exchangecommunication materials, photographs,mailing lists, expertise, etc. and facilitate theaccess to other resources for effective

information management; and (iii) strengthenmember countries’ capacity to effectivelyaddress communication issues and challenges.

Regional issues identified by the Commissionfor the attention of the Committee on Forestry

The need to promulgate forestry informationto mitigate against natural disasters, includingfloods, cyclones/typhoons and tidal surges,landslides, tsunamis and wildfires.The increasing demands for additional attentionto monitoring, reporting and verificationaspects of forestry, including: i) potential needsto revisit forest definitions; ii) methodologiesto measure forest degradation and trees outsideforests; iii) preparation of voluntary guidelinesand other support for conducting forestinventories and assessments, with particularfocus on requirements for REDD+ reporting;iv) development of Global Forest ResourcesAssessment (FRA) reporting methodologiesthat provide greater interpretative capacity forkey forestry statistics; and v) support tostrengthen capacities for reporting to the FRA2015 assessment.The importance of developing measures innational forest programmes to support andbuild capacities for forest law enforcement andimproved governance.The demands for awareness-raising efforts,sharing of experiences, and development ofcapacity to address forest law enforcement andgovernance challenges.The desire of countries for opportunities toshare FLEG-T experiences and seekcollaborative solutions to improving forest lawenforcement and governance.The roles that forests can play in emerging“green growth” frameworks, and assistmember countries in formulating andimplementing related policies and programs.The importance of supporting the developmentof REDD+ readiness; the need to assistcountries to share experiences in climatechange adaptation and to help further refinenational climate change adaptation strategies;and to help countries develop national actionplans on climate change adaptation.


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The establishment of an Asia-Pacific ForestryCommunications Working Group, under theauspices of the Commission, to pursue thefollowing objectives: i) share experiences andknowledge related to forestry communicationamong member countries and internationalpartner organizations; ii) exchangecommunication materials, photographs,mailing lists, expertise, etc. and facilitate accessto other resources for effective informationmanagement; iii) strengthen member countries’

capacity to effectively address communicationissues and challenges.

Date and place of the next session

The Commission noted with appreciation the offerof the delegation from New Zealand to host itstwenty-fifth session. The delegation from Malaysiaindicated interest in hosting the twenty-sixth sessionof the Commission.

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OPENING ADDRESSby

Eduardo Rojas-BrialesAssistant Director-General, Forestry Department

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Honorable Ministers, Distinguished Guests andParticipants,

It is my great pleasure to welcome you to thesecond Asia-Pacific Forestry Week. The Week isyour key opportunity as members of the forestcommunity to set regional priorities for FAOForestry’s work for the coming biennium anddiscuss important themes affecting the region. Thisweek builds on the success of the first Asia PacificForestry Week, held in Vietnam in April 2008.Much of the original concept for regional forestryweeks was pioneered in Vietnam in 2008, andbecause of its great success, the format has beenreplicated in other regions. We now see the successof these events turning full circle, back to this week,in Beijing, China.

This would not have been possible without theextensive and helpful cooperation of theGovernment of the People’s Republic of China,particularly the State Forestry Administration, aswell as the Asia-Pacific Network for SustainableForest Management. Your immense efforts to

prepare this week I know will ensure the successof this event for the region.

I would also like to thank the numerousorganizational partners who have come togetherto arrange events for Asia-Pacific Forestry Week,provided support and resources, and contributedto making this a notable event and one that willimpact the forest community in the comingbiennium.

The theme of Asia-Pacific Forestry Week 2011 is“New Challenges – New Opportunities”. Thistheme encapsulates the dichotomous state of ourworld today, a world on the brink of anotherfinancial crisis, a world struggling to address thechallenge of providing global food security, andone that is coming to grips with climate changeand environmental degradation as the globalpopulation passes the 7 billion mark.

Despite this high population density, the Asianregion has been able to reverse deforestation trendsand showed positive gains in forest area over thelast ten years, thanks to successful halting of


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deforestation, impressive afforestation programmesand natural expansion of forests. No other regionof the world has ever shown such a dramaticpositive change in such a short period of time.

