Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development
in the Greater Horn of Africain the Greater Horn of Africain the Greater Horn of Africain the Greater Horn of Africa
VOLUME 1: MAIN VOLUME 1: MAIN VOLUME 1: MAIN VOLUME 1: MAIN SYNTHESIS SYNTHESIS SYNTHESIS SYNTHESIS REPORTREPORTREPORTREPORT
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Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
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TABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTTABLE OF CONTTABLE OF CONTTABLE OF CONTENTSENTSENTSENTS i
LIST OF TABLESLIST OF TABLESLIST OF TABLESLIST OF TABLES vi
LIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURES vii
LIST OF ANNEXESLIST OF ANNEXESLIST OF ANNEXESLIST OF ANNEXES viii
LIST OF ACRONYMSLIST OF ACRONYMSLIST OF ACRONYMSLIST OF ACRONYMS ix
EXECUTIVE SUMMARYEXECUTIVE SUMMARYEXECUTIVE SUMMARYEXECUTIVE SUMMARY xiii
1.0 INTRODUCTION1.0 INTRODUCTION1.0 INTRODUCTION1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Purpose 1
1.2 Background 1
1.3 Objectives 3
1.4 Scope of Work 4
1.5 Output 4
2.0 CONCEPT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY2.0 CONCEPT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY2.0 CONCEPT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY2.0 CONCEPT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 5
2.1 Conceptual Framework 5
2.2 Methodology 6
3.0 ASAL REGION OF THE 3.0 ASAL REGION OF THE 3.0 ASAL REGION OF THE 3.0 ASAL REGION OF THE GREATER HORN OF AFRICAGREATER HORN OF AFRICAGREATER HORN OF AFRICAGREATER HORN OF AFRICA 8
3.1 Ecology, Climate and Environment 8
3.2 Pastoralism and Climate Change 9
3.3 Pastoralism and the Environment 9
3.4 Pastoral Livelihood systems 10
3.4.1 Pastoral Identity 10
3.4.2 Adaptive Strategies for Sustainable Livelihoods in ASALs 11
3.4.3 Wealth and Income Distribution in Pastoral Households 13
3.4.4 Social and Policy Development Challenges 13
3.4.5 Community Perspectives 14
3.5 Human Population and Consumption Trends 15
3.5.1 Population Trends 15
3.5.2 Consumption Trends 17
3.6 Key Institutions/Organizations 18
3.6.1 UN Protocol on Desertification 18
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3.6.2 Intergovernmental Authority on Development 20
3.6.3 Nile Basin Initiative 21
3.6.4 Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa 23
3.6.5 East African Community (EAC) 24
4.0 WATER RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGIONS4.0 WATER RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGIONS4.0 WATER RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGIONS4.0 WATER RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGIONS 25
4.1 Water Resources Endowment 25
4.1.1 Djibouti 25
4.1.2 Eritrea 26
4.1.3 Ethiopia 28
4.1.4 Kenya 32
4.1.5 Somalia 34
4.1.6 Sudan 36
4.1.7 Uganda 37
4.2 Water Harvesting and Storage Systems 39
4.2.1 Surface and Rainwater Harvesting 40
4.2.2 Water Storage Systems 42
4.3 Water Supply 46
4.3.1 Main Water Sources 46
4.3.2 Access to Water 47
4.3.3 Emergency Water Tankering 48
4.4 Water Demand 49
4.4.1 Multiple users 49
4.4.2 Livestock Water Demand 49
4.5 Safeguarding Scarce Water Resources 50
4.5.1 Country Cases 50
4.6 Institutional Framework for the Water Sector 57
4.6.1 Regional Level 57
4.6.2 National Level 57
4.6.3 Country Cases 58
4.7 Proposed Interventions 66
5.0 PASTURE RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGION5.0 PASTURE RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGION5.0 PASTURE RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGION5.0 PASTURE RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGION 68
5.1 Pasture Resources in Djibouti 68
5.2 Pasture Resources in Eritrea 70
5.2.1 The Natural Pastures 70
5.2.2 Other Feed Resources 72
5.2.3 Pasture Conservation in Reference to the Eco-Zones 73
5.2.4 Opportunities for Improvement of Fodder Resources 74
5.3 Pasture Resources in Ethiopia 78
5.3.1 Natural Pastures 78
5.3.2 Conditions and Trends of Grazing-lands 81
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5.4 Pasture Resources in Kenya 83
5.4.1 Pasture Seed Production 87
5.4.2 Pasture Research 87
5.4.3 Pasture Quality 87
5.5 Pasture Resources in Somalia 89
5.6 Pasture Resources in Sudan 89
5.6.1 Seed Pasture 91
5.6.2 Livestock Carrying Capacity 91
5.7 Pasture Resources in Uganda 91
5.7.1 Forage Quality 95
5.8 Opportunities for Improvement of Pasture Resources 95
5.8.1 Policy and Institutional Level 95
5.8.2 Private Sector Involvement 95
5.8.3 Research 96
5.8.4 Effective Co-ordination 96
5.8.5 Legislations and Regulations 96
5.8.6 Institutional Capacity Building 96
5.8.7 Integration of the Formal and Informal Seed Systems 97
5.9 Regional Level 97
5.9.1 Networking 97
5.9.2 Regional Pasture and Forage Improvement Activities 97
5.10 Constraints to Pasture Development within the GHA 97
5.10.1 Water 98
5.10.2 Lack of Specific Government Strategies for Rangeland Rehabilitation 98
5.10.3 Seed Sector Constraints 99
5.10.4 Research Deficiency 99
5.10.5 Inherent Constraints to the Development of Range Improvement Activities 100
6. SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK 6. SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK 6. SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK 6. SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT IN THE ASAL REGIONDEVELOPMENT IN THE ASAL REGIONDEVELOPMENT IN THE ASAL REGIONDEVELOPMENT IN THE ASAL REGION 102
6.1 Livestock Production System 102
6.1.1 Grassland Based Systems (LG) 104
6.1.2 Mixed Irrigated Husbandry (MI) Production Systems 105
6.1.3 Mixed Rainfed Systems (MR) 106
6.1.4 Production Trends 107
6.1.5 Livestock Breeds and Performance 109
6.1.6 Conservation of Indigenous Livestock Breeds 110
6.2 Livestock Management Practices 111
6.2.1 Livestock Management Systems 111
6.2.2 Livestock Information Management 111
6.3 Emerging Livestock 112
6.3.1 Developing Emerging Livestock Sub-Sector 112
6.4 Livestock Composition and Distribution 113
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6.5 Pastoral Farming Systems 114
6.6 Livestock Marketing, Trade and Infratructure 116
6.6.1 External Market 117
6.6.2 Regional Market 120
6.6.3 Internal Markets 122
6.6.4 Infrastructure 124
6.6.5 Value Addition 126
6.7 Financing of the Livestock Sector 128
6.7.1 Need for Financing 128
6.7.2 Public Sector Financing 128
6.7.3 Private Sector Financing 129
6.7.4 Cooperative Societies 129
6.7.5 Financing of Livestock-related Sectors 129
6.7.6 Donor Financing through Livestock Development Programmes 130
6.7.7 Recent and Ongoing Interventions 132
6.7.8 Opportunities for Intervention 133
6.7.9 A Case for High-input High-output Breeds 134
6.7.10 Opportunities for Intervention 134
6.8 Animal-Human Health Impact 135
6.8.1 Animal Health 135
6.9 Human-Livestock Interaction 142
6.9.1 Zoonotic Diseases 142
6.9.2 Strategies for Management of Zoonotic Diseases 143
7 POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL 7 POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL 7 POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL 7 POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKFRAMEWORKFRAMEWORKFRAMEWORK 147
7.1 Policy and Regulatory Framework in Water Sector 147
7.1.1 Djibouti 147
7.1.2 Eritrea 148
7.1.3 Ethiopia 148
7.1.4 Kenya 149
7.1.5 Somalia 150
7.1.6 Sudan 151
7.1.7 Uganda 151
7.2 Policy and Regulatory Framework in Pasture 152
7.2.1 Djibouti 152
7.2.2 Eritrea 153
7.2.3 Ethiopia 153
7.2.4 Kenya 154
7.2.5 Somalia 154
7.2.6 Sudan 154
7.2.7 Uganda 155
7.2.8 Summary of Policy Interventions 155
7.3 Livestock Policy and Regulatory Framework 158
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7.3.1 Regulatory Framework 158
7.3.2 Institutional Framework 162
7.3.3 Proposed Interventions in Livestock Policy and Regulatory Framework 163
8. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES8. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES8. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES8. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES 166
8.1 Peace Building, Disaster Management and Security 166
8.1.1 Pervasive Conflict in the GHA 166
8.1.2 Framework for Conflict Management 167
8.1.3 Way Forward 173
8.2 Gender Dimensions in ASAL Livelihoods 174
8.2.1 Access and Ownership of Resources 174
8.2.2 Migration and Employment 175
8.2.3 Education 175
8.3 HIV/AIDS in GHA Pastoral Communities 175
8.3.1 Manifestation of the HIV/AIDS Problem 175
8.3.2 Awareness Levels 176
8.4 Climate Change 177
8.4.1 Climate Change Phenomenon 177
8.4.2 Pastoralism and Climate Change 178
8.4.3 Pastoral Adaptation 178
9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 181
9.1 Summary 181
9.2 Conclusion 182
9.3 Recommendation 183
APPENDICESAPPENDICESAPPENDICESAPPENDICES 184
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LIST OF TABLESLIST OF TABLESLIST OF TABLESLIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Problem Ranking Results in Three Villages in Ethiopia ..................................... 14
Table 4.1: Water Basins of Ethiopia and their Area Coverage ............................................. 29
Table 4.3: Estimated Costs for Water Harvesting Structures (per M3) ................................ 41
Table 4.4: International Treaties Governing the Water Sector in Sudan ............................ 55
Table: 4.5: Long Term Strategies for the Uganda Water Sector ........................................... 57
Table 4.6: Institutional Arrangement of the Ethiopian Water Sector ................................. 60
Table 4.7: Institutional Arrangement of the Sudan Water Sector ....................................... 63
Table 4.8: Institutional Arrangement of the Uganda Water Sector ..................................... 64
Table 4.9: Interventions in the Water Sector ........................................................................ 66
Table 5.1: Fodder species in Djibouti ..................................................................................... 69
Table 5.2: Dominant Pastures in Djibouti ............................................................................. 69
Table 5.3: Estimated DM Production and Carrying Capacity .............................................. 70
Table 5.4: Estimated Feed Availability to Livestock in Ethiopia ......................................... 81
Table 5.5: Livestock Feed Quality in Kenya .......................................................................... 88
Table 5.6: Comparative Growth of Pasture Land and Crop Land in Sudan ........................ 90
Table 5.7: Current and Potential Grazing Areas of Uganda ................................................. 91
Table 5.8: Cattle Feed Sources, Quality and Carrying Capacity ........................................... 93
Table 5.9: Major Pasture Varieties in Uganda. ...................................................................... 94
Table 5.10: Natural Grasses of Uganda, TDN ........................................................................ 95
Table 6.1: Pastoral/agro Pastoral Production Systems - Animal Numbers (2000) ............ 102
Table 6.2: Mixed Crop – Livestock Production Systems - Animal Numbers (2000) ......... 102
Table 6.3: Production Systems within the GHA ................................................................. 104
Table 6.4: Merits of Indigenous and Exotic Cattle and their Crosses ................................ 109
Table 6.5: Livestock Population ........................................................................................... 113
Table 6.6: Livestock Exports at the Djibouti Quarantine Station ...................................... 117
Table 6.7: Main Livestock Products Imported by GHA Countries (2007) ........................ 120
Table 6.8: Financing of Livestock-related Activities .......................................................... 130
Table 6.9: AU-AIBAR and Donor Supported Interventions .............................................. 132
Table 6.10 Major Diseases/Pathogens in the GHA ............................................................. 136
Table 6.11: Numbers of Cattle Exposed to Trypanosomiasis in GHA ................................ 138
Table 6.12 Some Aspects of Disease Control Initiatives across the GHA .......................... 141
Table 6.13: Ranking of Zoonotic diseases in GHA .............................................................. 143
Table 6.14: Transboundary Diseases Transmitted between Wildlife and Livestock ........ 146
Table 7.2: Policy Interventions in Water and Pasture ....................................................... 155
Table 7.3: GHA Membership in the WTO, Codex and OIE............................................... 159
Table 7.5: Policy Interventions ............................................................................................ 163
Table 8.1: Somalia Development Indicators, 2001–02 ........................................................ 169
Table 8.2: HIV/AIDS prevalence in GHA ........................................................................... 176
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LIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURESLIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework ......................................................................................... 5
Figure 2.2: Thematic Overview of the Study .......................................................................... 6
Figure 3.1: Population Growth and Urbanisation Trends in GHA 1980-2015 ................... 16
Figure 3.2: Annual Meat Consumption Kg/Capita ................................................................ 17
Figure 3.3: Annual Milk Consumption Kg/capita ................................................................. 17
Figure 4.1: Strategy of Rain Water Harvesting ..................................................................... 40
Figure 4.2: Overview of the Institutional Arrangement of the Water Sector in GHA ....... 58
Figure 4.3: Water Sector Financing in Uganda. .................................................................... 64
Figure 5.1: Livestock Feeds in Ethiopia ................................................................................. 82
Figure 5.2: Typical pasture in ASALs of Kenya. .................................................................... 86
Figure 5.3: Trends in pasture land development in the Sudan (km2) ................................. 90
Figure 5.4: Livestock Feed Supply and Demand in Turkana District in 2000. .................... 98
Figure 6.1: Livestock production systems in the Horn of Africa ....................................... 103
Figure 6.2: Meat Production Trends, Tonnes ...................................................................... 108
Figure 6.3: Milk Production Trends, Tonnes ...................................................................... 108
Figure 6.4: Livestock Distribution Across the GHA ........................................................... 114
Figure 6.5: Pastoral settlement in Mandera District ........................................................... 115
Figure 6.6a: Cattle inside the station ................................................................................... 116
Figure 6.6b: Camels housed at the station ........................................................................... 117
Figure 6.7: Live Animals Exports from the Regional Quarantine Centre, Djibouti ......... 118
Figure 6.8: Regional Quarantine Station Marketing Model ............................................... 119
Figure 6.9: Cross Border Livestock Trade in the IGAD ...................................................... 121
Figure 6.10a: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Djibouti ................................................ 123
Figure 6.10b: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Kenya ................................................... 123
Figure 6.10c: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Sudan .................................................... 124
Figure 6.10d: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Uganda ................................................. 124
Figure 6.11: Impact of Livestock Diseases ........................................................................... 135
Figure 6.12: Tse tse fly Distribution within GHA Region .................................................. 137
Figure 7.1 Major Economic Blocks across Africa ................................................................ 160
Figure 8.1: Inter and Intra Pastoral Conflicts within the GHA ......................................... 166
Figure 8.2: Coverage of the Karamoja Conflict ................................................................... 172
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LIST OF LIST OF LIST OF LIST OF ANNEXESANNEXESANNEXESANNEXES
Annex 1: Terms of Reference ............................................................................................... 185
Annex 2: Fisheries ................................................................................................................. 192
Annex 3: Forestry ................................................................................................................. 198
Annex 4: Apiculture ............................................................................................................. 200
Annex 5: Livestock Trade and Marketing Infrastructure ................................................... 204
Annex 6: Strengths and Weaknesses of Sector Institutions ............................................... 218
Annex 7: Prosopis ................................................................................................................. 223
Annex 8: Payment for Environmental Services .................................................................. 226
Annex 9: Effects of Drought and Floods to Pastoralists ...................................................... 230
Annex 10:Cross Border Issues .............................................................................................. 234
Annex 11:AfDB Supported Projects across the Region ...................................................... 241
Annex 12:Statistical Abstracts .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.Error! Bookmark not defined.Error! Bookmark not defined.Error! Bookmark not defined.
Annex 13:List of Persons Consulted .................................................................................... 248
Annex 14:List of Key References ......................................................................................... 274
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LIST OF ACRONYMSLIST OF ACRONYMSLIST OF ACRONYMSLIST OF ACRONYMS
A.I Artificial Insemination
ACP Action Against Poverty
AFC Agricultural Finance Corporation
AfDB African Development Bank
AgGDP agricultural Gross Domestic Product
AGR Animal Genetic Resources
ALLPRO ASAL Based Livestock and Rural Livelihoods Support Project
AMCOW African Ministers’ Council on Water
APSK Animal Production Society of Kenya
ASAL Arid and Semi Arid Lands
ATVET Agricultural Technique and Vocational Education Training
AU African Union
AU-AIBAR African Union Inter-African Bureau for Animal Resources
BCM Billion Cubic Metres
BZ Buffer Zones
C3 Crop Crisis Control
CAAC Cathment Area Advisory Committee
CAADP Comphrehensive Africa Agricultural Development Pragramme
CBAHWs Community Based Animal Health Workers
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CBO Community-Based Organization
CBPP Contagious Bovine Pleuro-Pneumonia
CCAA Competitive Commercial Agriculture in Sub Saharan Africa
CCPP Contagious Caprine Pleuro-Pneumonia
CDC Community Development Centers
CHZ Central Highlands Zone
COMESA Common Market for East and Southern Africa
CSO Civil Society Organisation
DANIDA Danish International Development Agency
DFD Director Fisheries Development
DFID Department for International Development
DFZ Disease Free Zone
DLP Director of Livestock Production
DST Decision Support Tool of the Nile Basin Intiative
DUS Distinctiveness, Uniformity and Stability (of seed)
DVOs District Veterinary Officers
DVS Director Veterinary Services
EAC East African Community
ECA Eastern and Central African Region
EDF European Development Fund
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ELATA Ethiopian Live Animal Traders Association
EMASAR Ecological Management of Arid and Semi Arid Rangelands
EMCA Environmental Management and Coordination Act
ENNDA Ewaso-Ng'iro North Development Authority
ENSDA Ewaso-Ng'iro South Development Authority
EPA Environmental Protection Authority
ESAP Ethiopian Society of Animal Production
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FEW Frontline Extension Workers
FEW Frontline Extention Workers
FGDs Focused Group Discussions
FINNIDA Finnish International Development Agency
FMD Foot and Mouth Disease
FSA Financial Services Associations
FTCs Farmer Training Centres
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GEMS Global Environmental Monitoring Programme of UNEP
GHA Greater Horn of Africa
GoK Government of Kenya
GTZ Germany Agency for Technical Cooperation
HACCP Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point
HIHO High Input High Output
HMPL High and Medium Potential Lands
HPC/LZ High Potential Cereal/Livestock Zone
HPI Heifers Project International
HPP/LZ High Potential Perenial/Livestock Zone
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
ICRAF International Centre for Research in Agro-forestry
IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development
IKS Indigenous Knowledge Systems
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute
KARI Kenya Agricultural Research Institute
KBA Kenya Beekeepers Association
KCA Kenya Camel Association
KENFAP Kenya national Federation of Animal Producers
KENPAWAE Kenya Professional Association of Women in Agriculture and Environment
KEPHIS Kenya Plant health Inspectorate Services
KETRI Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute
KEWI Kenya Water Institute
KLDP Kenya Livestock Development Programme
KMC Kenya Meat Commission
K-REP Kenya Rural Enterprises Programme
KSB Kenya Studbook
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KSC Kenya Seed Company
KVA Kenya Veterinary Association
KVDA Kerio Valley Development Authority
KWFT Kenya Women Finance Trust
LEWS Livestock Early Warning Systems
LMD Livestock Marketing Division
LPC/LZ Low Potential Cereal/Livestock Zone
LPF Livestock processing Facilities
LRC Livestock Recording Centre
LSD Lumpy Skin Disease
LVDP Lake Victoria Development Programme
MAAIF Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries
MAEM Ministry of Agriculture Livestock and the Sea
MARF Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries
MCM Million Cubic Meters
MDG Millenium Development Goals
MoA Ministry of Agriculture
MoLD Ministry of Livestock Development
MWE Ministry of Water and Environment
MWI Ministry of Water and Irrigation
NAADS National Agricultural Advisory Services
NAEP National Agricultural Extension Policy
NALEP National Agriculture and Livestock Extension Programme
NAP National Action Programmes
NBI Nile Basin Initiative
NDF National Desertification Fund
NELSAP Nile Equitorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Programme
NEMA National Environment Management Authority
NEPAD New Partnership for Africa Development
NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations
NIB National Irrigation Board
NLDP National Livestock Development Project
NSQS National Seed Quality and Control Services
NWCPC National Water Conservation and Pipeline Cooperation
NZD Neglected Zoonotic Diseases
OIE World Organization for Animal Health
OVD Djibouti Highways Authority
PACD Plan of Action to Combat Desertification
PATTEC Pan African Tsetse Fly and Trypanosomiacis Eradication Campaign
PCDP Pastoral Communities Development Project
PES Payment for Environmental Services
PMA Plan for Modernization of Agriculture
PPLPI Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Intiative
PPR Peste des Petits Ruminants
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PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
RAP Regional Action Programme
RDA Regional Development Authority
REC Regional Economic Communities
RMD Range Management Division
SACCO Savings and Credit Co-operatives
SARDEP Semi-Arid Development Programme
SDARF State Directorate of Animal Resources and Fisheries of Sudan
SEARNET Sourthen and Eastern Africa Rainwater Network
SNAP Sudan National Action Program
SRAP sub-Regional Action Programme
SVP Shared Vision Programme
TAD Transboundary Animal Diseases
TLU Tropical Livestock Unit
TZD Transboundary Zoonotic Diseases
UCL Uganda Crocs Limited
UNCCD United Nations Conference on Combating Desertification
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Desertification
UNEP United Nations Environmental Program
UNFCCC United Nations Framework ConveNtion on Climate Change
UNFD National Union of Djibouti Women
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
UNCCD United Nations Covention to Combart Desertification
UNSO United Nations Service Organization
USAID United States Agency for International Development
WAB Water Appeals Board
WASIP Water for Production Strategy and Investment Plan
WEDCO Women Enterprise Development Company
WRMA Water Resources Management Authority
WRUA Water Resources User Association
WSB Water Service Board
WSDP Water Sector Development Programme in Ethiopia
WSP Water Service Provider
WSRB Water Services Regulatory Board
WSS Water Supply and Sanitation
WSTF Water Services Trust Fund
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARYEXECUTIVE SUMMARYEXECUTIVE SUMMARYEXECUTIVE SUMMARY
GeneralGeneralGeneralGeneral
The Regional Study on Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa (GHA) was commissioned by the African Development Bank in October 2008. The
purpose of the study was to assess the status and improvements in water and pasture in
support of livestock development in the arid and semiarid lands (ASAL) of the GHA.