Many lessons can be drawn from this experience:first, these lessons must be shared with othercountries in the region that lag behind in reversingdeforestation. These lessons could also be spreadto Latin America and Africa, where some of theprogress in halting deforestation is still slow.Economic development, urbanization, and politicalwill have been in all cases essential to contributingto the Asian region’s positive experiences inreversing deforestation. China has taken the leadin this process, working in cooperation with anumber of its partner countries in the region.

The region is gathering impressive experiences inforest restoration that are worthy of being sharedmore broadly. However, these restoration effortswill only be sustained if forest management iseffectively implemented and successfully addressesthe threats of thinning, forest fires and forest pestsin a changing climate.

In recent international debates on forests manyforest ecosystems and issues have not receivedequal attention. For instance, semi-natural forestsare frequently ignored even though they accountfor more than 60 percent of the world’s forests.Most forests in the Asian region are semi-naturaland excellent initiatives such as the SatoyamaInitiative can help provide examples of how thesetypes of forests can thrive when given adequatecare and attention.

Beyond whole ecosystems, forest soil and waterwill receive increasing attention in the coming years.Water scarcity is expected to rise due to climatechange. Yet, insufficient attention has been givento dryland forests in comparison to other foresttypes. The interaction between forests and waterin quantitative and qualitative terms will need furtherattention in the coming years, especially in a denselypopulated, mountainous region such as Asia.

However, the future is not all doom and gloom forthe forestry community and sector. Out of thechallenges come many new opportunities, newways of thinking, new ways of working, new ways

of doing business, new products, new technologies,and new markets.

For instance, the critical challenge of climatechange has provided opportunities for the forestcommunity. We see carbon as a new forest productand new markets have emerged in which carboncan be sold. New funding streams to improve forestmanagement within reducing emissions fromdeforestation and degradation schemes haveemerged, which could provide potential newincome streams, opportunities for conservation andprotection, the creation of jobs, and improvedrevenues and livelihoods for forest-dependentpeople.

Additionally, emerging economies will raise energyprices and at the same time more pressure to reducecarbon emissions will lead to increased substitutionof fossil fuel sources. As a result, biomass fromagriculture, forests and waste will gain increasingattention. Building materials will also be affected.Conventional concrete buildings are consideredhigh-risk materials in earthquake-affected areas andhave a high environmental impact in comparison,but lower-risk building construction could beachieved through the increased use of wood orbamboo. In the run up to the Rio+20 debates, theforest sector can make a significant contributionin moving towards a green economy andpromoting green growth, including throughcountries’ use of emerging industrial processes andproducts like bio refineries.

For the forest sector, the principal challenge is tounderstand the forces that are shaping the worldand anticipate the resultant opportunities that willemerge. What will be the impacts of changingdemographics? How will the economic landscapechange? What social and ecological pressures willcome to the fore? How do we need to adapt ourpolicies and institutions to best confront thesechallenges? How can technology help us?

The program for the week centers around threedynamic plenary sessions that will address suchissues confronting forestry in the region:

(i) The first session, “The governancechallenge: Impacts on forests, lessonslearned and strategies for the future” will

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lay out key governance challenges,highlight the successes and set thefoundation for active and engaging dialoguewith participants.

(ii) A less traditional session, “New media –new messages: Forestry communicationsin Asia and the Pacific” will highlight waysto better convey forestry messages to therest of the world and showcase cuttingedge examples of forestrycommunications. A specific meeting offorest communicators from the region willfollow with the aim to consolidate anetwork for the Asia and the Pacific regionon this important topic; and

(iii) On Thursday, a session titled “Journey to2020: The future for forestry in Asia andthe Pacific” will help us chart how keyforestry trends will unfold and identifyopportunities for the upcoming decade.

(iv) You may also wish to use the Heads ofForestry dialogue “Forestry’s role in theGreen Economy”, which takes place onThursday afternoon, to further explore newopportunities for the forestry sector andtake into account outcomes of theEuropean Forestry Commissiondiscussions on this same topic less than amonth ago.

All of these will be supported by a myriad of otherinspiring events that collectively will constitute asuperb Asia-Pacific Forestry Week 2011.

In FAO, as in other organizations, we are workingto adapt to rapid change, to evolve into a 21stcentury organization – one that is more flexible,collaborative and responsive – and to reinventourselves in ways that enable us to successfullyconfront new challenges.

As the Immediate Plan of Action for FAO Renewaltakes effect, this meeting is an important part ofshowing how regional forestry commissions arekey statutory bodies for FAO and link to its corework. These sessions allow us to incorporate theviews, perspective and proposals from the Headsof the national Forest Services from a regional

perspective, by first prioritizing FAO engagementin the region in forestry and second to identify thepriorities of FAO on a global scale. RegionalConferences as well as the Committee on Forestryprofit extraordinarily from the strategic work doneby the Regional Forestry Commissions. In theabsence of these Commissions, a comprehensiveregional perspective that includes forestry as partof its priorities would not be sufficiently taken intoaccount.

At the heart of change in FAO is the recognitionthat knowledge is essential for sound decisionmaking. FAO has committed to being a knowledgeorganization, serving as a knowledge network andbringing new knowledge to the field. To ensurethis outcome and build FAO’s ability to deliverrelevant and timely information, FAO Forestrywould benefit from the establishment of anAdvisory Panel on Forest Knowledge to promoteeducation and knowledge initiatives on forestsworldwide.

As you know, this session of the Asia-PacificForestry Commission also provides a criticalopportunity to shape FAO’s program of work forthe next biennium and beyond. When deciding onyour priorities for the coming biennium, I wouldinvite you to consider the outcomes andrecommendations of the recently concludedEuropean Forestry Commission in Antalya,Turkey. This will help the upcoming theCommissions in other regions when they meet in2012 (Africa, Near East, Latin America and NorthAmerica) forming a comprehensive picture of thediscussions taking place around the world and forma consistent view of our priorities at the globallevel.

I would like to applaud you all again for yourhelpful efforts in making this event possible andam pleased to see the enormous attendance at thisForestry Week. It is clear that the large numbersof attendees are a reflection of how the region hassuccessfully mobilized support for the regionalforestry commissions and embraced the conceptof the Asia Pacific Forestry Week.

I wish you the best in concluding your work thisweek and look forward to our discussions together.


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ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY WEEK 2011, BEIJING, CHINA

Asia-Pacific Forestry Week attracted more than 750 participants from more than 45 countries. Morethan 70 partners supported Asia-Pacific Forestry Week organizing events and providing financial andin-kind contributions. Forty-five parallel events were organized by partners during Forestry Week, a fewof which are summarized below.

Reflection Workshop of the Kids-to-ForestsInitiative in Asia and the Pacific

In many countries, there is a lack of inspiring andcomprehensive education for children aboutsustainable forest management (SFM) and diverseforest benefits, including ecosystem services. Toaddress this educational deficiency and to exposeyounger generations to the multiple benefits offorests through hands-on learning experiencesleading to a better understanding of SFM, in early2011 the National Forest Programme Facility andFAO’s Regional Office for Asia and the Pacificlaunched the Kids-to-Forests initiative in sixcountries of Asia and the Pacific, includingCambodia, China, Fiji, Lao PDR, Mongolia andthe Philippines.

A Reflection Workshop was held on 8 November2011, inviting representatives from the above sixparticipating countries and other interestedstakeholders to share experiences and lessonslearnt from implementing country-level activitiesand discuss the way forward.

Country representatives presented reviews of eachcountry’s programme including recommendationsfor future improvement and follow-up, withparticular focus on the following:

establishment of a mechanism for buildingcloser relationships between educators andforest managers in relation to sustainable forestmanagement;identification of feasible approaches to includeenvironmental and forestry issues in theeducation programs of primary and secondaryschools in each country; andcontinuation and expansion of the Kids-to-Forests programme in the region and beyondthrough additional opportunities and fundingsources.

With the active and enthusiastic participation ofall participants, the discussions were very openand fruitful. The main recommendations can besummarized as follows:

Develop training modules and materials toenhance capacity building (i.e., training-of-trainers programme), with special focus onschool teachers in order to improve theirunderstanding on forestry and forestry-relatedsubjects;Summarize methodologies and approachesapplied by each country in implementing Kids-to-Forests and develop modules for duplicationin more countries and regions;Establish a regional network in which FAOand the NFP Facility can play a key role (e.g.,a website, Regional Kids’ Forum, etc.);Organize cross country and regional visits tolearn from each other and share experiences;Increase public awareness on forestry andrelated issues by developing advocacymaterials and translating existing FAOeducation materials into local languages so thatthey can reach more readers (e.g., NaturalInquirer magazine);Sustain forestry knowledge in the long termthrough curriculum development;Seek to get forestry included within theframework of existing curriculums (e.g., inScience) by motivating teachers and providingthem with teaching materials;Expand the “Kids-to-Forests Initiative” into a“Kids-to-Forests Movement.”