ASAL areas have typically rainfall range of 50mm and 500mm per annum, with wide
variability in location incidences. ASALs constitute at least 76% of the GHA land area of
5.2 million square kilometers. The population of GHA countries, estimated at 205 million
people in 2009 and growing rapidly at 3.2% per annum, is also one of the poorest on the
continent. The GHA is also beset with civil strife on a scale larger than any other
conflicts on the continent. Livelihoods in ASAL area revolve around livestock. The main
drivers in the livelihood systems are water and pasture as the key determinants of pastoral
livestock systems and hence livelihoods.
Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of the GHA countries. It contributes a major
share of the overall GDP which varies from 3.7% (Djibouti) to 52.3% (Somalia), while
employing over three quarters of the population of the region. Since crop production is
limited by inadequate rainfall, livestock contributes between 19.8% and 88.2% of the
agriculture sector contribution to the GDP. Since most livestock is owned under nomadic
pastoralism in the ASAL areas of the GHA, ASALs therefore are a major part of the
economies and ecosystems of the countries of the GHA. It is however, expected that the
easing of factor constraints in water and pasture could increase the livestock sector
potential to contribute to food security, environmental protection, conflict prevention
and general economic well being in the GHA.
All countries in the Greater Horn of Africa are members of the Intergovernmental
Authority on Development (IGAD), except Eritrea which temporarily suspended
membership of IGAD. To ensure food security and environmental protection IGAD
launched the Livestock Policy Initiative (IGAD-LPI) in October 2003. The initiative aims
at enhancing the contribution of the livestock sector to sustainable food security and
poverty reduction in the GHA region by strengthening the capacity among its member
states, other regional organizations and other stakeholders to formulate and implement
livestock sector and related policies that sustainably increase food security and poverty.
The success of the LPI is crucially dependent on progress in water and pasture supply.
This study is meant to feed into the knowledge base required to make informed choices.
The GHA region suffers from severe effects of climate change. The recurring and severe
droughts and floods have caused widespread famine, ecological degradation, poverty and
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economic hardships in the region. The impacts of climate change have been more severe
because of inadequate water management facilities and practices, erratic and
unpredictable rainfall patterns, and high ambient temperatures. Their consequences
include shortage in water and food for both animals and humans, resulting in high
incidence of famine and losses in both human and animal lives in the region. In order to
overcome this shortfall in food supply, the countries of the region have resorted to food
aid, receiving the highest per capita quantity of food aid in the continent. Such a level of
food aid dependency is not sustainable and puts the region under constant threat of
famine which threatens not only peace but also affects conservation of unique
environments and biodiversity and the ability of the region to play an effective role in the
community of nations.
Water and pastures are critical for pastoral livelihoods which are characterized by
frequent movements in search of water and feed during the long periods of scarcity.
Water availability, coupled with its quality, is also important for human consumption.
The problem of scarce natural resources, especially water and pasture has led to violent
conflicts in the Greater Horn of Africa and has thus contributed to the problems of cattle
rustling, food insecurity and poverty. These problems have affected women
disproportionately.
Pastoralists and agro-pastoralists live in extreme poverty with limited alternative sources
of income and constant mobility in search of water and feed for their livestock and for
sustaining their livelihoods. This lifestyle implies that the goal of reducing poverty by half
and achieving an environmentally sustainable development as envisaged in the United
Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) may not be attained in the region.
Furthermore, the efforts of the international community to contribute to poverty
alleviation and, therefore, to the attainment of the MDGs will be in vain unless drastic
measures are carried out to reverse the trend.
It has been argued that pastoralism is the most suitable livelihood and land-use system in
ASALs: extensive production system with low emission of methane, no accumulation of
dung and gases, which would pollute land and water resources; use of resources which are
otherwise wasted (saltish, bitter and thorny vegetation of the rangeland, brackish and
muddy water). Pastoralism is therefore an appropriate land-use system which enables
people to adapt by moving livestock according to the shifting availability of water and
pasture.
However, pastoral livelihoods are not static. Better-off households have larger herd sizes
with livestock and livestock products making up a higher proportion of food and income.
Better-off households will sell livestock both to meet immediate needs and enable the
purchase of consumables. Reduced herd sizes of poorer households mean they are usually
reliant on a wider range of income sources, with non livestock income sources making up
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more than half of the incomes of the poor. But livestock remains critical to their
livelihood strategy: preserving and building up herds is such a priority that households
will reduce consumption in order to avoid selling livestock. The poorest households tend
to drop out of pastoralism as herd sizes become small and unviable.
In recent decades most pastoralists have significantly diversified both food and income
sources. Whereas milk often made the greatest contribution to the diet in the past, cereals
now make up the bulk of pastoral diets. In order to finance these purchases, pastoralists
exchange livestock and livestock products for grain. Furthermore, trading, sale of wood
and charcoal as well as non-timber forest products (honey, leaf products, gums, resins)
and, in many cases, daily wage labor have all become important income sources.
In addition to the changes at household level, the social and institutional milieu of
pastoral livelihoods has a number of challenges. The main ones being:
(i) The rapid population growth averaging about 3.2% per annum;
(ii) Increasing sedentarization around water points, along highways and around
social services such as education and health facilities; and
(iii) Introduction of crop farming which interferes with migratory patterns of the
pastoralists/nomads.
(iv) Consequently pastoralists have to deal with issues of increasing demand for
land and grazing rights thus effectively altering land tenure arrangements.
(v) These exogenous factors are reinforced by endogenous ones such as the
breakdown in traditional governance structures and the absence of public
sector institutions in pastoral regions to help fill the void. Where there may be
a public sector present, its effectiveness is reduced by the straight jacket
approach used in interventions in pastoral areas.
Stiff Competition for Limited ResourcesStiff Competition for Limited ResourcesStiff Competition for Limited ResourcesStiff Competition for Limited Resources
WaterWaterWaterWater
The competition for limited resources is a direct consequence of the pressure within
pastoral communities. Easing the water and pasture constraints would greatly reduce the
often vicious competition for access to natural resources. Inadequate access to water is
arguably the most binding of the constraints that pastoralists face. The GHA region has
scarce water resources. The mean annual rainfall is low for more 76% of the area,
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sometimes as low as below 50mm per annum. The per capita water availability also varies
from about 1,666 m3 in Uganda to 460 m3 in Djibouti. Water infrastructure is generally
poorly developed with per capita water storage being one of the lowest in the world.
There is, therefore, strong competition for water among multiple users: domestic,
industrial, agricultural (including irrigation and livestock), and the need for a residual for
the environment. The main thrust of development programmes is to meet the needs of
multiple users. Sustainable approaches to water sector development in general and for
pastoral areas in particular, require a comprehensive approach. Key elements in such an
approach include:
1. Recognizing the needs of all users, within and across countries
2. Building the capacity of water sector institutions to serve of all users
3. Increasing water saving through recycling of waste water
4. Exploiting underground water resources to supplement surface flows
5. Improving water storage capacity
6. Increasing rainwater harvesting, and,
7. Increasing water use efficiency especially in irrigation
GHA member states have individually drawn up policy documents meant at ensuring that
the scarce water resources are adequately managed and properly utilized. The key
characteristic of the various water resources policies is the recognition that water
resources in the region are shared between countries.
Djibouti:Djibouti:Djibouti:Djibouti: In 2006, the Government of Djibouti adopted an integrated national water and
sanitation policy based on the establishment of a single operator to coordinate and
streamline the activities in the water and sanitation sectors. This led to the establishment
of the National Water and Sanitation Authority (ONEAD). However, the implementation
of the water sector strategies has been slow mainly due to resource and institutional
constraints. It is expected that the establishment of the ONEAD, which is a grouping of
all water and sanitation services, will rationalize sector management and hasten
implementation.
Eritrea: Eritrea: Eritrea: Eritrea: The water needs of Eritrea are almost entirely met from groundwater resources.
Except the reservoirs of the cities of Asmara and Mendefera, there are no surface water
resources in the country. The Setit is the only perennial river traversing a small
southwestern tract of the country. The available water resources hardly cater for around
15% of the requirement of the people.
In the present situation only groundwater development and management is a viable
solution. The geology of the area, including the basement rocks is suitable as receptacles
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of groundwater. Besides, the country is crisscrossed by many shears, fractures, normal
faults, extension joints and dykes which act as conduits. As a part of groundwater
management, aforestation, social forestry, horticulture and grasslands are being promoted
extensively, initially in the central high land zone and the green belt zone that receive
more than 800 mm rainfall. The same programmes are to be extended to the western
escarpment, southern lowland, northwestern low land and the coastal zone, which is
mostly ASAL. Both surface and subsurface water development and management are
essential in meeting the water requirements of the country and to avoid soil erosion and
associated problems that negatively impact the pastoral community.
Ethiopia: Ethiopia: Ethiopia: Ethiopia: The overall policy framework for the water sector in Ethiopia is provided by the
integrated Water Resources Management Policy. The policy has the following objectives:
i. Development of water resources of the country for economic and social benefits of
the people on equitable and sustainable basis
ii. Allocation and apportionment of water, based on comprehensive and integrated
plans and optimum allocation principles that incorporate efficiency of use, equity
of access and sustainability of resource
iii. Managing and combating drought as well as other associated slow onset disasters
through efficient allocation, redistribution, transfer, storage and efficient use of
water resources
iv. Combating and regulating floods through sustainable mitigation, prevention,
rehabilitation and other practical measures
v. Conserving, protecting and enhancing water resources and the overall aquatic
environment on sustainable basis
The Ministry of Water Resources is the federal body that is responsible for the
constitutional and organizational function of the water sector. The state Governments
have jurisdiction of the water resources within their territory but when water passes the
boundary of the state it becomes the mandate and jurisdiction of the federal state.
Kenya: Kenya: Kenya: Kenya: The main Government documents that define the policy and regulatory
environment for the water sector in Kenya are the Vision 2030, Water Resources Policy,
1999 and the Water Act, 2002. There are also the Strategy for Revitalization of
Agriculture 2004-2014, the Irrigation and Drainage Policy among other sectoral policies.
The water Storage Policy is currently under development.
Under Vision 2030, the Kenyan government targets to conserve the scarce water
resources in the country and at the same time harvest rain and ground water resources to
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meet the country’s development needs. Investment in capacity building for institutions
involved in water sector has been prioritized. The country intends to, among other efforts
rehabilitate hydro-meteorological data gathering network, construct multipurpose dams
and also construct water and sanitation facilities to support industries and growing urban
population.
Kenya’s water sector however, still faces several socio-economic, political and technical
challenges that require stronger policy and institutional interventions. These, include,
among other issues, the serious environmental degradation within the country’s few
‘water towers’, inadequate resource allocations for sector growth and low institutional
capacity to effectively manage sector activities.
Somalia: Somalia: Somalia: Somalia: Somalia has had no functional Government since 1991. USAID reports that
before the civil war, urban WSS was managed by the public sector, but the systems were
financially stressed and water supply systems in many cities were inadequate even before
the breakout of conflict. Currently, most WSS infrastructure either is damaged or has
been poorly maintained during and after the conflict, rendering it inoperable. UNICEF
provided support to the Ministry of Water and Mineral Resources in Somaliland in the
development of a Water Policy, National Water Strategy and a Water Act. The
Somaliland government has endorsed the Water Act of 2004. It remains to be seen how
effective the policy and legislations will be and whether the sector can be shielded from
the overall uncertainty facing the country.
Sudan: Sudan: Sudan: Sudan: The Sudan National Action Programme (SNAP) developed in 2006 seeks to
provide a comprehensive framework for combating desertification in the Sudan. The
action plan was developed in the framework of the UN convention on combating
desertification, UNCCD. Sudan Water Policy 2007 provides the general guidance for the
water sector in the country. The policy seeks to ensure that water resources are properly
managed, protected and efficiently utilized for the benefit of the Sudanese population.
UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda: The country has developed the National Water Policy expected to promote a
new integrated approach to manage the water resources in ways that are sustainable and
most beneficial to the people of Uganda. These policies put strength on the supply of
water for production as a primary objective.
PasturesPasturesPasturesPastures
The GHA region has about 1.6 million square kilometers of pasture and forage land. The
distribution of pastures and forage across the region is determined by climatic conditions.
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Rangelands form an immense natural resource and the major source of feed for livestock
across the region. The various types of grazing land vary from open grasslands to seasonal
water courses, flood plains, river banks and associated islands, woodlands, hills and
mountain slopes
The sparse rainfall combined with population pressure remains the main challenge to
sustainable pasture development in ASAL areas. Governments have not had any
consistent policy for pasture development in the ASAL areas. Attempts are few and ad
hoc.
Due to the above challenges, pasture availability and quality has been greatly undermined
across the region. Pastoralists have depended on limited natural pastures and crop
residues for livestock feed.
Although there are many techniques for rehabilitation of degraded rangeland (seeding
methods, soil moisture conservation techniques, water harvesting, water spreading etc.)
most are rather costly compared to the likely economic returns. The more fundamental
approach would therefore be that which involves pastoralists in sound environmental
management and conservation techniques. To achieve this, an integrated multi-sectoral
approaches need to be adopted across issues of policy, institutional arrangements,
technical approaches and investment interventions within the rangelands. Particularly
important also are clear land tenure arrangements that will motivate the beneficiaries to
utilize rehabilitated sites in a sustainable manner.
Country StatusCountry StatusCountry StatusCountry Status
Djibouti:Djibouti:Djibouti:Djibouti: Since 2001, Djibouti has suffered a series of droughts, which have devastated
pasturelands that rural herdsmen have traditionally relied on to feed their livestock. The
World Food Programme (2007) reports that in the northern part of the country most
pastoralists will probably not remember when it last rained in the region. Rangeland
biodiversity forms an extremely important part of livestock feed. Fodder plants include
trees, shrubs, grasses and forbs which provide forage for both domesticated and wild
animals. Seventy to eighty percent of all woody rangeland plants and most of herb species
are palatable to either browsing or grazing livestock.
ErErErEritrea:itrea:itrea:itrea: The bulk of livestock feed (estimated to be about 90 percent) comes from grazing
on pastures and stubble, conserved crop residues (straw and stover from sorghum, millet,
wheat, barley, teff, maize, industrial crops) and agro-industrial by-products that include
linseed and sesame cake, cotton seed and cotton seed cake and wheat bran. In general,
forage supply shortages are amplified by their poor quality. In addition agro-industrial
by-products are often inefficiently used and likewise crop residues are fed without
treatment or supplementation. The limited locally grown forages for livestock production
is not the only main problem, but management practices of forage production and its
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P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi xx
inefficient utilization is the one that causes under nutrition as a major factor in low
productivity of livestock. The overall feed balance in Eritrea indicates that feed is in short
supply by 20 percent in terms of energy and 30 percent in terms of protein requirements.
Ethiopia: Ethiopia: Ethiopia: Ethiopia: Livestock feed resources in Ethiopia are mainly natural grazing and browse,
crop residues, improved pasture, forage crops and agro-industrial by-products. Feeding
systems include communal or private natural grazing and browsing, cut-and-carry
feeding, hay and crop residues. Livestock are fed almost entirely on natural pasture and
crop residues. Grazing is on permanent grazing areas, fallow land and cropland after
harvest. Forage availability and quality are not favourable year round and hence gains
made in the wet season are totally or partially lost in the dry season.
Kenya: The range in the ASAL is the main source of nutrients for both livestock and
wildlife. However, it is either extensively degraded or heavily encroached by bush or
weed, resulting in low herbage dry matter yields. The recurrent droughts in this region,
the existence of ‘pockets’ of pests, poor rangeland husbandry practices, insecurity-related
problems, high cost of livestock inputs, land scarcity due to subdivision of land holdings
as a result of rapid population growth, encroachment of the ASAL grazing areas due to
increased crop agriculture activities, and effects of el nino and la nina have worsened the
situation over the years.
The pastures are thus characterized by poor yields especially in the dry season and limited
in biomass production. Unfortunately, socio-economic changes and frequent droughts
and floods have weakened the traditional mitigation strategies of the local communities
in the ASAL. The increasing human and livestock populations have instilled a lot of
pressure in these areas. These pressures reduce the available grazing areas. Farmers in
high potential areas are also experiencing acute shortages of feed in the market as well as
other farm processed feeds.
Somalia:Somalia:Somalia:Somalia: In Somalia, rangelands are estimated to be about 80 per cent of the nation’s land
area. It is a relatively harsh semi-arid environment with serious limits on carrying
capacity of the land. Pastureland includes the Haud region in the high plateau of
northwest Somalia and grasslands of southern Somalia.
Sudan:Sudan:Sudan:Sudan: The major source of livestock feed in the Sudan is the rangelands which forms an
immense natural resource, covering about 116 million hectares. . . . Various types of grazing
land vary from open grasslands to seasonal water courses, flood plains, river banks and
associated islands, woodlands, hills and mountain slopes. The pasture types and quality
are influenced by the geographical location. The development of pastures has been
lagging in the Sudan. To increase pasture availability for livestock, the Sudan National
Action Plan-Framework for combating desertification has adopted several strategies to
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increase livestock feed. One such is the establishment of seed collection and improvement
centers with many species with specific attention on the indigenous grass species.
The Sudan National Seed Administration has been involved in the production of seed of
the major fodder crops alfalfa and ‘Abu Sabeen’ as well as Sudan grass, clitoria, lablab,
pillipesara and maize. The Arab Sudanese Seed Company manages the pasture seeds on
behalf of the government of Sudan.