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From Bali to Beijing: Lessons Learned andRemaining Challenges from a Decade of Workon Forest Law Enforcement and Governancein Asia and the Pacific

The Asia Forest Partnership (AFP) Dialogue 2011was themed ‘Bali+10: Looking back at the EastAsia Ministerial Declaration on Forest LawEnforcement and Governance – and looking aheadto the next decade’. The dialogue aimed to bringtogether prominent representatives fromgovernments, intergovernmental organizations,NGOs, academic institutions and the private sectorin the Asia-Pacific region to exchange informationand lessons learned from their 10 years ofexperience working with FLEGT. Another aim wasto have participants discuss the magnitude ofrelated issues, such as new perspectives on theimportance of addressing climate change beyondforests, forest governance, and law enforcement.

The dialogue convened on 8-9 November 2011,as one of the Partner Events at the second Asia-Pacific Forestry Week, held in Beijing. It attractedaround 200 participants representing keystakeholders from various forestry-related sectors,including governments, businesses, internationalorganizations and NGOs.

Participants in the dialogue agreed that the newstructure, which combined a variety of differentformats, such as talk shows, plenary sessions,breakout groups and interactive discussions,succeeded in capturing new ideas and valuableinput on the following important issues:

trade dynamics;market incentives;corruption;

illegal logging, timber legality and timber tradeissues in the context of consumer, producerand transformer countries; andlessons learned from REDD+ implementationin Asian countries.

Pacific Islands Expert Panel on Challenges andOpportunities in the Region

The Pacific Island Countries (PICs) attending the24th Session of the Asia-Pacific ForestryCommission (APFC) included the following: Fiji,Kiribati, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands,Tonga, Samoa and Vanuatu. To take advantageof the opportunities provided by such a wellattended regional forum, the PICs organized anExpert Panel Meeting. Each country, in line withthe meeting’s theme, “New Challenges - NewOpportunities”, presented the developments,progress and potential areas for collaboration andinvestment in their respective countries.

At the regional level, forests are still recognizedfor their social, cultural, economic andenvironment significance and contributions. Aprincipal role of forests now being stronglyadvocated is in climate change mitigation andadaptation. This role can be more effective andcontribute to reducing the level of deforestationand forest degradation now experienced in manycountries, particularly in the larger island countrieswith formal forestry sectors. The materializationof financial mechanisms and tools now availableto countries under processes such REDD/REDD+provide real opportunities for countries tosafeguard and sustainably manage their forests andforestry development. For small and medium sizeislands such as Kiribati, Samoa, Tonga andVanuatu, protection of trees and forests alone iscritical for safeguarding the environment – inparticular, the fragile island ecosystems.

Experiences across the Pacific islands indicate thatdespite a host of issues and challenges rangingfrom lack of funds, poor policy formulation andimplementation, weak institutions, and lack ofpolitical will, there are still positive lessons thatcan be learnt and built on for successful forestrydevelopment. In Fiji, with a total wood-basedexport value of USD 28 million in 2010, over


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60% of this contribution originates from themahogany and pine plantations. In SolomonIslands, 1,583 small holders successfully planted14,000 ha of high-quality seedlings of teak,mahogany and gmelina. Thirty-five percent ofthese small woodlots are now more than 20 yearsold, which at harvest time would fetch substantialamount of cash for the local communities andgenerate other economic benefits.

In PNG, one initiative to note is the recognition ofthe rights of customary land owners within theForestry Act in PNG. The formation of the ForestManagement Agreements (FMA) and IncorporatedLandowner Groups (ILGs) has establishedmechanisms for the meaningful involvement oflandowners.