Uganda:Uganda:Uganda:Uganda: Uganda’s grazing potential is largely underutilized. Only 20% of Uganda
grassland suitable for livestock production is utilised suggesting very huge potential for
expansion. However, even with the above potential, the country has lately began
experiencing livestock feed shortages due mainly to the effects of global warming, fuelled
by deforestation and charcoal production. These have resulted into a reduction in rainfall
amounts and reliability in many parts of the country. Uganda’s Cattle Corridor, which
stretches from western and central Uganda to mid northern and eastern regions, has seen
a dramatic shift from semi-arid to arid conditions
Animal GAnimal GAnimal GAnimal Genetic Resources (AGR)enetic Resources (AGR)enetic Resources (AGR)enetic Resources (AGR)
The GHA region has a large and diverse reservoir of animal genetic resources, the
majority of which are indigenous and are classified according to the communities and
regions where they are found. The pastoral communities in the region predominantly
own indigenous breeds of livestock whose contribution to livelihood can still be
enhanced if the genetic pool was improved. However, a part from providing basic
livestock products, one other important contribution of the livestock to the pastoral
livelihood systems is draft power. Table 1 summarises the merits of indigenous and exotic
cattle breeds within the pastoral ecosystems.
Table 1Table 1Table 1Table 1:::: Merits of Indigenous and Exotic Cattle and their Crosses
Relative potentialRelative potentialRelative potentialRelative potential Adaptation and survivalAdaptation and survivalAdaptation and survivalAdaptation and survival
Cattle typeCattle typeCattle typeCattle type Milk Meat Draft power Disease and drought
resistance
LocalsLocalsLocalsLocals Poor Excellent Excellent Excellent
CrossesCrossesCrossesCrosses V. Good V. Good Good Good
ExoticExoticExoticExotic Excellent Medium Medium Poor
Source:Source:Source:Source: Addis Ababa chamber of commerce, 2008
Findings1 in Ethiopia revealed that the country is dominated by the indigenous blood
groups of cattle. Crossbred and exotic animals account for less than 1% of the total herd.
As in the cattle herd, almost all the Ethiopian sheep and goats are of indigenous blood.
1 Focus Group Discussions held in Ethiopia in May, 2009
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Exotic and crosses contribute to a negligible portion, more so in the case of sheep than
goats. Research2 shows that these negligible numbers of improved genotypes in the
Ethiopian national herd composition have a profound impact on the productivity of the
herd.
In Uganda, it is estimated that 95% of the cattle population is composed of indigenous
breeds and only 3% are improved or exotic. Small numbers of exotic breeds exist on
commercial ranches, most notably Boran, and to a lesser extent, the Bonsmara.
In Kenya, however, exotic and cross breeds are present in larger numbers than in any
other GHA state. The Ministry of Livestock Development (MoLD) estimates that 3
million dairy and dairy crosses cattle are kept. Friesian cattle are the dominant breed but
Ayrshire and Channel Island breeds are also found in Kenya. In some areas, improved
Boran and Sahiwal bulls have been introduced. About 10% of the adult animals are
breeding males. Zebus are kept by pastoralists in mixed herds with indigenous breeds of
sheep, goats, and camels in the northern rangelands.
Cattle in Somalia3 are mainly indigenous species that descended from Bostaurus, or Zebu.
Productivity is low but can be improved with good management in more favourable
conditions. The Low levels of production characterize most of these species which are
slowly being replaced. Indigenous breeds especially dairy cattle (Kenana and Butana) are
currently under severe pressure due to the introduction of foreign breeds like Friesian
Value AdditionValue AdditionValue AdditionValue Addition
Value addition in the livestock sector is crucial to enhanced incomes to producers and the
growth of the sector. Value addition consists of animal control and housing, slaughter,
packaging, conditioned transport, production of cheese, butter, yoghurt and other
products. Production of leather products, dried milk, buttons, dressed poultry, glue,
cooking fat, gun powder are also important to the value addition chain.
Policy and Regulatory FrameworkPolicy and Regulatory FrameworkPolicy and Regulatory FrameworkPolicy and Regulatory Framework
Water and PastureWater and PastureWater and PastureWater and Pasture: : : : There is a wide range of reforms that are required to help develop a
sustainable and vibrant watervibrant watervibrant watervibrant water----pastpastpastpastureureureure----livestock development nexus. The water and livestock development nexus. The water and livestock development nexus. The water and livestock development nexus. The water and
pasture reforms are outlinedpasture reforms are outlinedpasture reforms are outlinedpasture reforms are outlined in Table 2 and the livestock ones in the Table 3. Many of
the reforms overlap because of the integrated nature of the subsectors.
2 Addis Ababa Chamber of Commerce, 2008 3 Final Report “Towards a Livestock Sector Strategy” in Somalia, 2004
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Table Table Table Table 2:2:2:2: Policy Interventions in Water and Pasture
Country Resource Policy reform and
objective
Country status Priority
S-T M-T L-T
DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti Pasture Harmonization of
sector laws
• Legislative reforms needed
National land policy • Need for national livestock
policy
√ √
Early warning system
droughts
Land use policy
mapping
• Link country to the √ √
√ √ √
Water Legislation on water • No clear strategies and policy
on water
Decentralized water
management bodies
• Centralized water
management for the rural
areas
√
Coordination of
institutions in water
management
• Fragmented functions √ √
Increase capacity to
implement water
projects
• Costly to tap underground
water
√ √ √
Form a overall body to
operate water resources
• ONEAD not able to
streamlines operations in the
sector
√ √ √
EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea Pasture Land use mapping • Non existent √ √
Early warning system • Country developing a pilot
that could serve as a useful
model
√ √
Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and Rangelands not
mapped
√
Animal feeds • Strategy for feed
improvement needed
√ √
Water Coordination of water
management
institutions
• Functions are fragmented
Amendments on
national water policy to
allow for decentralized
water boards
• The ministry Ministry of
Land, Water and
Environment (MoLWE)
centrally operated.
√
Strengthen capacity to
access underground
water
• Limited number of sunk
boreholes
√ √
•
EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia Pasture Harmonization of
sector laws
• Proposals for legal reforms
underway
• Need for enhanced regional
√ √ √
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Country Resource Policy reform and
objective
Country status Priority
cooperation on livestock
health
Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and Rangelands not
mapped
√
Animal genetic
resource and breeding
• Law required √ √
Extension services • Implement the commodity-
based development strategy
√ √
Water •
Strengthen
Decentralized systems
• √
√
Improve Efficiency in
Community water
management bodies
• Exist but access people access
water points
√
√
√
Strengthen capacity on
operation and
maintenance
• Maintenance of existing
projects
√
√
√
KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya Pasture Harmonization of
sector laws
• On going √ √
Early warning system • Need to strengthen the
country’s EWS and link it
to the GHA EWS
√ √ √
Land tenure rights and
security
• Implementation of the
National land policy
√ √ √
Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and rangelands
improvement policy needed
√ √
Water National water storage
policy to be enacted
• to be enacted √
Strengthen
decentralized water
management bodies
• Regional water boards exist
and require
√ √ √
Increase capacity to
implement water
projects
• Costly to tap
underground/rain water in
ASALs
√ √
•
SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia Pasture Conflict resolution • Resolve conflict in the
country to open it up for
policy, legislative and
institutional development
√ √ √
Early warning system • Put in place an EWS for the
country
√ √ √
Water National water policy • No clear strategies on water
policy water policy and
strategy endorsed in 2004
Decentralized water
management bodies at
community level
• Centralized water
management by UN in
partnership with others
√ √ √
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Country Resource Policy reform and
objective
Country status Priority
donors
Increase capacity to
implement water
projects
• Costly to tap underground
water
√ √ √
Technical support • No government/Ministry of
water is non functional
√ √ √
SudanSudanSudanSudan Harmonization of
sector laws
• Proposals for reform
harmonization already
made at country level
√ √
Early warning system • No action yet √ √ √
Land tenure rights and
security
• Proposed law to establish
land commission
• Modification of law on
settlement and registration
of land of 1925
√ √
Pasture and rangelands • Proposed law on the
protection of the
environment
√ √
Animal alternative
feeds
• Proposed law on forage and
animal feeds
√ √
Water National water policy • No clear strategies on water
policy
√
National policy on
water storage
• Formulation on going √
Strengthen capacity of
decentralized water
management bodies
• Centralized water
management for the rural
areas
√ √
Increase capacity to
implement water
projects
• Nile basin projects not
enough to meet water needs
√ √
UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda Harmonization of
sector laws
• Significant progress made in
enacting new laws in line
with regional needs
√
Early warning system • No action yet √ √ √
Land tenure rights and
security
• Policy exists. Pastoral
tenure rights not clearly
articulated
√ √
Pasture and rangelands • Proposed pasture and
rangelands policy
√ √
Water National water policy • No clear strategies on water
policy
Decentralized water
management bodies
• One body manages water
resources
√
Increase capacity to
implement water
projects
• Costly to tap
underground/rain water
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Country Resource Policy reform and
objective
Country status Priority
National water storage
policy
• Non existent √ √
Legend Legend Legend Legend
S-T, Short Term (< 5 years)
M-T, medium Term (5-10 years)
L-T, long Term (Over 10 years)
There are also extensive reforms proposed for the livestock sector. These are summarized
in Table 3.
Table 3Table 3Table 3Table 3:::: Proposed Policy Interventions in the Livestock Sector
CountryCountryCountryCountry Policy reform anPolicy reform anPolicy reform anPolicy reform andddd
objectiveobjectiveobjectiveobjective
Country statusCountry statusCountry statusCountry status Priority Priority Priority Priority
DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti Harmonization of sector
laws
• Legislative reforms needed S-T M-T L-T
National livestock
policy
• Need for national livestock policy √ √
Early warning system • Link country to the GHA EWS √ √
Livestock census • Livestock census last carried out in 1980 √ √
Animal genetic resource
and breeding
• Need for collaboration at regional level to collect and
preserve genetic resources
√ √ √
Veterinary services • Country needs veterinary personnel √ √ √
Hides, skins, leather and
trade
• Country needs to enhance its position as regional
livestock trading centre
√ √ √
EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia Harmonization of sector
laws
• Proposals for legal reforms underway
• Need for enhanced regional cooperation on livestock
health
√ √ √
National livestock
policy
• No national livestock policy √ √
Early warning system • Country developing a pilot that could serve as a useful
model
√ √
Livestock census • Required √ √
Land tenure rights and
security
• Land laws exist and constitution recognizes pastoral
lifestyles. Enforcement of constitutional provisions
still lagging
√ √
Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and Rangelands not mapped √
Animal genetic resource
and breeding
• Law required √ √
Dairy development • Comprehensive policy required √ √
National meat policy • Required √ √
Animal feeds • Strategy for feed improvement needed √ √
Hides, skins and leather • Enhance operational capacity of existing tanneries
from 45% to 90%
• Improve quality of hides and skins
√ √
Marketing, trade and
infrastructure
• Development of livestock holding areas as an
alternative to DFZs
• Improvement of market centres, roads,
telecommunications and electricity supply
• Enhancement of the cooperative movement
• Regulation of live animal transportation
√ √ √
Honey and beeswax
production
• Need to formulate policy to deal with product
adulteration
√ √
Extension services • Implement the commodity-based development
strategy
√ √
KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya Harmonization of sector
laws
• On going √ √
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CountryCountryCountryCountry Policy reform anPolicy reform anPolicy reform anPolicy reform andddd
objectiveobjectiveobjectiveobjective
Country statusCountry statusCountry statusCountry status Priority Priority Priority Priority
Early warning system • Need to strengthen the country’s EWS and link it to
the GHA EWS
√ √ √
Livestock census • Required √
Land tenure rights and
security
• Implementation of the National land policy √ √ √
Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and rangelands improvement policy needed √ √
Animal genetic resource
and breeding
• Law required √ √
Dairy development • Dairy development policy in place -
National meat policy • Required. The meat control bill under discussions √ √
Veterinary services • Veterinary Disease Control Bill drafted. Need for
inclusion of emerging diseases in the bill
√
Marketing, trade and
infrastructure
• Opening up of northern Kenya through establishment
of road network
• Improvement of livestock marketing infrastructure
such as market centres, holding yards, etc
√ √ √
SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia Conflict resolution • Resolve conflict in the country to open it up for
policy, legislative and institutional development
√ √ √
Veterinary services • Boos country’s capacity to manage livestock diseases √ √ √
Early warning system • Put in place an EWS for the country √ √ √
SudanSudanSudanSudan Harmonization of sector
laws
• Proposals for reform harmonization already made at
country level
√ √
National livestock
policy
• Part of Agriculture Revival Programme, 2008 √ √
Early warning system • No action yet √ √ √
Livestock census • Last census in 1976 √ √
Land tenure rights and
security
• Proposed law to establish land commission
• Modification of law on settlement and registration of
land of 1925
√ √
Pasture and rangelands • Proposed law on the protection of the environment √ √
Animal genetic resource
and breeding
• Law on Livestock genetic resources proposed √ √
Dairy development • Proposed law on dairy development products √ √
National meat policy • Proposed law on production of meat and meat
products
• Revision of the law on meat health and inspection of
1974
√ √
Animal feeds • Proposed law on forage and animal feeds √ √
Veterinary services Modification of laws onModification of laws onModification of laws onModification of laws on : : : :
• Veterinary quarantines, 2004
• Cattle routes surveillance, 1974
• Contagious livestock diseases, 2001
• Disease free zones, 1973
√ √ √
Hides, skins and leather • Modification of law on Sudanese Hides and skins, 1954 √ √
Marketing, trade and
infrastructure
Proposed laws on:Proposed laws on:Proposed laws on:Proposed laws on:
• Organisation of livestock markets
• Competition and dumping
• Organisation of international trade in livestock and its
products
√ √
UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda Harmonization of sector
laws
• Significant progress made in enacting new laws in line
with regional needs
√
National livestock
policy
• Required √ √
Early warning system • No action yet √ √ √
Livestock census • Done, 2008 -
Land tenure rights and
security
• Policy exists. Pastoral tenure rights not clearly
articulated
√ √
Pasture and rangelands • Proposed pasture and rangelands policy √ √
Animal genetic resource
and breeding
• Policy in place -
Dairy development • Act in place -
National meat policy • Policy and masterplan in place -
Animal feeds • Policy in place -
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
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i
CountryCountryCountryCountry Policy reform anPolicy reform anPolicy reform anPolicy reform andddd
objectiveobjectiveobjectiveobjective
Country statusCountry statusCountry statusCountry status Priority Priority Priority Priority
Veterinary services • NAADs requires additional resources to ensure better
extension and veterinary service delivery
√ √
Hides, skins and leather • Animal hides and Leather Development Policy in
place
-
Marketing, trade and
infrastructure
• Country is net importer of most livestock products.
Interventions to boost production of various livestock
products
√ √ √
Legend Legend Legend Legend
S-T, Short Term (< 5 years)
M-T, medium Term (5-10 years)
L-T, long Term (Over 10 years)
CrossCrossCrossCross----Cutting IssuesCutting IssuesCutting IssuesCutting Issues
Four main categories of cross cutting issues are discussed in the report:
(i) Peace Building, Disaster Management and Security
(ii) Gender and Youth
(iii) HIV/AIDS
(iv) Climate Change
Table 4 summarizes the situation within the GHA in relation to the issues identified
above:
Table 4:Table 4:Table 4:Table 4: Cross Cutting Issues
CrossCrossCrossCross----cutting isscutting isscutting isscutting issuesuesuesues Situation Situation Situation Situation and impact on livelihoods and impact on livelihoods and impact on livelihoods and impact on livelihoods
Peace building,
disaster management
and security
• Disaster preparedness across the region generally low
• Regional protocol, CEWARN, yet to be fully implemented by the member states. Efforts
on-going especially in Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya and Uganda.
• Region still vulnerable to internal and cross border conflicts related to competition for
resources
• Pastoralists across the region lack basic social systems
• Fragility of states and the low capacity of the states to deal with conflicts. Somalia
remains the greatest threat to regional peace and security
Gender and Youth • Women account for between 60-80% of labour force
• Women and youths have little access to ownership of resources
• Still inadequately represented in policy-making structures
• Men and youths migrate to urban centers in search of alternative livelihoods causing
socio-economic challenges to the women left behind
• Access to education for the girl-child in pastoral communities is still a mirage. The lack
of access to education is both due to cultural reasons and limited access to education
institutions
HIV/AIDS • Pastoralists’ cultural and behavioral patterns are major predisposing factors
• Wide information gap exists in awareness creation
• Most pastoral communities not yet seriously affected by the scourge though indications
are that the situation is fast changing
• Regional and national instruments have been put in place in Uganda, Kenya and are
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CrossCrossCrossCross----cutting isscutting isscutting isscutting issuesuesuesues Situation Situation Situation Situation and impact on livelihoods and impact on livelihoods and impact on livelihoods and impact on livelihoods
being put in place in the Sudan, Ethiopia and Djibouti
Climate Change • Magnitude and frequency of extreme events will exacerbate a fragile situation
• Magnitude and frequency of droughts and floods will increase
• Abnormal rise in temperatures will affect crop and livestock productivity
• Countries need to identify and support pastoralist climate adaptation strategies
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1.0 INTRODUCTION1.0 INTRODUCTION1.0 INTRODUCTION1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose1.1 Purpose1.1 Purpose1.1 Purpose
This Final Synthesis Report on the Study on Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa has been prepared by Log Associates having been commissioned
by the African Development Bank Group (AfDB) to carry out the study. The study is
funded through grants provided by the African Development Bank Group (AfDB) and the
Governments of Netherlands, Canada and Denmark to the Water Partnership
Programme. 4 The purpose of the regional study is to assess the status and improvements
in water and pasture in support of livestock development in the arid and semiarid lands of
the GHA. The results presented herein are an outcome from field visits and data
collection (primary and secondary) from the GHA countries comprising of Djibouti,
Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, Somalia and Uganda.
1.2 Background1.2 Background1.2 Background1.2 Background
The communities of the GHA countries are all members of the IGAD whose headquarters
is in Djibouti. The GHA has a total population of 205 million people and occupies a land
area of about 5.2 million square kilometres, with a highly variable country Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) of between USD 0.8 billion (Djibouti) and USD 59.0 billion
(Sudan) at current prices (2008). Over 75% of the land is classified as arid and semiarid.
The availability of water is a major determinant of livelihoods in the ASAL areas of the
GHA communities. This is one of the poorest regions in the world with high population
growth rates, and chronic food insecurity.
Agriculture is the mainstay of the economies of the GHA countries. The contribution of
agriculture to the overall GDP varies from 3.7% (Djibouti) to 52.3% (Somalia), and
employs an average of three quarters of the population in the region. The agricultural
sector performance is, thus, the main determinant of the yearly variations in aggregate
performance of these economies. Livestock sector contribution to GDP varies between
19.8% (Uganda) and 88.2% (Somalia). In the agro-ecological zones where crop
production is feasible, it is mostly practiced in mixed farming systems with livestock
providing important inputs into the farming system and vice versa. In line with global
experience, demand for all livestock products in the GHA countries is expected to grow in
tandem with population growth but growth by way of increased per capita consumption
will depend on economic performance.
The total livestock population in the region is varied and comprises 114 million cattle,
202 million sheep and goats, about 12 million camels and 151 million birds. They
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represent not only a major source of wealth and income and therefore a pathway out of
poverty but also a source of animal proteins for meeting the food security needs of the
people of the region. The numbers notwithstanding, livestock productivity is low - beef:
10.4 kg per animal per year, milk: 395.8 kg per animal per year, sheep and goat meat: 3.5
kg per animal per year, pig meat 47.1 kg per animal per year and poultry and eggs: 1.4 and
2.6 kg per bird per year, respectively. The reasons for the low performance are multiple
and varied, ranging from poor quality genetics, inadequate and poor quality feeds and
feeding, scarcity in water for production, to poor husbandry practices. This explains in
part the low economic growth and wealth creation in most GHA member countries. This
poverty situation in the region is a reflection of the increasingly deteriorating livelihoods
and food insecurity coupled with degraded natural resources (deforestation, overgrazing,
over mining) and frequent droughts and floods.
Moreover, the region suffers from the severe effects of climate change. The recurring and
severe droughts and other natural disasters have caused widespread famine, ecological
degradation, poverty and economic hardships in the region. The impacts of climate
change have been more severe because of inadequate water management facilities and
practices, inefficient water harvesting facilities, erratic and unpredictable rainfall
patterns, and high ambient temperatures. Their consequences include shortage in water
and food for both animals and humans, resulting in high incidence of famine and losses in
both human and animal lives in the region. In order to overcome this shortfall in food
supply, the countries of the region have resorted to food aid, receiving the highest per
capita quantity of food aid in the continent. Such a level of food aid dependency is not
sustainable and makes the region a humanitarian tragedy which threatens not only peace
but also affects conservation of unique environments and biodiversity and the ability of
the region to play an effective role in an increasingly globalized environment.
Water and pastures are critical for improved animal production and productivity.
Unfortunately, the region as already indicated above suffers from severe scarcity of both
of these factors. Pastoral lifestyles are characterized by frequent movements in search of
water and feed during the long periods of scarcity. Water availability, coupled with its
quality, is also important for human consumption. The problem of scarce natural
resources, especially water and pasture has led to violent conflicts in the Horn of Africa
and has thus contributed to the problems of cattle rustling, food insecurity and poverty.
These problems have affected women disproportionately.
Pastoralists and agro-pastoralists live in extreme poverty with limited alternative sources
of income and constant mobility in search of water and feed for their livestock and for
sustaining their livelihoods. This lifestyle implies that the goal of reducing poverty by half
and achieving an environmentally sustainable development as envisaged in the United
Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) may not be attained in the region.
Furthermore, the efforts of the international community to contribute to poverty
alleviation and, therefore, to the attainment of the goals of the MDG will be in vain
unless drastic measures are carried out to reverse the trend. Similarly, meeting the goals
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set by the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) and its affiliated
Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), are less likely to
be achieved for the region.
There is evidence that considerable information is available throughout the region and
beyond on the different strategies to intervene in such fragile environments in order to
improve rural livelihood, increase food security and enhance natural resource
management and that many partners are supporting various activities aimed at reversing
the trend in the region. This report borrows from several secondary sources of
information and from various ongoing interventions in the region and proposes further
opportunities that could be exploited by future interventions to reverse the above trend.
1.3 Objectives1.3 Objectives1.3 Objectives1.3 Objectives
The detailed terms of reference for the study is shown in appendix 1. The general
objective of the study was to collect, compile, analyze and synthesize available
information and data on different aspects of sustainable livelihood strategies in the
Greater Horn of Africa with a view to identifying strategic interventions for alleviating
the major constraints in water and pasture for the sustainable development of livestock
and livelihoods. The specific objectives of the study are to:
• Identify and analyze the water and pasture needs of the communities as well as
available water and pasture resources in the region
• Identify and analyze the availability of technologies and markets for water and
pasture development and exploitation in the region and elsewhere
• Review and analyze the challenges and opportunities facing the water, pasture and
the livestock sectors of the Horn of Africa
• Review and analyze current interventions by the member countries and its
development partners in water, pasture and livestock development in the region
• Identify and analyze existing institutions in terms of strengths and weaknesses
involved in water, pasture and livestock management both at the national and
regional levels
• Identify and analyze the policy environment (legal, regulatory, institutional) for
the development and exploitation of water, pasture and livestock
• Investigate potential linkages between water, pastures and livestock development
in the region, and
• Provide full details of the short-, medium-, and long-term strategic interventions,
including costing and identification of social and environmental impacts of the
interventions.
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1.4 Scope of Work1.4 Scope of Work1.4 Scope of Work1.4 Scope of Work
There are four major activities of the study:
a) Comprehensive literature review
b) All-inclusive consultations with experts and stakeholders
c) Validation of concept notes and recommendations, and
d) Report writing and dissemination of findings of the study
1.5 Output 1.5 Output 1.5 Output 1.5 Output
The final output of the study comprises the following documents: (i) Final Synthesis
Report outlining the main findings; (ii) Concept Notes on: Water Resourses Development;
Pasture, Land and Environment; Livestock Production Health and Management; Finance,
Marketing and Infrastructure; Policy, Institutional and Regulatory Framework; Peace and
Conflict Management and (iii) Kenya Country Case Study. The Report proposes short-,
medium-, and long-term strategic interventions for addressing the challenges facing
water, pasture and livestock development in the region and for enabling the countries of
the region to enhance the contribution of livestock to their national economies and to
livelihoods of their pastoralists and agro-pastoralists.
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2.0 CONCEPT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY2.0 CONCEPT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY2.0 CONCEPT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY2.0 CONCEPT AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
2.1 Conceptual Framework2.1 Conceptual Framework2.1 Conceptual Framework2.1 Conceptual Framework
This study looks at two main factors that have affected the performance of the livestock
sector, namely water and pasture in the countries Greater Horn of Africa. The outcomes
expected from the interaction of the various inputs need to ensure improved livelihood
for the communities, food security, sustainable natural resource management and peace.
(Figure 2.1)
Figure 2.1: Figure 2.1: Figure 2.1: Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework
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The study further discusses the interventions that are necessary to revamp the sector
following various thematic issues at each level along the value chain. The study also
provides a summary of interventions and some insights into the levels of investments that
may be required to achieve the expected outcomes. Figure 2.2 is a presentation of this
concept.
Figure 2.2Figure 2.2Figure 2.2Figure 2.2:::: Thematic Overview of the Study
2.2 Methodology2.2 Methodology2.2 Methodology2.2 Methodology
The consultant adopted a participatory methodology in carrying out the study. Among
the key persons and institutions consulted were the Ministries in charge of Water and
Irrigation, Agriculture, Livestock, Arid Lands, Land Management, Forestry and Fisheries
Reserch Institutions and Universities, IGAD headquarters, AfDB field offices within the
region, Regional Quarantine facility in Djibouti, NGOs, Project Offices, among others.
Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were held in each of the countries Ethiopia, Kenya,
Sudan and Uganda.
In effecting the assignment, the consultant carried out the following:
a) Visits to selected GHA countries, namely; Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and
Uganda
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b) The consultant also visited IGAD regional headquarters in Djibouti and
International bodies operating within the region including the International
Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)
c) Borrowed from experiences of other countries around the globe with similar
conditions
d) Consulted with stakeholders, including experts, farmers, Government Authorities,
Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) and
Development Partners across the region.
Apart from the above collection of primary information, the consultants reviewed a wide
range of documents. References have been given throughout the document and in the list
of references (Annex 14). In addition a comprehensive list of persons and institutions
consulted is provided (annex 13).
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3.0 ASAL REGION OF THE GREATER HORN OF AF3.0 ASAL REGION OF THE GREATER HORN OF AF3.0 ASAL REGION OF THE GREATER HORN OF AF3.0 ASAL REGION OF THE GREATER HORN OF AFRICARICARICARICA
3.1 Ecology, Climate and Environment 3.1 Ecology, Climate and Environment 3.1 Ecology, Climate and Environment 3.1 Ecology, Climate and Environment
Arid and semi-arid zones are characterized by low erratic rainfall of up to 500mm per
annum, periodic droughts and different associations of vegetative cover and soils. Inter-
annual rainfall varies widely but averages about 350 mm per annum. The majority of the
population of arid and semi-arid lands depend on pastoralism for subsistence. These zones
exhibit ecological constraints which set limits to nomadic pastoralism and settled
agriculture. These constraints include:
• Rainfall patterns that are inherently erratic
• Rains which fall mostly as heavy showers and are lost as run-off
• High rate of potential evapotranspiration further reducing available water and
moisture.
• Weeds growing more vigorously than cultivated crops and competing for scarce
reserves of moisture
• Low organic matter levels, except for short periods after harvesting or manure
applications
In order to assist the process of efficient resource management in these fragile
environments, UNEP's Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS) and FAO's
Ecological Management of Arid and Semi-Arid Rangelands (EMASAR) programmes have
developed a methodology for ecological monitoring which has been applied to rangelands
and planning for national parks in some of the countries of the GHA. This encompasses
the collection of biological and physical data at ground, air and space levels providing
information on domestic and wild animal populations, human habitations and
populations, vegetation production and cover, soils, land forms, climatic data and crop
production. Ground level ecological monitoring also provides information on socio-
economic practices of human populations which affect the ecosystem and its productivity
(UNSO, 1990). Work on adaptive strategies has to focus on how this contemporary
knowledge is used to reinforce or inform traditional knowledge around resource
management issues.
In summary, environmental concerns as a result of livestock production brings with it
several opportunities for the sector in the GHA region. Improvement of livestock
husbandry practices and research on livestock feeding systems have enormous potential
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to contribute to sound environmental management. The proposed investments in
Payment for Environmental Services PES (Appendix 8) as an incentive for good livestock
husbandry practice have a potential for the livestock sector to tap into the carbon credit
facility.
3.23.23.23.2 Pastoralism and Climate ChangePastoralism and Climate ChangePastoralism and Climate ChangePastoralism and Climate Change
Pastoralists are some of the main casualties of climate change. However, research also
indicates that livestock contribute to an increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
through land use in three main ways.
i. CO2 releases linked to deforestation
ii. Methane (CH4) releases from enteric fermentation in cattle
iii. Nitrous oxide (N2O) releases from fertilizer application
Livestock and livestock-related activities such as deforestation and increasingly fuel-
intensive farming practices are responsible for over 18% of human-made greenhouse gas
emissions (Owen, 2008 and Kedar, 2008), including:
i. 9% of global carbon dioxide emissions
ii. 35-40% of global methane emissions chiefly due to enteric fermentation and
manure
iii. 64% of global nitrous oxide emissions mostly due to fertilizer use
The overall effect of climate change on global weather patterns is all too clear. The
occurrence of frequent floods, droughts and other extreme weather conditions affect
pastures and crop both in yield quantity and quality as already discussed. Increased
efficiency in livestock production systems, proper management of livestock manure and
proper selection livestock feeds should help reduce the GHGs produced from a livestock
production system.
3.3.3.3.3333 Pastoralism and the EnvironmentPastoralism and the EnvironmentPastoralism and the EnvironmentPastoralism and the Environment
Pastoralism has been argued to be the most suitable livelihood and land-use system in
ASALs: an extensive production system with low emission of methane, no accumulation
of dung and gases, which would pollute land and water resources; use of resources which
are otherwise wasted (saltish, bitter and thorny vegetation of the rangeland, brackish and
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muddy water). Pastoralism is therefore a land-use system which enables people to adapt
by moving livestock according to the shifting availability of water and pasture.
A major issue facing pastoralists in the GHA is the environmental conservation approach
used by public agencies. Historically, impetus for environmental conservation arose from
the observation that pastoralist activity was having ever increasing, negative
consequences on the irreplaceable natural ecosystems and processes that pastoralists
relied upon for their very survival. Therefore these initial efforts were to identify and
protect those areas that were judged to be important for species survival. Pastoral
communities therefore lost their land to two main activities:
a. Wildlife and game reserves
b. Biodiversity conservation
As a result of the above, constant conflicts between various interests have continued to
dominate pastoral systems across the GHA. Areas that used to provide refuge to pastoral
communities during droughts and floods have suddenly turned into ‘no go zones’ for
conservation purposes. In effect, pastoralists have become ‘shareholders without benefits
(Mutharia, 2008).
To reverse this, there is a need to adopt conservation programmes within the pastoral
communities that advocates for a review of the wildlife conservation policies in their
respective countries. Such conservation programmes need to be negotiated through
collective approaches that set out the modalities of interaction between pastoralists and
wildlife reserves, and access and use of the animal and plant resources that exist in them.
However, some progress has been made mainly to educate both the pastoral communities
and policy makers on the environment and its role in the survival of pastoral
communities, and to involve it in conserving that environment. What has changed little,
however, is the underlying concept of conservation as conservation approaches are still
mainly informed and driven by need to restrict pastoral communities from access and use
of certain resources.
3.4 3.4 3.4 3.4 Pastoral Pastoral Pastoral Pastoral Livelihood systems Livelihood systems Livelihood systems Livelihood systems
3.4.1 Pastoral Identity3.4.1 Pastoral Identity3.4.1 Pastoral Identity3.4.1 Pastoral Identity
With temperature and rainfall so significantly influencing the potential for production
systems, the major efforts in categorising livestock-related livelihoods have been agro-
ecological. If policies are to support the livelihoods of the poor then policy makers need
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to understand the strategies people are pursuing, and base policies on this understanding.
Pastoralism can be considered to be both an economic and a social system, highly
dependent on the raising and herding (including migration) of livestock. Pastoral
livelihoods include those with set seasonal patterns of migration (transhumance)
alongside those whose search for pasture and water is less fixed (and often more
extensive). Pastoralism differs from ranching both through its separate identity, and
because of its dependence on communal land.
Livestock are core to pastoral livelihoods and pastoral identity. Livestock and livestock
products contribute significantly as a food source and are usually the main source of
income in pastoral livelihoods. Sheep, goats, cattle, camels and donkeys are the
predominant holdings; poultry are not common in pastoral areas. In recent decades most
pastoralists have significantly diversified both food and income sources. Whereas in the
past milk often constituted the bulk of the diet, purchase of cereals, now make up the
bulk of diets. In order to finance these purchases, pastoralists exchange livestock and
livestock products for grain. Furthermore, trading, sale of honey, wood and charcoal as
well as non-timber forest products (leaf products, gums, resins) and, in many cases, daily
labour have all become important income sources.
Livestock are also the key buffer to withstand shocks, particularly the frequent droughts
which occur in areas where pastoralists live. Large herd sizes prior to a drought ensure
viable herd sizes after a drought despite mortality. Livestock are integral to the identity of
the population and are key in developing and maintaining social networks. Camels and
donkeys often play a key role as pack animals supporting trade, carrying water and
allowing migration of all or parts of the household as they move with their herds in
search of pasture.
3.4.2 Adaptive Strategies for Sustainable Liveli3.4.2 Adaptive Strategies for Sustainable Liveli3.4.2 Adaptive Strategies for Sustainable Liveli3.4.2 Adaptive Strategies for Sustainable Livelihoods in ASALshoods in ASALshoods in ASALshoods in ASALs
Pastoralists have developed specific livelihood strategies to cope with the high risk nature
(low rainfall, significant variation in rainfall) of the vast majority of pastoral areas. The
following two strategies are amongst the most critical:
Mobility:Mobility:Mobility:Mobility: There is strong evidence that more mobile pastoralists are better able to
withstand droughts than those who have become partially or completely sedentarized.
Travelling long distances to find grazing land and water for livestock is a key strategy to
adapt to droughts. In years of poor rainfall, localized showers can result in available
pasture and water which pastoralists can make use of; or they can travel to areas where
there is permanent water and grazing for example near rivers.
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Herd acHerd acHerd acHerd accumulation:cumulation:cumulation:cumulation: Large herd sizes perform two critical functions for pastoralists. Firstly
they allow pastoralists to meet needs while maintaining productive assets (through a
mixture of milk sale and consumption and animal sales). Secondly large herds act as
insurance in times of drought. Livestock mortality rates are similar regardless of herd size,
but those with smaller herds are at greater risk of their herd size becoming unsustainable
post drought than those with larger herds (Fratkin et al., 2006).
ShariShariShariSharing of Livestockng of Livestockng of Livestockng of Livestock: A wide range of livestock tenure arrangements exist in pastoral
societies; including outright ownership as well as a number of loaning and sharing
arrangements. In the Maikona area of Marsabit district in Kenya nearly 42% of camel
and cattle herds were under some form of livestock sharing arragement in 1998
(including loans). Livestock sharing enables both post drought restocking (which might
be reciprocated in a future crisis) and reduces risk concentration during a crisis and have
therefore access to a wider geographic spread of pasture and water.
It is important that a comprehensive drought contingency plan be developedcomprehensive drought contingency plan be developedcomprehensive drought contingency plan be developedcomprehensive drought contingency plan be developed to reduce
vulnerability in the dry lands, particularly among the pastoralists. The plan would
coordinate the use of natural resources among all potential users and minimize the
conflicts that have become so common between pastoralists and crop farmers in the
region. There should also be a droughtdroughtdroughtdrought----coordinating agencycoordinating agencycoordinating agencycoordinating agency to ensure consistency,
communication, coordination and responsibility within government and between other
agencies and reduce the number of inappropriate piecemeal initiatives.
Strengthen early warning systems and make them userStrengthen early warning systems and make them userStrengthen early warning systems and make them userStrengthen early warning systems and make them user----friendlyfriendlyfriendlyfriendly and useful by
incorporating indigenous knowledge systems. Many of the early warning systems are not
useable by the intended beneficiaries and there is therefore the need to research into
ways in which local forecasting systems can be incorporated into the early warning
systems so the local pastoralists can understand and use them. This will call for capacity
strengthening at the lower levels of government and at the community level for increased
competencies to make sense of early warning systems. It must be remembered however
that early warnings on their own may not achieve much unless matched with the
required resources. Help to communities affected by drought has often come very late
even where warnings have been issued as governments and development partners wait
for evidence. And this often turns out to be very costly in terms of losses. The early
warnings should give adequate lead-time and be clear on how potential beneficiaries
should respond to them.
Good infrastructure and connection to marketGood infrastructure and connection to marketGood infrastructure and connection to marketGood infrastructure and connection to market is important for those who want to sell
their animals but it must be remembered that pastoralists especially those having small
herds do not necessarily keep animals for sale and may only be willing to do so as a last
resort, when the drought is severe. Post drought recovery mechanisms are essential
including particularly strategies for restocking. Credit is one way pastoralists can use to
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restock after drought. But more broadly greater financial intermediation including
banking and insurance are important to enable pastoralists minize drought related losses.
3.4.3.4.3.4.3.4.3 Wealth and Income 3 Wealth and Income 3 Wealth and Income 3 Wealth and Income Distribution in Distribution in Distribution in Distribution in Pastoral Households Pastoral Households Pastoral Households Pastoral Households
Better-off households have larger herd sizes with livestock and livestock products making
up a higher proportion of food and income. Better-off households will sell livestock both
to meet immediate needs and enable the purchase of consumables. Reduced herd sizes of
poorer households mean they are usually reliant on a wider range of income sources, with
non livestock income sources making up more than half of the incomes of the poor. But
livestock remain critical to their livelihood strategy: preserving and building up herds is
such a priority that households will reduce consumption in order to avoid selling animals.
The poorest households tend to drop-out of pastoralism as herd sizes become unviable.
• Hawd and Sool Pastoral Livelihood Zone in Somalia is made of the Hawd plateau which
borders (and merges with the wider Hawd zone of) Ethiopia and the higher Sool Plateaux
located in Somalia. Pastoralism is still the main source of livelihood in this area.
• Central Lowland Pastoral Livelihood Zone (CLP Djibouti) which is the largest livelihood
zone in Djibouti. With the size of the non-rural economy in Djibouti combined with the
pressures face in rural areas, many pastoralists have become absorbed into a temporary
labour economy.
• Mandera West Agro-Pastoral zone (MWAP Kenya) which covers more than half of the
Mandera district in the North East Province Kenya. The role of drought induced livestock
losses has been significant in increasing the extent of agro-pastoralism in this area.
• And the Cheno Agro-Pastoral Zone (CAP Ethiopia) on the border between the Afar and
Amhara regions in Ethiopia. A combination of crop-production and herding has long
formed components of the Argoba ethnic group who inhabit this area.
3.4.4 3.4.4 3.4.4 3.4.4 Social Social Social Social and Policy Development Challengesand Policy Development Challengesand Policy Development Challengesand Policy Development Challenges
The social and institutional milieu of pastoral livelihoods has a number of challenges. The
main ones being: the rapid population growth averaging about 3.2% per annum;
increasing sedentarisation around water points, along highways and around other social
services such as education and health facilities; and introduction of crop farming which
interferes with migratory patterns of the pastoralists/nomads. Consequently pastoralists
have to deal with issues of increasing demand for land and changing land tenure system,
land rights in addition to grazing rights. These exogenous factors are reinforced by
endogenous ones such as the breakdown in traditional governance structures and the
absence of public sector institutions in pastoral regions to help fill the void. Where there
may be a public sector present, its effectiveness is reduced by the straight jacket approach
used in interventions in pastoral areas. In addition to the above there other significant
challenges in policy formulation including:
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i) Fragmented legal instruments governing natural resource management; for instance,
in Kenya, over 15 different statutes deal with land alone.
ii) Inadequate understanding of the pastoralist livelihood system and its specific
concerns. For instance, whereas in Ethiopia significant efforts have been made to
recognise the holistic nature of pastoralism by giving it legal and policy backing,
the Kenya ASAL policy misses out completely on the holistic view of pastoral
existence, the specific measures needed to accommodate the system, and
identifying specific pieces of legislation and the changes required to these laws.
iii) The role of communities as equal stakeholders in NRM policy formulation and
implementation on a continuous basis, and the structures that not only recognize
but provide for and demand this role are missing. There is also little community
education and discussion not only about their role, but of the existing laws and
their requirements. Indeed, much of the credit for the education so far goes to civil
society.
iv) The indigenous knowledge of pastoral communities with regards to local ecosystem
is generally ignored. Indigenouse knowledge systems can be tapped by policy
makers to help deepen understanding and in decision making affecting pastoral
livelihoods. Effective engagement of these communities can help to reduce
conservation cost in ASAL region.