A topic of common interest which was raised andpassionately discussed in the meeting was thesuccess of smallholder tree farms in SolomonIslands and Vanuatu. In Vanuatu, sandalwood(Santalum austrocaledonicum) is native to thecountry and the export of the wood and oil havebeen a lucrative business for local entrepreneurs.Replanting sandalwood is now totally the domainof smallholder tree farmers with a decreasing roleof Government in providing inputs, incentives andpromoting the fast-growing, high value species.Over the last 10 years, with the best provenancesof sandalwood identified in terms of oil content,the high demand for seedlings has seen growth inprivate nurseries and areas planted as well ascreation of new markets for different products andservices run by small-scale, forest-basedentrepreneurs. The Solomon Islands experience insmallholder farmers growing teak, mahogany andgmelina is similar to the Vanuatu experience;however, it differs in that in the Solomon Islands,the Government subsidizes the tree plantingthrough provision of seedlings and a small amountcash (around US$400) per farmer.

Countries in the region could improve their forestmanagement practices if success stories from thecountries were published and the experiencesgained more widely adopted and adapted. The keyquestion of what makes the smallholder tree farmsin Vanuatu and Solomon Islands successfulcompared to similar schemes in other Pacific IslandCountries is critical. Likewise, the positive

experiences of Fiji and PNG and other islandcountries should be analyzed to determine what isneeded for countries to achieve sustainablemanagement of forest and tree resources.

The meeting recognized and recommended thefollowing actions:

Land-use planning is critical and governmentsmust carry this out at the national level – thehigh conversion rate of forest lands to otherland uses is threatening the existence of allkinds of forests and biodiversity;Countries must reduce the rate of deforestationand forest degradation through good forestgovernance and engage in emerging financialmechanisms and management tools like theREDD/REDD+ processes;Empowering and building the capacities oflandowners to fully understand and engage inforest decision-making processes and activitiesis vital for the success of the forestry sector;An appropriate level of assistance andincentives must be given to smallholder farmersto increase their participation in tree planting,growing forests and creating wealth to supportsustainable livelihoods;Countries should focus on fast-growing, high-value species – research should be carried outto test and identify the best planting materials;Forest certification is important and can beused to bring other benefits – countries areurged to use existing recognized internationalstandards or develop national standards thatcan be recognized by an international certifyingbody;Downstream processing and value-added areimportant for a maintaining a viable andcontributing forestry sector – countries mustprepare and organize policies and incentivesfor smooth transition and implementation;Protection and conservation of tree and forestresources is important and efforts must bemade to recognize the different roles forestsplay;To complement the success of smallholder treefarmers in some countries, time and appropriateresources must be invested in developingproducts, markets and capacities of treefarmers to fully understand and participate inmarkets.

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REDD+

The UN-REDD Programme and USAID’sLowering Emissions in Asia’s Forests (LEAF)Programme co-hosted the REDD+ Partner Event.The event provided a platform for APFW delegatesto share and discuss experiences and opinions onReducing Emissions from Deforestation and ForestDegradation (REDD+), one of the most significantinternational initiatives in forest policy to emergein recent years.

Despite the social, economic and environmentalbenefits forests bring to millions of peoplethroughout the Asia-Pacific region, they continueto be destroyed and degraded at an alarming rate.Although many forest sector stakeholders viewREDD+ as an opportunity to reduce emissionswhile improving forest management, this is no easytask. Several challenges remain and risks need tobe managed and openly discussed.

The REDD+ Partner Event offered an opportunityfor such open discussion through presentations fromthree of the region’s most experienced commentatorson REDD+: Ibu Nur Masripatin, the Government ofIndonesia’s REDD+ focal point; Amanda Bradley ofPACT, technical adviser to the REDD+ project inOddar Meanchay, Cambodia; and Marlea Muñez ofCoDeREDD, the alliance of civil societyorganizations that is a leading force behind thePhilippines National REDD+ Strategy. Thepresentations were followed by a panel discussioninvolving David Ganz of LEAF, Thomas Enters ofUN-REDD, Regan Suzuki of REDD-net and HirokiMiyazono of JICA, with numerous contributions fromthe floor.

The discussions elicited several lessons regarding theopportunities, challenges and risks of REDD+ in theAsia-Pacific region. In terms of opportunities, theinvolvement of the private sector was repeatedlyhighlighted. Not only does REDD+ present theopportunity for addressing private sector activities askey drivers of deforestation and degradation, it alsoencourages private investment through corporatesocial responsibility and, potentially, carbon trading.REDD+ also offers an opportunity to scale up thelessons on effective benefit distribution systems fromdecades of experience in community-based forestmanagement, and to use the numerous existingregional partnerships and platforms on forestry policy

and practice (particularly social forestry) to facilitateeffective sharing of these lessons.

Among the key challenges to effectiveimplementation of REDD+ in the region, creatingviable incentives to change the behavior of all forestsector stakeholders is perhaps the most significant.This will require the bundling of other ecosystemservices, beyond carbon, into REDD+ incentiveschemes. Stakeholders will consider these otherservices when calculating the opportunity costs ofREDD+, even though REDD+ does not explicitlycover these costs. Furthermore, REDD+ once againbrings the challenge of gender integration in forestrypolicy and practice to the fore, as well as other issuesof social exclusion in forest sector decision-making.There is also a flip side to the opportunity to engagewith the private sector, mentioned above; thechallenge of building and retaining the trust ofinvestors who require short-term returns and accurateassessments of the risk of project failure. Anotherset of challenges arises from the expectations heapedon REDD+. The donor community, in particular,must ensure that resources continue to be directedtowards basic infrastructure and skills developmentand governance reform while maintaining countries’potential for additional improvement in forest policiesand measures, and thus their eligibility to benefit fromREDD+ finance.

Many of the risks of REDD+, as discussed duringthe event, are intricately linked with the challengesdescribed above. However, one particularlysignificant risk for this region is the potential forREDD+ to draw funding and expertise away fromclimate change adaptation efforts, and in particularfrom the potential of the forest sector to contributeto these efforts. For most countries in the region,there is greater practical and political need forachievement of adaptation-related goals, rather thanmitigation. There is also a risk that REDD+ is initiatedwithout a thorough appreciation of the capacitybuilding requirements, which would lead to failure.On a more fundamental level, there is a risk of gettingthe incentives wrong, in particular through failing toaccount for some key stakeholders, and thus forREDD+ strategies to actually exacerbate deforestationand degradation rather than reduce it.


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Food Chain and Nutrition Issues in Forestry

The Partner Event “Food chain and nutritionissues in forestry” provided an opportunity to raiseawareness and build consensus among theparticipants on the value and contribution offorestry to dietary diversity, health and nutritionby sharing experiences and learning lessons foreffective policy and programme planning andevidence-based research. It also highlighted keycomponents of the link between forest biodiversityand the viability of contemporary food systems.

Sixty participants, experts from the fields ofagricultural and rural development, environment,food and nutrition security, attended the event.Panel presenters from selected institutionshighlighted key elements drawing on case studiesand lessons learned. Showcased were bestpractices in enabling and promoting multi-stakeholder participation in institutions andmechanisms at national and regional levelscontributing to conservation and sustainable useof forest resources for improving food and nutritionsecurity. These experiences provide inspiration forthe countries in the region that can serve as aninventory of best practices to promote sustainableuse and conservation of forest resources fornutritional security.

It was evident that the knowledge about the stateof edible forest plants, as source of foods thatsupplement and complement what is obtained fromagriculture and how these contribute to nutritionalimprovements, is very limited and more advocacywork is needed. There is need for a review of therole of forest resources in food systems, focusingon dietary changes and diversity-based strategiesfor improving nutrition.

Research on indigenous forestry food plantsrequires correct taxonomic identification, chemicalanalysis, and nutritional data. The researchinstitutes presented research results focusing onenhancing the knowledge base on traditional foods:knowledge of the foods that are part of thetraditional food systems is imperative.

There is evidence that indigenous communitiesrecognize the health and nutritional benefits ofsome of the edible forest products that are part oftheir traditional food systems. They are well awareof cultivar specific differences in agronomic anddietary attributes, and they often describe certaincultivars or indigenous varieties as having particularnutritional or therapeutic value. This indigenous/traditional knowledge must be preserved anddocumented and made accessible to thosedeveloping food security and nutrition interventionsand policies.