3.4.5 Community Perspectives3.4.5 Community Perspectives3.4.5 Community Perspectives3.4.5 Community Perspectives
Many of the factors which constrain the livelihoods of poor pastoralists have little to do
with livestock. In participatory rural appraisal in (3) villages in Ethiopia, the problem
ranking exercises indicated a wide range of constraints faced. In none of them did
livestock focused constraints feature as the highest ranked problem. The results showed
an array of problems reflecting, perhaps, the diversity of situation faced by pastoralists.
High on the list was insecurity in one of the viallages while another was concerned about
human health, and the third was mostly concerned with lack of rain.
Table 3.1Table 3.1Table 3.1Table 3.1:::: Problem Ranking Results in Three Villages in Ethiopia
Adwari Corner VillageAdwari Corner VillageAdwari Corner VillageAdwari Corner Village
Balahamo (pastoral), Afar Balahamo (pastoral), Afar Balahamo (pastoral), Afar Balahamo (pastoral), Afar Gemeto GaleGemeto GaleGemeto GaleGemeto Gale
Problem Problem Problem Problem RankingRankingRankingRanking Problem Problem Problem Problem RankingRankingRankingRanking Problem Problem Problem Problem RankingRankingRankingRanking
Insecurity 1 Human health 1 Shortage of rain 1
Poor soils 2 Floods 2 Land fragmentation 2
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Adwari Corner VillageAdwari Corner VillageAdwari Corner VillageAdwari Corner Village
Balahamo (pastoral), Afar Balahamo (pastoral), Afar Balahamo (pastoral), Afar Balahamo (pastoral), Afar Gemeto GaleGemeto GaleGemeto GaleGemeto Gale
Famine 3 Animal diseases 3 Lack of seed 3
Diseases 4 Lack of skills on
crop production
4 Asset depletion (cattle
sold for food)
4
Poor education 5 Lack of safe water 5 Malaria 5
Lack of safe water 6 Poor pasture 6 Lack of alternate
income sources
6
Lack of money 7 Poor communication
to access services
7
Drought 8
Pests 9
Poor Housing 10
Sources: (Onweng Angura et al. 2004 - Afar Adwari Corner Village; Goal – Ethiopia, 2003 –
Balahamo/pastoral and Gemeto Gale,)
Constraints to pastoral livelihoods should be kept in this broader context if the needs of
pastoralists are to be met in a way that accords to their priorities. It will be unrealistic to
expect high levels of expenditure on animal health services, for example, if meeting
immediate food needs has become a priority and income is limited.
There is however a commonality between many of the problems above and problems
associated with pastoralism. Amongst the devastating effects of drought are the impacts
on livestock production, the reduced terms of trade for livestock, and the loss of livestock
savings through high mortality. Insecurity and conflict, with its immediate threat to
human life and well-being, also has significant implications on pastoralism. Livestock are
subject to raiding and access to grazing areas can be severely constrained during periods
of unrest.
3.3.3.3.5555 Human Human Human Human Population and Consumption Population and Consumption Population and Consumption Population and Consumption TrendsTrendsTrendsTrends
3.3.3.3.5555.1.1.1.1 Population TrendsPopulation TrendsPopulation TrendsPopulation Trends
The population in GHA was at 205 million people in 2009. It is estimated to be growing at
3.2% per annum. At that growth rate, the population would double in less than 3 decades.
This rate of population growth could spike if peace and normality were to return to the
countries of the GHA. As the population has grown fast, so has urbanization. It is
estimated the urban population would be close to 40% by 2020 and longer term
projections put the urban-rural population ratio at parity (Figure 3.1).
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Figure 3.1: Figure 3.1: Figure 3.1: Figure 3.1: Population Growth and Urbanisation Trends in GHA 1980-2015
(Source.: FAO, 2004)
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3.3.3.3.5555.2.2.2.2 ConsumptioConsumptioConsumptioConsumption Trendsn Trendsn Trendsn Trends
With the rapidly growing populatiion, a low case senario is that consumption is expected
to move intandem with population growth, about 3.2% per annum. If however, the
region were to experience a peace dividend (all countries have conflicts) the consumption
growth rate would accelerate. The main drivers for the consumption growth would be
milk and meat. Both of those commodities are known to have high income elasticities of
demand. Figures 3.2 and 3.3 provide illustrations. South Africa is shown as a comparator.
Figure 3.2: Figure 3.2: Figure 3.2: Figure 3.2: Annual Meat Consumption kg/capita
(Source: FAOSTAT, 2009)
Milk Milk Milk Milk ConsumptionConsumptionConsumptionConsumption
Figure 3.3Figure 3.3Figure 3.3Figure 3.3: : : : Annual Milk Consumption kg/capita
(Source: FAOSTAT 2008)
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3.3.3.3.6666 Key Key Key Key Institutions/Institutions/Institutions/Institutions/Organizations Organizations Organizations Organizations
3.3.3.3.6666.1 UN Protocol on Desertification.1 UN Protocol on Desertification.1 UN Protocol on Desertification.1 UN Protocol on Desertification
The international community has long recognized that desertification is a major
economic, social and environmental problem of concern to many countries in all regions
of the world. In 1977, the United Nations Conference on Desertification (UNCOD)
adopted a Plan of Action to Combat Desertification (PACD). Unfortunately, despite this
and other efforts, the United Nations Environment Programme concluded in 1991 that
the problem of land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas had
intensified.
As a result, the question of how to tackle desertification was still a major concern for the
1992 United Nations Conference on Environmental and Development (UNCED), which
was held in Rio de Janeiro. The Conference supported a new, integrated approach to the
problem emphasizing action to promote sustainable development at the community level.
It also called on the United Nations General Assembly to establish an Intergovernmental
Negotiating Committee (INCD) to prepare, by June 1994, a Convention to Combat
Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification,
Particularly in Africa.
According to Article No. 2 of the Convention the following objectives are outlined:
i. The objective of the Convention is to combat desertification and mitigate the effects
of drought in countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification,
particularly in Africa, through effective action at all levels, supported by international
cooperation and partnership arrangements, in the framework of an integrated
approach which is consistent with Agenda 21, with a view to contributing to the
achievement of sustainable development in affected areas.
ii. Achieving this objective will involve long-term integrated strategies that focus
simultaneously, in affected areas, on improved productivity of land, and the
rehabilitation, conservation and sustainable management of land and water resources,
leading to improved living conditions, in particular at the community level.
The guiding principles to achieve the obThe guiding principles to achieve the obThe guiding principles to achieve the obThe guiding principles to achieve the objective of the convention (Article 3 of the CCD) jective of the convention (Article 3 of the CCD) jective of the convention (Article 3 of the CCD) jective of the convention (Article 3 of the CCD)
In order to achieve the objective of the Convention and to implement its provisions, the
Parties shall be guided, inter alia, by the following:
i. the Parties should ensure that decisions on the design and implementation of
programmes to combat desertification and/or mitigate the effects of drought are
taken with the participation of populations and local communities and that an
enabling environment is created at higher levels to facilitate action at national and
local levels;
ii. the Parties should, in a spirit of international solidarity and partnership, improve
cooperation and coordination at subregional, regional and international levels, and
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better focus financial, human, organizational and technical resources where they
are needed;
iii. the Parties should develop, in a spirit of partnership, cooperation among all levels
of government, communities, non-governmental organizations and landholders to
establish a better understanding of the nature and value of land and scarce water
resources in affected areas and to work towards their sustainable use; and
iv. The Parties should take into full consideration the special needs and circumstances
of affected developing country Parties, particularly the least developed among
them.
It was agreed in Article 7 of the convention that priority for Africa in implementing this
Convention was paramount, hence the Parties were to give priority to affected African
country Parties, in the light of the particular situation prevailing in that region, while not
neglecting affected developing country Parties in other
Guiding Principles/Obligations for Desertification Control Strategies Guiding Principles/Obligations for Desertification Control Strategies Guiding Principles/Obligations for Desertification Control Strategies Guiding Principles/Obligations for Desertification Control Strategies
The strategy for combating desertification (FAO, 1998) should satisfy the following
principles:
i. Must take into account certain aspects directly related to desertification,
particularly the loss of biodiversity and genetic erosion, and the important role
played by dry land degradation in global climate change;
ii. Should be based on a model of sustainable development that considers the limits
imposed by the prevailing environment; and
iii. Should aim at slowing down or stopping desertification. Such strategies should, if
possible, reverse the damage already done and provide decision-making tools for
the diverse situations a country faces.
All African countries are contracting parties to the convention and implement various
activities in implementing the convention. Development and implementation of National
Action Programmes (NAPs) with the support of development partners to combat
desertification. Some of the countries have formed NAP processes contributing
significantly to the strengthening of capacity of various stakeholders to deal with drought
and desertification. NAP processes are highly participatory hence powerful in awareness
raising, educating and mobilizing various stakeholders and therefore empowering them
on drought and desertification issues. Countries in the GHA that have developed a NAP
framework include: Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan and Uganda. Noticeably
Somalia lacks a published NAP framework.
Some other countries have set up National Desertification Funds (NDF) to serve serve as a
local and easily accessible sources of funding for implementation of NAP priorities. The
Fund has benefited from a significant contribution by the private sector and has assisted
in the implementation of priority activities.Under the UNCCD member countries have
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formed National Coordinating Bodies (NCBs). The NCBs are charged with the role of
coordination, guidance and leadership in order to ensure cross-sectoral and integrated
planning for desertification control activities.
Implementation of the UNCCD in African countries includes regional institutions such as
IGAD, COMESA through a Subregional Action Programmes (SRAP) and Regional Action
Programme (RAP). These programs complement the NAPs particularly with respect to
trans-boundary resources such as lakes, rivers forests; and crosscutting issues including
information collection and dissemination, capacity building and technology transfer. In
the GHA (SRAP) are being implemented under the auspices of (IGAD). Among the
projects being implemented within the IGAD are propoor livestock intiative and water
harvesting in dry lands.
3.3.3.3.6666.2 .2 .2 .2 Intergovernmental AuthoritIntergovernmental AuthoritIntergovernmental AuthoritIntergovernmental Authority on Development y on Development y on Development y on Development
The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) was initially created in 1986
as the Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD) to
coordinate the efforts of the Member States in combating desertification and promoting
efforts to mitigate the effects of drought. Since then, the organization has carried out
several strategic reforms to position itself among the world’s leading socio-political and
economic blocs. Consequently, the Authority was renamed the Intergovernmental
Authority on Development (IGAD) in 1996 and the Agreement establishing IGAD was
amended accordingly. The revised Agreement gave IGAD an expanded mandate that
defines inter alia, the following areas of cooperation among the Member States:
i. Enhancing cooperation and coordinating their macro-economic policies
ii. Promoting sustainable agriculture development and food security.
iii. Conserving, protecting and improving the quality of the environment.
iv. Ensuring the prudent and rational utilization of natural resources Promoting
conflict prevention, management and resolution
v. Respect of the fundamental and basic rights of the peoples of the region to benefit
from emergency and other forms of humanitarian assistance.
vi. Promoting trade and the gradual harmonization of trade policies and practices.
vii. Gradual harmonization of transport and communication policies and development
of infrastructure.
IGAD strategies are designed along the following three priority areas:
i. Food security and environmental protection;
ii. Conflict prevention, management and resolution
iii. Economic cooperation and integration
Livestock production is a key economic activity within the contributing substantially to
food security, conflict prevention, socio-economic stability and environmental
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conservation. It is with this background that the IGAD Livestock Policy Initiative (LPI)
was conceived and formulated.
IGAD Livestock Policy Initiative (IGAD LPI); a regional extension of the Pro- Poor
Livestock Policy Initiative (PPLPI), through which IGAD and FAO have formed a
partnership to enhance the contribution of livestock to sustainable food security and
poverty reduction in the region. This will be achieved by facilitating processes and
mechanisms to formulate and promote livestock policy and institutional reforms that
increase efficiency and competitiveness, and reduce vulnerability of the livestock-
dependent poor in the Horn of Africa.
The IGAD Livestock Policy Initiative (IGAD-LPI) is a capacity building project,
implemented by the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations in
cooperation with the Intergovernmental Authority on Development. The initiative was
adopted after the IGAD summit of October 2003.
The overall objective of IGAD-LPI is enhanced contribution of the livestock sector to
sustainable food security and poverty reduction in the IGAD region. The purpose is
strengthened capacity in IGAD, its member states, other regional organizations and other
stakeholders to formulate and implement livestock sector and related policies that
sustainably reduce food insecurity and poverty. This study on sustainable livestock
production within the greater horn of Africa contributes towards the above objective.
3.3.3.3.6666.3 Nile Basin .3 Nile Basin .3 Nile Basin .3 Nile Basin InitiativeInitiativeInitiativeInitiative
This Intiative was founded in 1999 and the project rationale was to ensure the waters of
the Nile Basin offer a greater potential as a lever for development across a large part of the
African continent. The Nile Basin covers an area of about 3.1 million km2, which
represents 10 percent of the African continent. The ten countries sharing the Nile Basin
are: Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda,
Sudan, Uganda and Tanzania. Five of the ten countries of the GHA share the Nile basin.
In order to realize the economic potential of the Nile basin these countries require
targeted technical support to overcome barriers to joint management of the land and
water resources of the basin. The NBI programme consists of two complementary sub-
programmes: the Shared Vision Program, and the Subsidiary Action Program. The former
focuses on fostering an enabling environment for cooperative development, while the
latter addresses physical investments at sub-basin level. The project GCP/INT/752/ITA
"Capacity Building for Nile-Basin Water Resources Management" which followed the
previous GCP/RAF/286/ITA was again funded by the Government of Italy, and was
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implemented as part of the NBI Shared Vision Program. All ten Nile Basin states
participated in this project, which was executed by FAO.
The main focus of this project is to build capacity and train people on Nile Basin water
resources management. Capacity building events included national and regional
workshops, as well as dedicated training at qualified local information technology
training centres. At an experimental level, the project used Internet training facilities,
with promising results. A recent development has been to link into the international
geographical information community for new data acquisition, training and solutions. All
the basin states now have a relevant operational data unit, well equipped and well
trained, that can provide essential information to decision-makers and policymakers at
short notice. With a view to reducing the costs of information, the project is assessing the
value and possible application of third-party data sources available through the Internet.
One of the initiatives of this project was to develop a Nile decision-support tool (Nile
DST) that models the entire Nile system and assesses the trade-offs and consequences of
various development scenarios. Nile DST incorporates modules for river simulation and
reservoir operation, agricultural planning, and watershed hydrology. The system also
includes a comprehensive data-querying and visualization tool. This Initiative has
achieved among other things Water development and management options that were
explored through the use of decision-support tools that were custom-made for the
project.
The Nile Basin Initiative has been created and a Strategic Action Programme prepared
which consists of two sub-programmes: the Shared Vision Programme (SVP) and the
Subsidiary Action Programme (SAP). SVP is to help create an enabling environment for
action on the ground through building trust and skill, while SAP is aimed at the delivery
of actual development projects involving two or more countries. Nile Equatorial Lakes
Subsidiary Action Program’s (NELSAP) which oversees implementation of the jointly
identified SAPs and promotes cooperative inter-country and in country investment
projects related to the common use of the Nile Basin water resources for
NELSAP includes programs such as the Lake Victoria Development Program (LVDP)
and the Lake Victoria Visioning Exercise of the East African Community (EAC), the
Lake Victoria Environment Management Program (LVEMP), and the Lake Victoria
Fisheries Development Program. Twelve NELSAP projects have been identified by the
Nile Equatorial Lakes riparians in a highly consultative manner, targeting investments in
Water Resources Management of shared sub-basins, Hydropower Development and
Transmission Interconnection, Fisheries Development and Lakes Management, Water
Resources Management, Agriculture Development, and Water Hyacinth Control.
The Eastern Nile Subsidiary Action Program (ENSAP) is an investment program by the
Governments of Egypt, Ethiopia and the Sudan under the umbrella of the Nile Basin
Initiative (NBI). ENSAP objective is to achieve joint action on the ground to promote
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poverty alleviation, economic growth and reversal of environmental degradation.
Projects are selected by individual riparian countries for implementation and submitted
to the Council of Ministers of the Nile Basin Initiative for approval.
The Nile Basin Initiative regulation is based Cooperative Framework Agreement of
mutual regional cooperation on common water resource shared by the riparian
countries.
3.3.3.3.6666.4 .4 .4 .4 Common Market for Eastern and Southern AfricaCommon Market for Eastern and Southern AfricaCommon Market for Eastern and Southern AfricaCommon Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
The Treaty establishing COMESA was signed on 5th November 1993. COMESA replaced
the former Preferential Trade Area (PTA). It was established as an organization of free
independent sovereign states which have agreed to co-operate in developing their natural
and human resources for the good of all their people. Its membership covers nineteen
countries.These countries include: Burundi, Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo,
Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Rwanda,
Seychelles, Sudan, Swaziland, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.
The objectives of the COMESA Treaty and the COMESA Agricultural Policy (CAP) are in
line with the broader Comprehensive African Agricultural Development Programme
(CAADP) of the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) under the African
Union (AU). The CAADP has been endorsed by African Heads of State and Governments
as a framework for the restoration of agricultural growth, food security and rural
development in Africa within an integrated and coordinated approach. CAADP defines
four Pillars for improving Africa's agriculture:
i. Extending the area under sustainable land management and reliable water control
systems;
ii. Improving rural infrastructure and trade related capacities for market access;
iii. Increasing food supply, reducing hunger and improving responses to food
emergency crises; and
iv. Improving agricultural research, technology dissemination and adoption.
COMESA has endorsed the principle of moving from a national to a regional approach in
dealing with regional food security issues. The main objective is to open up the region to
free flow of agricultural trade by removing all barriers to such trade to ensure that as
needed, commodities move from surplus to deficit areas in the region driven primarily by
demand and market forces. The COMESA Secretariat's on-going agricultural sector
programs aimed at attaining sustainable food security are as follows:
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i. Agricultural Market Promotion and Regional Integration Project (supported by
the AfDB)
ii. Irrigation Development in the COMESA Region (with the assistance of the Indian
Government)
iii. Regional Food Security/Food Reserve Initiative among member states
The Food Security Policy and Vulnerability Reduction Program (to be supported
by the 9th EDF)
iv. Coordinated Agricultural Research and Technology Interventions (supported by
USAID)
A Regional Approach Towards Biotechnology (supported by USAID)
v. The Pan African Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Campaign (PATTEC) in
collaboration with the AU
vi. Livestock Sector Development in collaboration with the AU and USAID
vii. Fisheries Sector Development in partnership with the Common Fund for
Commodities
viii. Implementation of NEPAD's Comprehensive African Agricultural Development
Programme (CAADP) in the Eastern and Central African (ECA) region
ix. Crop Crisis Control (C3) Project with the support of USAID
x. The Action Plan for the Environment among member states
3.63.63.63.6.5 Ea.5 Ea.5 Ea.5 East African Community (EAC)st African Community (EAC)st African Community (EAC)st African Community (EAC)
The Treaty to establish EAC was signed in 1999. The EAC is made up of five states:
Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda, and Burundi. It covers a surface area of 1.82 million
square Kilometers. One of the objectives of the treaty as outlined in article 105 is
agriculture and food security. The partner states undertake to adopt a scheme for the
rationalization of agriculture production with a view to promoting complementarity and
specialization in and the sustainability of national agricultural programmes.
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4.0 WATER RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGIONS4.0 WATER RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGIONS4.0 WATER RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGIONS4.0 WATER RESOURCES IN THE ASAL REGIONS
4.1 Water Resources Endowment 4.1 Water Resources Endowment 4.1 Water Resources Endowment 4.1 Water Resources Endowment
4.1.1 Djibouti4.1.1 Djibouti4.1.1 Djibouti4.1.1 Djibouti
Djibouti has survived harsh drought conditions for the past 5 years. Groundwater is the
primary source of water for drinking and irrigation, but has been difficult to exploit and is
often contaminated. Almost 50 percent of people in rural Djibouti do not have ready
access to properly developed source of drinking water. And, due to the ongoing drought,
water availability for livestock is limited. Livestock have shown signs of distress and,
subsequently, production of milk and meat has been down substantially.
Erratic rainfall patterns have adversely affected the replenishment of water catchments
and the regeneration of pastures. Delayed rains have resulted in abnormal pastoral
migration patterns and a further depletion of already exhausted pasture and browse in all
grazing areas. The rain has also been insufficient to replenish much-needed water
sources throughout the country and it is below the threshold for pasture regeneration.
All water catchments in the south are practically dry.
The livelihoods and food security of pastoral communities have been severely
compromised by limited water and pasture. Significant over-grazing of pasture and the
depletion of water sources have contributed to widespread livestock deaths and a
considerable decline in milk productivity. The remaining animals are in poor health due
mainly to opportunistic parasites and diseases.
Djibouti’s coastal pastures and water sources have also been overburdened by pastoralists
from the neighbouring, drought-affected countries of Somalia, Ethiopia and Eritrea. The
border areas of both Eritrea and Ethiopia are prone to drought hence affects pasture
regeneration and water source replenishment, resulting in poor food security situation for
pastoralists in the region. Frequent pastoral migrations from Shinile in Somalia have also
caused water stress and overgrazing in the Djibouti coastal grazing areas.
Irregular movements of livestock and people have been observed in most rural areas and
significant numbers of livestock deaths have been reported. Many households have lost
their entire herds and thousands of people are moving from rural areas to urban centers
in search of assistance.
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Nearly half of all families in Djibouti's northwest were forced to migrate to find pasture
for their livestock. As the droughts continue, the importance of properly maintained
wells has become apparent.
4.1.2 Eritrea4.1.2 Eritrea4.1.2 Eritrea4.1.2 Eritrea
Surface Water Resources Surface Water Resources Surface Water Resources Surface Water Resources
Surface water resources in Eritrea mainly consist of rivers and streams. The three main
river basins in Eritrea can be categorized as follows:
• The Mereb-Gash and Tekeze-Setit River systems, draining into the Nile River;
• The eastern escarpment and the Barka-Anseba River systems, draining into the
Red Sea;
• The river systems of a narrow strip of land along the south-eastern border with
Ethiopia, draining into the closed Danakil Basin.
Although no measurements of runoff are available, the internally produced renewable
water resources are estimated at 2.8 BCM/yr. Most of the water resources are located in
the western part of the country.
There is only one perennial river in Eritrea, the Setit River, which also forms the border
with Ethiopia. All other rivers are seasonal and contain water only after rainfall and are
dry for the rest of the year. There are no natural fresh surface water bodies in the
country. Artificially dammed water bodies are found scattered in the highland parts of
the country.
Ground Water ResourcesGround Water ResourcesGround Water ResourcesGround Water Resources
All parts of the country have the potential to tap groundwater. However, the quantity of
water for pastoral, domestic, industrial and agricultural use is inadequate. There are four
major hydro-geological units, recharge conditions and hydraulic characteristics found in
Eritrea. These are:
• Granular aquifers, which cover large areas in the western and eastern lowlands
and along river valleys and flood plains. Unconsolidated aquifers consisting of the
alluvial and colluvial sediments are also found in the Asmara area, Red Sea coastal
plains and at the foot of fault scraps and mountains;
• Fissured and jointed volcanic aquifers, which are found in the central highland
plateau southeast of Asmara and west of Assab and in the southern part of the
country and the Alid hot spring;
• Fissured and karstic aquifers of consolidated sedimentary rocks, limestone, coral
reefs, evaporate deposits and the marbles of metamorphic assemblages;
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• Fissured aquifers of the basement rocks of crystalline metamorphic rocks and
associated intrusive rocks, which are localized along weathered and fractured
zones, with limited groundwater resources,
Technology for Water AbstractionTechnology for Water AbstractionTechnology for Water AbstractionTechnology for Water Abstraction
The water point inventory counted 5365 water points. About 3374 are unprotected dug
wells and 1233 are contaminated surface water points. Typical boreholes depths are in the
range of 20 to 70 m. Deep aquifers are not common.
Problems of groundwater depletion have been reported in various parts of the country.
Apparently there are a few natural springs, but an inventory is not available.
Currently there are about 187 dams with the total capacity estimated at 94 million m3.
(Average of 50000 m3 each). About 42 percent of these dams are for municipal use and
irrigation, 40 percent for municipalities only, 13 percent for irrigation only, and 5 percent
are not used. Livestock and pastoral communities have not been adequately supplied,
hence have to travel long distances in search of water resources.
Water useWater useWater useWater use
Groundwater is the basis of municipal water supply in Eritrea. Total water withdrawal
was estimated at 582 million m3 in 2004, of which 550 million m3 for agriculture and
livestock (94.5 percent), 31 million m3 for municipal consumption (5.3 percent) and 1
million m3 for industry (0.2 percent)
International water issuesInternational water issuesInternational water issuesInternational water issues
Eritrea is part of the Council of Ministers of Water Affairs of the Nile Basin States (Nile-
COM) as an observer, together with Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, the United Republic of Tanzania and Uganda. It
is a prospective member of the Nile Basin Initiative. The Setit and Mereb-Gash rivers are
shared with Ethiopia.
Water for Irrigation DevelopmentWater for Irrigation DevelopmentWater for Irrigation DevelopmentWater for Irrigation Development
Estimates of irrigation potential vary from 107000 ha to 567000 ha, the latter not taking
into account the water availability. Based on water availability, it can be estimated at
187500 ha.
In 1993, an estimated 4100 ha was under perennial irrigation from dams, springs and
wells:
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
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• Approximately 1300 ha were irrigated through the pumping of shallow
groundwater along the Gash and Barka rivers;
• Some 140 ha comprised the Elaberet and Mai Aini citrus/horticultural plantations
presently under government management;
• About 2590 ha were cropped by small farmers in the highland provinces mainly
through the pumping of groundwater from open wells;
• The balance of 70 ha was irrigated from springs.
The area equipped for spate irrigation covers 17490 ha, of which 15650 in the eastern
lowlands and 1840 ha at Alighider on the lower Gash and a small area along the Barka.
4.1.3 Ethiopia4.1.3 Ethiopia4.1.3 Ethiopia4.1.3 Ethiopia
SSSSururururface Water Resourcesface Water Resourcesface Water Resourcesface Water Resources
Ethiopia is a country with diverse water resources that remain untapped. Livestock
holds an important social and economic role in the country irrespective of the low
production level under the traditional highland mixed crop/livestock and lowland
pastoral/agro-pastoral productions systems.
Ethiopia’s 11 river basins that are currently at varying development stages offer
tremendous opportunities that are yet to be fully exploited with due considerations
to the welfare of downstream riparian countries. Much of the water from these
basins drains into neighboring countries. Initiatives like Nile Basin are steps towards
establishing fair-share mechanisms among countries connected through trans-
boundary water bodies. Similar initiatives expanded to other river basins may assist
in avoiding disputes that could emerge over water use issues.
Major Water Basins of the Country Major Water Basins of the Country Major Water Basins of the Country Major Water Basins of the Country
Ethiopia has 11 drainage basins with substantial amount of surface water. Most of
the country’s rivers cross international boundaries and form a drainage system
flowing into the Mediterranean Sea or the Indian Ocean. The drainage system
includes Blue Nile, Baro-Akobo and Tekeze, which drain into the western part of
the country and join the main Nile River, the Wabi- Shebelle and Genale- Dawa
rivers, which drain into the southern part of the Indian Ocean through Somalia.
Awash does not cross the boundary and drains within the country while Omo/Gibe
runs into Lake Turkana in Kenya. Danakil and Ogaden drainage basins are found in
the lowlands. In general, Ethiopia is a country with all the major rivers flowing out
into the neighboring countries, thus constraining total development of the water
resources of the country to the fullest. The three Ethiopian sub-basins that drain to
the main Nile River constitute 68% of the available water resources of the country
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(Arsano and Tamrat, 2005). Thus far, the country has only been able to utilize 5% of
its total surface water, or 0.6% of the water resources of the Nile basin. (Table 4.1)
Table 4.1Table 4.1Table 4.1Table 4.1: Water Basins of Ethiopia and their Area Coverage
BasinBasinBasinBasin Area (kmArea (kmArea (kmArea (km2222)))) Average annual Average annual Average annual Average annual
flow (BM3)flow (BM3)flow (BM3)flow (BM3)
Area (km2)Area (km2)Area (km2)Area (km2) Drainage towardsDrainage towardsDrainage towardsDrainage towards
Mount Flat Arid
Awash 112,695 4.6 36,610 73,718 3,377 Internal
Baro-Akobo 74,102 23.2 24,566 49,586 - Sudan-Egypt
Blue Nile 201,340 52.6 143,400 60,800 - Sudan-Egypt
Danakil 77,41 27,808 38,460 Internal
Genale-Dawa 171,042 5.8 39,230 105,412 26,400 Somalia
Mereb-Gash 23,932 0.7 12,643 11,289 - Eritrea-Sudan
Ogaden 77,121 - - - 77,121 Internal
Omo-Ghibe 78,213 17.9 43,917 34,296 - L.Turkana/ Kenya
R.Valley
Lakes
52,730 5.6 39,009 13,730 - Internal
Tekeze 82,350 8.2 54,821 35,180 - Sudan-Egypt
Wabi-
Shebelle
202,697 3.2 33,605 152,682 16,400 Somalia
Sources: Belachew (2000)
Technologies for Supplying Water to Livestock Technologies for Supplying Water to Livestock Technologies for Supplying Water to Livestock Technologies for Supplying Water to Livestock
Rivers springs, and ponds form the main sources of water for livestock in the Nile
Basin areas of the country. In many districts of the area shortage of drinking water
in the dry season compels livestock to travel over long distance to permanent water
source that do not dry out and when such opportunity is not within the reach
farmers to commute from their residential areas, they would be forced to employ
transhumance production system. According to results from a recent survey work
(Amhara Regional State Socio-economic Survey, 2005) more than a third of farmers
residing in highland, mid-altitude and lowland climatic zones; respectively of
moisture-deficient districts reported they constantly face critical water shortage for
livestock during dry seasons. A slightly higher proportion ranging from a third to
half of farmers living in these climatic zones in the studied districts receiving better
moisture indicated to face similar constraint in the same period of the year. Reasons
why higher proportion of farmers in a comparatively better rainfall conditions
facing this problem is not clear and requires further investigation
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Water Resource Development Efforts in Ethiopia Water Resource Development Efforts in Ethiopia Water Resource Development Efforts in Ethiopia Water Resource Development Efforts in Ethiopia
Ethiopia has 11 major river basins, 11 lakes, 9 saline lakes, 4 crater lakes and over 12
major swamps and wetlands. The country is also endowed with many rivers, lakes
and plenty of rainfall. Although there are enough surface water supplies in rivers
and lakes, the development of water supply schemes in Ethiopia has lagged behind
demand and only about 500 million cubic meters have so far been utilized out of the
total mean annual supplies of over 110 billion cubic meters (Degefu, 2003). This is a
good indication of the fact that the abundant water resources have played a
minimum role in the economic development of the country so far. So, currently
there is a major priority emphasis put on the development strategy of the water
resources to enable them to make essential contribution to the economic and social
development of the nation.
Traditional Water Resource Management Traditional Water Resource Management Traditional Water Resource Management Traditional Water Resource Management
In the lowland moisture stressed pastoral production systems, the country has over
the years developed strong culture of traditional water management systems ruled
and regulated by social values. Here herders commonly depend on deep water wells
that are governed by social rules for both animal and human water uses. The age-old
traditional water and rangeland management systems that have been ecologically
friendly were disrupted by many recent development schemes and now made
unsustainable to support sound development programs.
In the mixed crop/livestock production systems as well traditionally farmers have
built small-scale schemes on their own initiatives, sometimes with government
technical and material support. They manage the schemes through their own users’
association or committees. Water user associations have long existed to mange
traditional schemes (Awlachew et al., 2004). It is also mentioned that they are
generally well organized and effectively operated by farmers who know each other
and are committed to cooperating closely to achieve common goals. Typical
associations comprise up to 200 users who share a main canal or a branch canal.
They may be grouped into several teams of 20 or 30 farmers each in managing the
irrigation practice. Such traditional arrangement handles different tasks of
construction, water allocation, operation and maintenance. A total of about 138,000
hectares of land are put under traditional irrigation activities.
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Table Table Table Table 4.24.24.24.2: Distribution of Water Structures in Ethiopia
Type of water supply schemes Type of water supply schemes Type of water supply schemes Type of water supply schemes
Borehole Borehole Borehole Borehole Hand dug Hand dug Hand dug Hand dug
wells wells wells wells
Spring Spring Spring Spring Others Others Others Others Total Total Total Total
WSSA 873 2507 435 2 3817
NGOs 608 797 982 15 2402
Total 1418 3304 1417 17 6219
Source: Water Supply and Sanitation Authority (WSSA)
Groundwater Resources Groundwater Resources Groundwater Resources Groundwater Resources
Many parts of Ethiopia have limited supplies of groundwater because of the poor
permeability of the crystalline rocks and variable water-table depths. Success with
obtaining groundwater in these areas depends upon locating water-bearing fractures. The
permeability of the ancient (Precambrian) rocks is generally poor and wells normally give
poor yields as a result (UN, 1989). However the groundwater potential of Ethiopia is
estimated to be 2.6-13.5BM3/year while little is explored and developed. It is occurring in
different parts of the country within different hydro geologic environment and aquifer
settings that is being partly developed, among others, for water supply purposes.
(Ministry of Water Resources-Ethiopia)
The recurrent drought has negatively affected the existence of surface water resources
and resulted in the decline of groundwater tables to the extent of drying of wells and
springs. In highly drought-affected areas, groundwater from deep underground sources
has been the sole source of water supply.
The sedimentary rocks of eastern, central and northern Ethiopia also have variable
groundwater potential. The sandstones are normally permeable and porous and have good
groundwater yields, although water levels are in places deep and hence difficult to access
(e.g. 280 m below surface in the Jessoma Sandstone; UN, 1989). Permeability is however,
hindered by the occurrence of interbedded silty or clay horizons with poor permeability.
In eastern Ethiopia, limited groundwater resources also relate strongly to low rainfall.
The best aquifers with the largest exploitable resources of groundwater occur in the
young (Quaternary) lake and alluvial sediments. Unconsolidated alluvial sediments occur
in the main floodplains of the Rivers Wabi, Shebali, Genale-Dawa, Omo, Baro, Angereb,
Tekeze, Gash and Barka (UN, 1989). Lake sediments also occur within the Rift and are
exploited for drinking water and irrigation. The water table in these unconsolidated
sediments is also typically shallower than in other rock formations (typically around 15 m
below surface; UN, 1989).
Communities use groundwater from a combination of springs, dug wells and tubewells. In
the highlands, springs predominate. In the hard-rock areas, groundwater abstraction
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sources are mainly for domestic use as a result of small yields. Groundwater use for
irrigation is mainly limited to the more permeable areas of alluvial sediment.
In areas using traditional dug wells where water is scarce, such as the low-lying plains of
eastern Ethiopia, clusters of wells are sometimes used to increase the access to water.
Tubewell drilling programmes have been instigated over the last few decades, but
groundwater provision is often unsuccessful because of poor groundwater yields, adverse
drilling conditions or poor water quality. UN (1989) estimated that more than 20% of
tubewells drilled in Ethiopia had been abandoned as a result of a combination of these
reasons. Tubewell depths vary considerably across the country. Many in the Rift and
highlands are in the range 50–100 m. Depths in the sediments of eastern Ethiopia
(Ogaden) are often in excess of 200 m because of deep water tables.
4.1.4 Kenya4.1.4 Kenya4.1.4 Kenya4.1.4 Kenya
Water Resources and UseWater Resources and UseWater Resources and UseWater Resources and Use
The National Development Plan 2002-2008 recognizes Kenya as a water scarce country
whereby the water demand exceeds renewable freshwater sources. It was predicted in the
National Water Master Plan of 1992 that out of 164 sub-basins with perennial river flows,
90 would suffer from surface water deficit by 2010 while already 33 sub-basins without
perennial river flow have an apparent water shortage.
Surface Water ResourcesSurface Water ResourcesSurface Water ResourcesSurface Water Resources
There are five main drainage basins in the country:
• Lake Victoria, covering 8.0 percent of the country;
• Rift valley and inland lakes, covering 22.5 percent of the country;
• Athi River and coast, covering 11.5 percent of the country;
• Tana River, covering 21.7 percent of the country;
• Ewaso Ng’iro, covering 36.3 percent of the country.
The water distribution in the drainage basins is both skewed and uneven with, for
example, 282,600 m3/ km2 in Lake Victoria basin and 21,300 m3/km2 in the Athi and Coast
catchments.
There are six hydro-geological formations, which influence the distribution and
availability of the groundwater resources: Eastern quaternary sediment areas; Bed rock
areas; Western quaternary areas; Volcanic rock areas in the Rift valley; Volcanic areas
outside the Rift valley; Older sedimentary areas.
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The internal renewable surface water resources are estimated at 20 billion m3/year, while
about 3.5 BM3 of groundwater is produced annually, of which the main part (3 BM³/year)
is considered to overlap with the surface water resources. It is estimated that 10 BM3/year
of water enters the country via transboundary rivers. The volcanic and quaternary
geological formations are rich in groundwater. The annual safe abstraction yield of
groundwater is estimated at 0.6 BM3, out of which 0.4 BM3 is the estimated yield from
shallow wells while the remaining balance of 0.2 BM3 is estimated to come from
boreholes.
The total capacity of large and medium dams (> 15 m) is about 4.1 BM3. In order to
augment water supply, 1782 small dams and 669 water pans have been constructed. There
are 9 lakes with a surface area of 10 747 BM2. Most of the lakes are saline with the
exception of Victoria, Naivasha and Baringo. The lakes Nakuru and Naivasha have been
declared Ramsar sites as wetlands of international importance for conservation of
biodiversity.
There is limited seawater desalinization mainly for the hotels along the coast.
Water UseWater UseWater UseWater Use
The total water withdrawal is estimated to be over 2.7 BCM. The water demand is
projected to increase to 5.8 BCM by the year 2010. Agriculture is the main user of water
and currently consumes about 80 percent, while municipal and commercial use accounts
for the rest. There are a total of 1,800 municipal water supply schemes, out of which 700
are managed by the Ministry of Water Resource Management and Development while
the communities manage the rest. There are 9,000 boreholes, most of which require
rehabilitation.
As a result of the skewed water distribution between the basins and within the basins,
water use conflicts among irrigation, livestock, wildlife and environmental conservation
is quite common in the Ewaso Ng’iro north, in the upper catchments of the Tana basin
and the Athi basins.
Irrigation and Drainage DevelopmentIrrigation and Drainage DevelopmentIrrigation and Drainage DevelopmentIrrigation and Drainage Development
The irrigation potential of Kenya has been estimated at 353,060 ha and is distributed over
the basins as follows:
• 180,000 ha in the Nile (Lake Victoria) basin;
• 52500 ha in the Kerio Valley (Rift Valley) basin;
• 111,100 ha in the East Coast basin (including the Tana and Athi basins);
• 9,460 ha in the Ewaso Ngiro (Shebelle-Juba) basin.
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Irrigation development in Kenya has a long history since there are records indicating that
there were irrigation systems in the 16th century along the coast and the Kerio valley
(Marakwet escarpment). The system was so elaborate that a traditional water
management system had evolved that maintained canals exceeding 15 kilometers, and
water transfers from basin to basin along rugged terrains with technologies that puzzle
the present-day engineer. The traditional water management system also allocated water
between different clans and the water rotation among the different users could vary from
year to year.