FAO ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CALENDAR

14-16 May 2012. Workshop on climate change adaptation and agricultural investment in East Asiaand the Pacific. Bangkok, Thailand. Contact: Beau Damen, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific,39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand; E-mail: [email protected]

31 May - 2 June 2012. Regional workshop on underutilized food. Khon Kaen, Thailand. Contact:Patrick Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road,Bangkok 10200, Thailand; E-mail: [email protected]

FOREST NEWS is issued by the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific as part of TIGERPAPER. This issue ofFOREST NEWS was compiled by Patrick B. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO/RAP.

FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS: FAO REGIONALOFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP)

For copies please write to: Senior Forestry Officer for Asia and the Pacific,FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.

Or visit the FAO website for an electronic version: http://www.fao.or.th/publications/publications.htm

East Asian forests and forestry to 2020 (RAPPublication 2010/15)Forests beneath the grass: Proceedings of theregional workshop on advancing the application ofassisted natural regeneration for effective low-costforest restoration (RAP Publication 2010/11)Forest policies, legislation and institutions in Asiaand the Pacific: Trends and emerging needs for2020 (RAP Publication 2010/10)Report of the Asia-Pacific Forestry CommissionTwenty-third session (RAP Publication 2010/09)Asia-Pacific forests and forestry to 2020. Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study II (RAPPublication 2010/06)Forest law enforcement and governance: Progressin Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2010/05)Forest insects as food: humans bite back.Proceedings of a workshop on Asia-Pacificresosurces and their potential for development(RAP Publication 2010/02)Strategies and financial mechanisms forsustainable use and conservation of forests:experiences from Latin America and Asia (RAPPublication 2009/21)Asia-Pacific Forestry Week: Forestry in achanging world (RAP Publication 2009/04)The future of forests: Proceedings of aninternational conference on the outlook for Asia-Pacific forests to 2020 (RAP Publication 2009/03)Re-inventing forestry agencies. Experiences ofinstitutional restructuring in Asia and the Pacific(RAP Publication 2008/05)Forest faces. Hopes and regrets in Philippineforestry (RAP Publication 2008/04Reaching consensus. Multi-stakeholderprocesses in forestry: experiences from the Asia-Pacific region (RAP Publication 2007/31)Trees and shrubs of Maldives: An illustrated fieldguide (RAP Publication 2007/12)A cut for the poor: Proceedings of theInternational Conference on Managing Forests forPoverty Reduction Capturing Opportunities inForest Harvesting and Wood Processing for theBenefit of the Poor (RAP Publication 2007/09)Trees and shrubs of the Maldives (RAPPublication 2007/12)

Developing an Asia-Pacific strategy for forestinvasive species: The coconut beetle problem –bridging agriculture and forestry (RAP Publication2007/02The role of coastal forests in the mitigation oftsunami impacts (RAP Publication 2007/01)Taking stock: Assessing progress in developing andimplementing codes of practice for forestharvesting in ASEAN member countries (RAPPublication 2006/10)

Helping forests take cover (RAP Publication 2005/13)Elephant care manual for mahouts and campmanagers (RAP Publication 2005/10)Forest certification in China: latest developmentsand future strategies (RAP Publication 2005/08)Forests and floods – drowning in fiction or thrivingon facts? (RAP Publication 2005/03)In search of excellence: exemplary forestmanagement in Asia and the Pacific (RAPPublication 2005/02)What does it take? The role of incentives in forestplantation development in Asia and the Pacific(RAP Publication 2004/27)Advancing assisted natural regeneration (ANR) inAsia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2003/19) -2nd editionPractical guidelines for the assessment,monitoring and reporting on national level criteriaand indicators for sustainable forest managementin dry forests in Asia (RAP Publication: 2003/05)Applying reduced impact logging to advancesustainable forest management (RAP Publication:2002/14)Trash or treasure? Logging and mill residues inAsia-Pacific (RAP Publication: 2001/16)Regional training strategy: supporting theimplementation of the Code of Practice for forestharvesting in Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication: 2001/15)Forest out of bounds: impacts and effectivenessof logging bans in natural forests in Asia-Pacific:executive summary (RAP Publication: 2001/10)Trees commonly cultivated in Southeast Asia: anillustrated field guide - 2nd edition (RAPPublication: 1999/13)

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