International Water IssuesInternational Water IssuesInternational Water IssuesInternational Water Issues
Kenya shares a number of rivers with other countries:
• The Umba, Mara and Pangani basins are shared with the United Republic of
Tanzania;
• The Sio, Malaba and Malakisi basins are shared with Uganda;
• The Omo and Daua basins are shared with Ethiopia;
• The Nile basin is shared with nine other countries.
Currently, there is no existing framework between the countries for the utilization and
management of the shared water resources.
Water Management, Policies and Legislation Related to Water Use in AgricultureWater Management, Policies and Legislation Related to Water Use in AgricultureWater Management, Policies and Legislation Related to Water Use in AgricultureWater Management, Policies and Legislation Related to Water Use in Agriculture
Overall responsibility for water management lies with the Ministry of Water Resources
Management and Development (MWRMD), granted through the Water Act 2002. The
ministry’s current policy (1999) focuses on decentralization, privatization,
commercialization and stakeholder participation. The Water Act 2002 has provided the
formation of a Water Resources Management Authority, responsible for water pollution,
and the management of lakes, aquifers and rivers, and the establishment of a Water
Services Regulatory Board, responsible for water supply through licensed water services
providers. (Section 4.6)
4.1.5 Somalia4.1.5 Somalia4.1.5 Somalia4.1.5 Somalia
Surface WaterSurface WaterSurface WaterSurface Water
Somalia is an extreme water scarce country where most of the water sources available
exist rivers shared with other countries. Water resources in Somalia are dominated by
surface water. The two perennial rivers in Somalia are the Juba and Shabelle rivers. The
Juba-Shabelle basin, with a total area of 810 427 billion square metres, covers about one-
third of Ethiopia, one-third of Kenya and one-third of Somalia. Over 90 percent of the
flow originates in the Ethiopian highlands. The mean annual runoff at the border
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between Ethiopia and Somalia is 5.9 BCM for the Juba River at Luuq and 2.3 BCM for the
Shabelle river at Belet Weyne. Usually the flooding occurs following heavy rains in the
upper basin in Ethiopia, with the Lower Juba floodplain being the worst affected area. As
the Shabelle River is embanked at the lower part it is very difficult to predict the location
of the floods. Sedimentation in the riverbed and siltation of the irrigation canals are also
contributing to in-channel floods (FAO 2005).
In the north, along the Gulf of Aden, there is a mountainous zone with rugged relief
which is subject to torrential flows, causing considerable erosion. The land slopes down
towards the south and the south-flowing watercourses dissipate in the Haud plateau.
Groundwater potential is limited because of the limited potential for recharge. Internally
produced water resources are 6 BCM/year, of which 5.7 BCM and 3.3 BCM are surface
water and groundwater respectively, with an overlap between the two estimated at 3
BCM (FAO Water Report, 2005)
Water HaWater HaWater HaWater Harvestingrvestingrvestingrvesting
Not all the Water resources can be captured due to floods. There are no dams constructed
on the Juba and Shabelle rivers within Somalia, and pre-war flood-control measures off-
stream reservoirs, flood relief canals are recorded state is in disrepair.
Agricultural water abstractions are mainly limited to partially controlled irrigation
schemes in the river basins. Of the abstractions for agriculture, livestock accounts for
about 0.03 BCM/year. Under the present conditions, surface water withdrawal amounts
to around 96 percent and groundwater withdrawal to 4 percent of the total water
withdrawal. In the dry season, as the water resources become scarce, competition
between the resources is high and groundwater supplies are often severely stressed.
WateWateWateWater Storager Storager Storager Storage
Water storage is mainly on off-stream storage at Jowhar (0.2 BCM), upstream of the
greater part of the irrigated lands and downstream of the Jowhar sugar estate, which
collapsed in the mid 1990s. A second off-stream storage reservoir in the Shabelle at
Duduble, upstream of Jowhar, which would store 0.13-0.2 BM3, was proposed in the late
1980s, but was never built. At Baarhere on the Juba river a major water development
project was proposed in the 1980s for hydropower, water control and irrigation for about
175000 ha of land (FAO 2005).
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4.1.6 Sudan4.1.6 Sudan4.1.6 Sudan4.1.6 Sudan
Surface WaterSurface WaterSurface WaterSurface Water
Sudan is characterized by desert climate in the north with average annual rainfall ranging
416 mm and 25 mm. On the north-east, Sudan is bordered by the Red Sea. Internal water
resources in Sudan are limited. The erratic nature of the rainfall and its concentration in a
short season places Sudan in a vulnerable situation, especially in rainfed areas. Surface
water in Sudan comprises the Nile river system (Nilotic water) and other, non-nilotic
streams. Rainfall is the main source of the non-nilotic streams and of the Bahr El Ghazal
basin. Similalry, rainfall over the Central African Plateau (Equatorial Lakes) and over the
Ethiopian-Eritrean highlands is the main source of the Nile River system and other
transboundary seasonal streams Gash and Baraka (FAO 2005). Apart from the Nile Basin
Sudan shares other basins shared between and her neighbours which include:
i. The Northern Interior Basins, covering 313 365 billion square metres in the
northwest part of the country (12.5 percent);
ii. The Lake Chad Basin, in the west of the country along the border with Chad and
the Central African Republic, covering 101 048 billion square metres (4.0 percent);
iii. The Northeast Coast Basins, representing a strip along the Red Sea coast of the
country, covering 96 450 billion square metres (3.8 percent);
iv. The Rift Valley Basin, in the southeast part of the country at the border with
Ethiopia and Kenya, covering 16 441 billion square metres (0.7 percent).
v. The Bahr El Ghazal Basin, an internal basin in southwest Sudan
Groundwater is used only in very limited areas, and is mainly used for municipal water
supply. The major groundwater formations and basins are the Nubian Sandstone Basin
and the Umm Rwaba Basins. There are expansive swamps in Sudan, namely Chazal, Sudd
and Sobat swamps in the south of the country represent major wetlands, from which
evaporation is exceptionally high. Recently There Fossil groundwater resources are
estimated to be 16 000 BCM.
Water TechnologWater TechnologWater TechnologWater Technologiesiesiesies
Water harvesting has been achieved through water abstractions to construct dams such as
Sennar dam (Aswan High Dam). There are small barrage constructed on the Rahad River
to divert floodwater to the Rahad Agricultural Scheme and to siphon underneath the
Dinder River to augment the water supply during the dry season from the Meina Pump
Station on the Blue Nile. The Jonglei Canal, between Bahr el Jebel and the White Nile,
was planned to divert water from upstream of the Sudd to a point farther down the White
Nile, bypassing the swamps, to make more water available for use downstream. Works on
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it were discontinued in 1983 after two thirds were completed..The desalination of
seawater was introduced recently in Port Sudan town.
The Omdurman water treatment and optimization contract uses the River Nile as its
source of water. The Nile at the point of extraction has been known to have turbidity of
some 23,000NTU in the flood season, while the dry season sees a more usual 130NTU.
In North Darfur, where the rainfall is concentrated over short periods of time, rainwater
harvesting techniques have been developed for various types of water collection schemes
by implementing domestic rain water harvesting. North Darfur and South Kordofan
States rely on groundwater supply (wells) or water storage methods called hafir or earth
dams for their water supply. Hafir are small lakes constructed in low lying areas to allow
water to be stored during rainfall events. Improved water supply methods, to provide
adequate water quality and water supply, are acutely needed for this region as the present
ones are not adequate.
Water StorageWater StorageWater StorageWater Storage
The high variability of river flows necessitates storage facilities which are mainly dams.
The total storage capacity of the following four main dams is estimated at 8.73 BCM, have
a reduced capacity of to about 6.90 BCM owing to sedimentation and debris (FAO 2005).
• The Sennar Dam on the Blue Nile ( design capacity of o.93 BCM, resent capacity
0.60 BCM)
• The Roseires Dam on the Blue Nile( design capacity of 3.5 BCM, resent capacity
3.5 BCM)
• The Jobel Aulia on the White Nile ( design capacity of o.93 BCM, resent capacity
0.60 BCM)
• The El Girba Dam on Arbara Rive ( design capacity of 1.3 BCM, resent capacity
0.60 BCM)
4.1.7 Uganda4.1.7 Uganda4.1.7 Uganda4.1.7 Uganda
Surface WaterSurface WaterSurface WaterSurface Water
Uganda has an equatorial climate with small regional variations in annual temperature
and humidity. Precipitation varies from 750 mm/yr in the Karamajong pastoral areas.
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Surface water consists of the Nile Basin which is 98 percent of the total area of the
country, while a fringe of about 4 500 billion square metres along the country’s border
with Kenya belongs to the Rift Valley Basin. The Basin is subdivided in to eight sub-
basins: Lake Victoria Basin, Lake Kyoga Basin, Victoria Nile Basin, Lake Edward Basin,
Lake Albert Basin, Albert Nile Basin, Achwa Basin and Kidepo Basin.
Internal surface water resources are estimated to be 39 BCM/yr, while groundwater is
believed to be around 29 BCM/yr, but all of this is considered to be overlap between
surface water and groundwater, keeping the total IRWR at 39 BCM/yr and external
resources of 27 BCM/yr comprise inflow from Lake Victoria (25 BCM/yr) as well as
inflow via Lake Edward and Lake Albert from the Democratic Republic of Congo Water
Harvesting (FAO Report 2005).
Groundwater represents the main source of municipal water supply for the rural
population of Uganda. It is also important for livestock use particularly in the drier
regions.
Water Harvesting TechnologiesWater Harvesting TechnologiesWater Harvesting TechnologiesWater Harvesting Technologies
In dry areas, water for livestock and domestic use is majorly from ground water sources.
Ground water extraction takes place from springs, boreholes and to a lesser extent from
hand dug wells. Surveys have identified some 12,000 springs in Uganda, of which more
than 4 500 have been developed and protected for safe use. About 9,000 boreholes,
typically drilled to a depth of 60 to 90 meters, are equipped with hand pumps. Rates of
actual extraction are low and most boreholes are fitted with handpumps with capacities
between 0.6 and 1.2 m3/hr depending on the pumping head (FAO Report 2005).
Along the borders of Uganda and Kenya, simple but highly effective technology of sand
dams are shared by communities in Moroto county and West pocket water problems both
in Ugand and Kenya respectively.
Water StorageWater StorageWater StorageWater Storage
There are also over 1,000 dams and valley tanks for both aquaculture and livestock
watering in Uganda. The Government has carried out a programme to construct valley
tanks, and by the beginning of 2004, 30 out of the planned 50 of these surface water
reservoirs in 6 districts had been completed.
In Uganda urban areas water from the treatment works is pumped into elevated tanks
that supply the distribution systems. Raw water pumping stations, boreholes,
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transmission mains, water treatment works, clear water pumping stations, elevated tanks,
distribution systems and customer connections were all constructed by the project
4.2 Water Harvesting and Storage Systems4.2 Water Harvesting and Storage Systems4.2 Water Harvesting and Storage Systems4.2 Water Harvesting and Storage Systems
4.2.1 Ground Water Abstraction4.2.1 Ground Water Abstraction4.2.1 Ground Water Abstraction4.2.1 Ground Water Abstraction
Boreholes:Boreholes:Boreholes:Boreholes: Boreholes are among the most commonly used source of water in the ASALs
of the GHA countries. There have been many attempts to expand the number boreholes.
However many of these boreholes are seasonal. This may be due to the fact that most of
the boreholes are quite shallow and, hence, subject to seasonal hydrological fluctuations,
or that there is over-pumping of the aquifers. The boreholes classified as “range
boreholes,” are kept locked under normal conditions and only opened for livestock use
during severe drought periods. On average, the poor state of many boreholes can be
attributed to lack of community management. Many boreholes do not operate because of
lack of a system to organize purchase of fuel for pumping, or make repairs when
necessary. In addition, only one third of the boreholes have fresh water (low salinity).
Available data shows that borehole depths range from 50-100 m, with the deepest being
at 250 m in most parts of the ASALs. Water yields range from 1 to 18 liter/s, with a
median yield of about 9 l/s (MoWRD 2002).
Studies in other parts of the world have shown that unstable groundwater overdraft
occurs when pumping exceeds the source’s rate of natural recharge (Rosegrant et al.
2000). Overdrafting leads to a lowered water table, which in turn increases the depth of
pumping, thereby raising pumping costs. Additional environmental problems may also
occur from groundwater overdrafting including decreased water quality, subsiding land,
and saline intrusion into aquifers. Further investigations are necessary to identify the
causes of the high fluctuations in the water yields from most of the boreholes in ASAL
areas.
Shallow WellsShallow WellsShallow WellsShallow Wells:::: Most wells in the ASALs of GHA are traditional hand-scooped holes. Most
of the wells are used for human water supplies due to their low yields. Another feature is
that most of the shallow wells are: (1) not capped; (2) have no pumps; (3) have low yields;
and (4) exceed 6 m in depth. In traditional Boran systems, which are practiced to date,
steps are made into the well and women line up to reach down and fetch the water
manually, through a “hand-me-up” system using containers. This is a slow and laborious
activity, and also leads to contamination of the water. Improvements in well design and
management are necessary. Prospects to improve infiltration in sand rivers, e.g., through
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sand/subsurface dams so as to boost the storage capacity of shallow wells, should also be
explored.
4.2.1 4.2.1 4.2.1 4.2.1 Surface and Surface and Surface and Surface and Rainwater HarvestingRainwater HarvestingRainwater HarvestingRainwater Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is the gathering, or accumulating and storing, of rainwater.
Rainwater harvesting has been used to provide drinking water, water for livestock, water
for irrigation or to refill aquifers in a process called groundwater recharge. Rainwater
collected from the roofs of houses, tents and local institutions, or from specially prepared
areas of ground, can make an important contribution to drinking water. In some cases,
rainwater may be the only available, or economical, water source in greater part of the
GHA. Rainwater systems are simple to construct from inexpensive local materials, and are
potentially successful in most habitable locations. Roof rainwater is usually of good
quality and may only require simple treatment before consumption. Household rainfall
catchment systems are appropriate in areas with an average rainfall greater than 200mm
per year, and no other accessible water sources (Skinner and Cotton, 1992).
Figure 4.1: Figure 4.1: Figure 4.1: Figure 4.1: Strategy of Rain Water Harvesting
Two important considerations affecting the adoption of RWH technologies are: i) cost,
especially for water storages such as tanks and reservoirs; and, ii) incomes of most pastoral
communities. Even though the costs vary across countries and regions, with the
availability of local materials and local operating conditions the basic costs per cubic
meter are generally comparable for specified RWH technologies. Examples from
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rainwater harvesting projects in GHA countries as obtained from published sources (Desta
et al. 2005; Nissen-Petersen 2000), expert consultations and experiences of the Southern
and Eastern Africa Rainwater Network (SEARNET) are given in the Table 4.3.
Table 4.3Table 4.3Table 4.3Table 4.3:::: Estimated Costs for Water Harvesting Structures (per M3)
TechnologyTechnologyTechnologyTechnology Typical examTypical examTypical examTypical exampleplepleple Cost (US$/Cost (US$/Cost (US$/Cost (US$/mmmm3333))))
Underground tanks • Concrete dome-shaped tank 7
• Brick dome-shaped tank 9 to 14
• Bottle-shaped tank 4
• Ferrocement tank 12 to 15
• Ball-shaped plastic tank 160
Aboveground tanks • Brick tank 93
• Ferrocement tank 30 to 70
Plastic tank 130
Runoff open
reservoirs • Plastic lined 3
• Cement lined 5
• Unlined 100
• Lined oval tank 8
Runoff closed
reservoirs
• Concrete dome-shaped underground
tank 7
• Brick dome-shaped underground tank 9 to 14
• Bottle-shaped underground tank 4
• Ferrocement underground tank 13
• Hemi spherical underground tank 23
• Sausage-shaped tank with cement
lining 16
Ground catchments systemsGround catchments systemsGround catchments systemsGround catchments systems channel water from a prepared catchment area into storage.
Generally they are only considered in areas where rainwater is very scarce and other
sources of water are not available. They are more suited to small communities than
individual families. If properly designed, ground catchments can collect large quantities
of rainwater.
Subsurface dyke:Subsurface dyke:Subsurface dyke:Subsurface dyke: A subsurface dyke is built in an aquifer to obstruct the natural flow of
groundwater, thereby raising the groundwater level and increasing the amount of water
stored in the aquifer. Rainwater may also be used for groundwater recharge, where the
runoff on the ground is collected and allowed to be absorbed, adding to the groundwater
Sand/Subsurface Dams and Infiltration GalleriesSand/Subsurface Dams and Infiltration GalleriesSand/Subsurface Dams and Infiltration GalleriesSand/Subsurface Dams and Infiltration Galleries: Many ASAL regions are crisscrossed by
several sand rivers, whose potential for floodwater harvesting and storage has not been
fully tapped. Sand rivers are ephemeral watercourses, which remain dry most of the year,
with the valley bottom being covered by sand (Nissen-Peterssen 2000). However, sand
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rivers flood during the rainy season, and the flows may last from a few hours to several
weeks. This flood flow can be stored in the voids within the sand, if a barrier such as a
dam embankment or sand dam is constructed across the river. There are site conditions
that favor a good sand/subsurface dam, including a good valley profile. However, in the
flatter lower reaches of the river, sand dams may not be feasible due to unstable
geological formations and the flat terrain. In such conditions however, infiltration
galleries offer better scope.
Expanded utilization of sand/subsurface dams in ASALs needs to be explored, especially
since when they are well designed, they suffer little siltation, provide cleaner water and
are less prone to pollution and evaporation losses. Moreover, sand/subsurface dams can be
quite cost-effective. There are possibilities for sand/sub-surface dams to positively benefit
human and livestock water provision in the ASALs, given the many sand river valleys in
GHA region.
4.2.2 Water Storage Systems 4.2.2 Water Storage Systems 4.2.2 Water Storage Systems 4.2.2 Water Storage Systems
Water harvesting systems with a storage component provide “blue water,” which serves
many purposes on a farm, ranging from domestic use, watering livestock and
supplemental irrigation. Even though it is common to find micro-dams and farm ponds
for storing water in semi-arid areas, they are generally located downstream in watersheds,
and the water is predominantly used for livestock and to meet household needs.
Storage systems cover a broad spectrum of techniques, from open surface water storage in
micro-dams to retention dams recharging soil water and shallow water tables to sand
dams and subsurface dams in sand rivers.
Water storage systems operate at a larger scale than within-field systems, often on a
watershed scale, and thereby necessitate addressing issues like ownership, local
institutions and land tenure. They require relatively high capital and labor investments
(often too high for individual households) and are relatively complicated systems to
design. Service-giving institutions, generally, have very little capacity to disseminate and
assist in design of storage water harvesting systems (SIWI 2001).
Roof Catchment with Aboveground Tank: Roof Catchment with Aboveground Tank: Roof Catchment with Aboveground Tank: Roof Catchment with Aboveground Tank: Rainwater harvesting from impervious roofs
(clay tiles and galvanized iron roofs) is a popular method adopted to secure water for
domestic use, because it provides water at home, is affordable, easy to practice regardless
of physical or climatic conditions and can be designed to suit different conditions
(available finances, roof area, family size etc.,). Since the structure is family owned,
maintenance is usually very good and no water conflicts occur. Surface tanks may vary in
size from 1m3 to more than 40m
3 for households and up to 100m
3 or more for schools and
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hospitals. The tank size is dependent on the rainfall regime and the demand. Areas with
seasonal rainfall will require larger tanks (25m3 to 35m
3) and a roof probably exceeding
100m2 would be required if total household demand is to be met throughout the dry
period. Another benefit of surface tanks (compared to sub-surface tanks) is that water can
be extracted easily through a tap just above the base of the tank. If placing it on a stand or
base elevates the tank, water can be piped by gravity to where it is required.
Using estimates (Mati 2002), the cost of tank construction per capita is about US$150
(equivalent to about US$0.07 per liter) — as a tank can last up to 30 years or more, the
investment is considered cost-effective. Another problem has been structural failure,
especially of concrete built tanks. Though reasons for this vary, ranging from use of low
cement, aggregate mixes, poor quality sand, bad workmanship, poor curing process during
construction and generally poor management (e.g., some families drain the tank
completely dry).
Underground Tanks: Underground Tanks: Underground Tanks: Underground Tanks: Underground tanks offer a cheaper alternative due to its lower
construction costs compared to those of surface tanks. They are, especially suited for
homesteads having thatched roofs, traditional structures (e.g., Maasai Manyattas) and
other surfaces, including collection of runoff from paved areas and roads. However, it is
necessary to pump (lift) water, except where the ground gradient permits and where
gravity outlets are constructed (Cherogony 2000). Another problem is higher possibility
of contamination and sedimentation, although the latter can be reduced by providing
adequate siltation basins. Perhaps the main problem is the lack of adequate expertise at
village level to design and construct underground tanks that do not pose a security risk
and are functional. The underground tanks are preferred in home compounds and are
designed as spherical or cylindrical and constructed using bricks.
In Machakos District in Kenya, the cost of constructing a cylindrical tank (sausage tank)
of 15m3 capacity was found to be about US$190 (Ngigi 2003). Rectangular and semi-
circular plastic lined tanks are also gaining popularity due to the ease of construction, and
also the fact that they are more affordable.
Birkas: Birkas: Birkas: Birkas: In the Somali speaking region of Ethiopia, underground cisterns, locally known as
“birkas,” are used for water harvesting (Guleid 2002). Birkas are an indigenous technology
and usually family-owned. They are rectangular underground tanks, lined with concrete
on impermeable clay tile, mostly for domestic water supplies. In recent years, the
Ministry of Water Resources in Ethiopia has been promoting water harvesting through
the excavation of underground tanks and pans (Nega and Kimeu 2002). The tanks permit
irrigation of small kitchen vegetable gardens (100 to 200 m) and animal watering. The
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main problem is the heavy labor demand for excavating the pans and making tank
foundations. Also, there is the need to pump (lift) water except where the ground
gradient permits gravity outlets. There is also the higher possibility of contamination and
sedimentation, although the latter can be reduced by providing adequate siltation basins.
Pans and PondsPans and PondsPans and PondsPans and Ponds:::: Where the site conditions are suitable, floodwater harvesting for
communities in the ASALs can be achieved by excavating shallow pans or ponds. The
main difference is that ponds have some groundwater contribution while pans rely solely
on surface runoff. Pans are more commonly used and range in size from about 10,000 to
50,000 m3 (Bake 1993).
The cost of excavation of small earth pans and ponds is much lower than that of
construction of dams as they (pans/ponds) utilize community labor through such
programs as food for work, thereby reducing the costs even further (Natea 2002). The
main problems with pans and ponds are siltation, contamination and high evaporation
losses. In some instances, seepage can be a problem, while ownership and community
management has been a recurrent problem. Due to the relatively flat land terrain and the
high erodibility of the soils, off-stream dugout pans on well-selected sites offer
opportunities to supply water up to the early part of the dry season, thus reducing the
time of livestock water stress by a few months in most parts of the district (Mati 2002).
Also, sedimentation can be reduced in off-stream storages if effective silt trap systems are
provided.
Pans have been used for rainwater harvesting in many parts of GHA countries, especially
for livestock watering. The pans can be used to collect runoff from the home compound,
where houses are grass-thatched or made of cow dung (manyatta). When properly
designed and with good sedimentation basins, the water collected can be used for
livestock watering or to supplement the irrigation of crops.
Problems associated with water pans are: 1) the relatively small capacities; 2) high
siltation rates; 3) loss of water through seepage and, 4) high evaporation losses. In
addition, there were high levels of water contamination as most of the pans had not been
fenced, which allowed livestock and humans to have direct access to the water in the
pans. To control seepage losses, plastic lining of underground tanks and pans has been
gaining popularity (Cherogony 2000). However, the high cost of good-quality (dam-
plastic) material and the necessity to make-to-measure in large factories in the capital,
Nairobi, are major constraints for poor smallholder farmers. Cheaper methods such as
clay grouting need to be encouraged, but the problem is usually finding good quality clay
material.
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Charco Dams: Charco Dams: Charco Dams: Charco Dams: “Charco” dams are small excavated pits or ponds, which are constructed at
well-selected sites on a relatively flat topography for livestock watering (Hatibu et al.
2000). The design is simple and can be implemented at village level with minimum of
engineering requirements. For high efficiency in water collection, the pond is situated at
the lowest point of the topography. The excavation, achieving depths of 3 m, can be done
by machinery or by hand. The right site may be selected using contour maps of the area
or by observing where water collects naturally. Charco dams are commonly found in
Shinyanga, Dodoma, Arusha, Tabora, Singida and Mwanza regions of Tanzania.
Small Earthen Dams: Small Earthen Dams: Small Earthen Dams: Small Earthen Dams: When larger quantities of water are desired, earthen dams are
preferred. An earthen dam is constructed either on-stream or off-stream, where there is a
source of large quantities of channel flow. The dam wall is normally 2 m to 5 m high and
has a clay core and stone aprons and spillways to discharge excess runoff. Volume of
water ranges from hundreds to tens of thousands of cubic meters. Reservoirs with a water
volume less than 5,000 m3 are usually called ponds. Due to the high costs of construction,
earthen dams are usually constructed through donor-funded projects. For instance, in the
Laikipia District of Kenya, the excavation of an earth dam 15,000 m3 cost about US$5,000
(Mati 2002). However, there have been cases of smallholder farmers digging earthen dams
manually in Mwingi District (Mburu 2000). Earth dams can provide adequate water for
irrigation projects as well as for livestock watering. It involves dam construction to collect
water from less than 20 billion square metres for a steep catchment to 70 billion square
metres for flat catchment. Some of these are medium-scale reservoirs used for urban or
irrigation water supply. Sediment traps and delivery wells may help to improve water
quality but, as with water from earthen dams, it is usually not suitable for drinking
without being subject to treatment.
Hafir Dams: Hafir Dams: Hafir Dams: Hafir Dams: “Hafir” dams are found in East Ethiopia (Guleid 2002). They are either
natural or man-made depressions, where runoff water collects, and is used by humans and
livestock. Hafirs are, generally, excavated reservoirs with a water volume ranging from
500-10,000 m3. Hafirs are located in natural depressions and the excavated soil is used to
form banks around the reservoir to increase its capacity. Bunds and improvements to the
catchment apron may help to increase runoff into the reservoir, but seepage and
evaporation are often high in the dry season. Hafirs differ from other earthen dams as
they are generally bigger in size, and also have good sedimentation basins. Although
livestock and people drink directly from earthen dams, in hafirs, watering areas are well
allocated, the site is securely fenced and the reservoir is de-silted every season. High
water turbidity and sedimentation problems are major drawbacks in eathen dams. And in
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the case of hafirs the major drawback is the requirement of periodic cleaning to remove
silt, which is not an easy task.
Sand and Subsurface Dams: Sand and Subsurface Dams: Sand and Subsurface Dams: Sand and Subsurface Dams: Within seasonal rivers in semi-arid areas of GHA countries,
river profiles usually comprise sand, hence the term “Sand River.” Sand rivers (“lugga”,
“wadi”, and “khor”) are ephemeral water courses, which tend to be dry most of the year.
However, they are subject to flooding during the rainy season. And during such times if a
barrier is constructed across the river the water can be stored in the voids within the
sand. The most convenient way to harvest water in a sand river is by either sand or
subsurface dams. Local materials for construction are usually available and the only extra
cost is that of cement and labor. Local people are usually trained on how to identify a
suitable site and in the construction techniques. A case study in Machakos District,
Kenya, showed that a sand dam has been successfully used to supply the annual water
requirements of a community of 3,000. For instance, subsurface dams in Machakos
District cost the community about US$0.20-0.30 per m3 of water (Nissen-Peterssen 2000),
but these costs are easily recoverable in the long run. The advantage with sand river
storage is that it normally represents an upgrading of a traditional and, hence, socially
acceptable water source. Because the water is stored under the sand it is protected from
significant evaporation losses and is also less liable to be contaminated. The construction
of river intakes and hand-dug wells with hand pumps in the river bank can further help
to improve the quality of water.
Nissen-Peterssen (1996) distinguished between three types of subsurface dams: (i) sand
dam built of masonry, (ii) subsurface dams built of stone masonry, and (iii) subsurface
dams built of clay. Therefore, where deep sand can be found, it is cost- effective to
consider the possibility of subsurface sand dams for the storage of the harvested water.
4.3 Water Supply4.3 Water Supply4.3 Water Supply4.3 Water Supply
4.3.1 Main Water Sources4.3.1 Main Water Sources4.3.1 Main Water Sources4.3.1 Main Water Sources
Water supply and its availability in the ASAL areas are dependent on seasons, with big
variations between wet and dry seasons. Severe shortages are usually reported when there
is a drought, which is a common occurrence in the ASAL areas. There is no piped water
in the most rural areas, meaning few households have potable water at home. In general,
water supply in these areas can be divided into four majors groups: (i) direct use of natural
water sources such as rivers, streams and springs; (ii) developed surface water sources,
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such as earth dams, sand/subsurface dams, tanks and pans, (iii) developed groundwater
such as wells, waterholes and boreholes; and (iv) emergency water tankering.
4.3.2 Access to Water4.3.2 Access to Water4.3.2 Access to Water4.3.2 Access to Water
Although 30 km is the distance livestock have to walk during water scarcity periods in
the ASALs, cattle and small stock will normally graze up to 10-15 km away from a water
source (MoA&LD 2002). This is assuming that animals are not lactating, the terrain is
relatively accessible (no steep slope) and water is available at the source for at least 10
hours a day. Livestock are not necessarily watered daily. Rather, cattle are normally on a
watering frequency of 2 to 3 days, small stock up to 5 days and camels up to 15 days
(Republic of Kenya 1994). Two other factors are: (1) land ownership; and (2) grazing
rights. The land is communally owned by clans which also control grazing rights for
members. Therefore, although animals may access water across clan boundaries, they may
not graze in the surrounding areas, thus requiring them to go back “home”, a journey that
may take three or more days, in which time they would be thirsty again. This vicious
cycle has an adverse affect on the weight and growth of the livestock. In terms of spatial
coverage, it was found that during the dry season, about 93 percent of the people living in
ASAL areas lack access to water to within 5 km reach including river flow.
For human consumption, water sources beyond 5 km are considered too far for realistic
access for domestic water, although in reality the ASAL dwellers travel much further
(MoWRD 2002). In some cases villages are about 75 km from the nearest stable water
source. It is quite common in such villages to find that domestic water is fetched once or
twice a week (using donkeys) and shortage of water can be very acute. The distance from
a water point should not exceed 10 km, which is the maximum distance for cattle without
stress. Through buffering operations, it is possible to show in spatial terms what it means
to have access to water for pastoral communities and their livestock in the dry areas with
scattered water sources.
Water accessibility is still a challenge by humans and livestock in ASALs, at a time when
the world is geared towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) on
water. This is not surprising because ASALs are where many of the most acute water
problems are found. Other than physical scarcity, ASAL areas also face economic water
scarcity. In general, water scarcity is a condition where demand exceeds supply. But
economic water scarcity occurs when financial, human or institutional resources
constrain the development of water resources and their availability.
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A condition of institutional scarcity exists when laws, traditions and organizations restrict
access or are inadequate to distribute water to all, leaving some people water scarce.
Physical or absolute scarcity exists when the demand for water outstrips the facilities to
tap into resources. It can be argued that the physical scarcity of water in most GHA is also
a function of economic scarcity, i.e. insufficient capacity to invest enough to make water
available. This has serious constraints on production, especially as livestock-based
economies. Water harvesting has remained largely unexploited. The provision of drinking
water through rainwater harvesting in ASALs has proved successful in many parts of
Africa as with construction of surface tanks for roof catchments (Gould and Peterssen
1999), flood flow harvesting into underground tanks, pans and ponds (Guleid 2002; Nega
and Kimeun 2002), as well as impoundment of flush floods in valleys and storage into
sand and subsurface dams, earth dams and infiltration galleries (Nissen-Peterssen 2000;
Mati 2003).
In contrast, there are few surface tanks for roof water harvesting in ASAL region. This
could be attributed to the nature of the traditional housing, which comprises igloo-like
grass-thatched huts, and the fact that settlements among the pastoral communities are
temporary. In addition, roof water harvesting entails relatively high initial investments
by local standards. Using experiences Laikipia District in Kenya, Mati (2002) calculated
the cost of tank construction per capita to be about $150 (equivalent to about $0.07 per
liter). Only a few modern houses have been constructed having a corrugated iron roof,
which can be used for water harvesting, at least to alleviate domestic water scarcity.
4.3.3 Emergency Water Tankering4.3.3 Emergency Water Tankering4.3.3 Emergency Water Tankering4.3.3 Emergency Water Tankering
Tankering is the provision of water to communities using water tankers from a source,
usually several kilometers from the needy community, in periods of severe drought since
it is quite expensive. Emergency water tankering is not common phenomenon in the
ASALs of GHA countries. Over the last 3 years, tankering has not been practiced on a
large scale because of the huge costs involved. Even the District Water offices do not plan
to use tankering in its future programs. Moreover, water tankering is unsustainable in the
longer term.
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4.4 Water Demand4.4 Water Demand4.4 Water Demand4.4 Water Demand
4.4.1 Multiple users 4.4.1 Multiple users 4.4.1 Multiple users 4.4.1 Multiple users
There are competing users for water including domestic, industry, agriculture (mainly
irrigation), livestock and the need for a residual for the environment. Generally, the scope
for increasing water supply is limited because ground water is finite and generally
expensive to abstract while surface flows are generally subject to international treaties
which may limit the quantity of water to be withdrawn. Generally the main options that
countries have are to improve infrastructure for storage, bulk transmission and
distribution in order to increase access to water and simultaneously to manage the
demand for water.
4.4.24.4.24.4.24.4.2 Livestock Water DemandLivestock Water DemandLivestock Water DemandLivestock Water Demand
Livestock get water basically from three sources, i.e. drinking water, water contained in
feed and metabolic water. Drinking water varies with the animal’s physiological status,
breed, individual difference, air temperature, temperature and nutrient composition of
water and the type of feed. The amount of water contained in feeds is highly variable and
is determined by the moisture content of the feed. This variation could range from as low
as 5% in dry feeds to as high as 90 % in succulent feeds (Sirohi et. al., 1997). According to Maynard et. al. (1981) metabolic water is an outcome of oxidation in the digestion
process at a rate of 0.12, 0.14 and 0.10 ml of water production from per kcal metabolisable
energy derived from oxidation of fat, carbohydrate and protein. So livestock water
productivity issues revolve around accounting for water going into the animal through
these means and the functional outputs obtained from the various animals in the form of
milk, meat, egg, draft, etc and identify interception points for improvements. Not much
experience exists in the quantification of the requirement of water per unit of functional
out under rain-fed agriculture in which the bulk of animal feed comes from grazing of
non-irrigated pasture and/or crop residues and byproducts. Closely connected is the issue
of water pollution and environmental degradation by livestock as they relate to human
health, food security and ecosystem safety.
Water supply for livestock production must be addressed hand in hand with water for
domestic consumption and for other uses. From Table 4.1 it is evident that rural coverage
for water and sanitation is extremely low throughout the GHA, yet it is in rural areas that
the livestock production and more specifically pastoralism are practiced.
Water requirement for livestock mainly depends on the nature of feed. Typically, one
Tropical Livestock Unit (250kg body weight) requires about 50 litres/day supplied from
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drinking water and moisture in animal feeds. Water required for production of animal
feed is estimated to be up to 5,000 litres/TLU per day. Thus, livestock require about 100
times more water for production and supply of feeds than what is required for
drinking/feed consumption per se (Kiwuwa, 2006).
4.5 Safeguarding Scarce Water Resources4.5 Safeguarding Scarce Water Resources4.5 Safeguarding Scarce Water Resources4.5 Safeguarding Scarce Water Resources
GHA member states have individually drawn policy documents meant at ensuring that
the scarce water resources are adequately managed and properly utilized. The key
characteristic of the various water resources policies is the recognition that water
resources in the region are shared between countries.
As a result the member states also subscribe to various international conventions on water
resources management and conservation. These include: United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification (UNCCD), UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Convention for the Protection of
World Cultural and Natural Heritage, The African Convention on Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources and the Nile Basin Treaties. Donor policies are also applied, to
varying degrees, especially on the implementation of specific donor supported projects.
4.5.1 Country Cases4.5.1 Country Cases4.5.1 Country Cases4.5.1 Country Cases
DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti
The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper provides the overall government macroeconomic
policy framework under which the key sectors such as water and livestock are managed.
The PRSP focuses on for major components. These are:
i.i.i.i. Strengthening of national competitiveness and creStrengthening of national competitiveness and creStrengthening of national competitiveness and creStrengthening of national competitiveness and creation of conditions for robust ation of conditions for robust ation of conditions for robust ation of conditions for robust
and lasting economic growth and lasting economic growth and lasting economic growth and lasting economic growth through consolidation of macroeconomic
stabilization and structural reform policies.
ii.ii.ii.ii. Acceleration of human resource development, Acceleration of human resource development, Acceleration of human resource development, Acceleration of human resource development, by improving access to health and
education for the poorest; and implementing an employment policy through the
promotion of microfinance and the development of vocational training.
iii.iii.iii.iii. Promotion of integrated local development Promotion of integrated local development Promotion of integrated local development Promotion of integrated local development through actions specifically targeting
poor regions. This entails in particular increasing access to water, sanitation and
basic social infrastructure for the poor while promoting income-generating
activities.
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iv.iv.iv.iv. Promotion of political, local, judicial and economic good governance. Promotion of political, local, judicial and economic good governance. Promotion of political, local, judicial and economic good governance. Promotion of political, local, judicial and economic good governance. Besides
consolidating democratic gains, this pillar of the strategy focuses on the
implementation of decentralization, and justice that guarantees fair trials in order
to reassure investors and protect ownership.
In 2006, the Government of Djibouti adopted an integrated national water and sanitation
policy based on the establishment of a single operator to coordinate and streamline the
activities in the water and sanitation sectors. This led to the establishment of the National
Water and Sanitation Authority (ONEAD).
Djibouti’s sanitation sector management policy was reinforced in 2000 with the putting in
place of an operational institutional framework structured around a central operator,
namely the Department of Sanitation (DS) created in 2000. However, the implementation
of the strategies outlined in the PRSP, and the sanitation sector strategies have been slow
mainly due to resource and institutional constraints. It is expected that the establishment
of the ONEAD, which is a grouping of all water and sanitation services, will rationalise
sector management and hasten the implementation of the strategies outlined in the PRSP.
EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea
Policies and legislationPolicies and legislationPolicies and legislationPolicies and legislation
All land in Eritrea was brought under state ownership by the Land Proclamation of 1994.
This law provides farmers with a lifetime right of use over currently held land, removing
the previous risk of periodic redistribution. Land is not inheritable and cannot be sold,
but it can be leased. Lessees have to use the land leased to them if they are to maintain
their rights.
In 2003, the Draft National Water Policy Framework (1997) was still not officially
adopted. A recent effort to formulate water policies and strategic approaches is the report
titled "Planning, management & advocacy tools for rural water resources development",
which is the result of an interministerial workshop in Asmara. This framework defines
the following policy objectives:
• Provision of safe, adequate and accessible water for all;
• Improved coverage of appropriate sanitation in both urban and rural areas;
• Integrated management and fair allocation of the available water resources to meet
the needs of all sectors of the population;
• Assessment, conservation, regulated utilization and quality protection (that is,
maintenance or enhancement) of all water resources, and also the mitigation of
water-related hazards;
• Economically and environmentally sound and sustainable water resources
development, according to a prioritized schedule.
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The Draft Water Law, in preparation since 1996, was still to be finalized and adopted in
2003. No formal legislation and no formal system of permits or licences are in place and
local traditional customs prevail. For example, the communities affected by water
shortage have the right to benefit from an available supply in their nearest
neighbourhood. In principle, water is public property and controlled by the government.
However, national or regional plans do not exist and the ground rules for the actual water
allocation are not clearly defined. Because of the lack of a promulgated, effective water
law, activities in the water sector are still uncoordinated.
A draft strategy document on rural water supply and sanitation was drawn up between
1995 and 1997 and its final report was issued in December 2000. Unfortunately this
document has never been officially endorsed or adopted.
EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia
The overall policy framework for the water sector in Ethiopia is provided by the
integrated Water Resources Management Policy. The policy has the following objectives:
i. Development of water resources of the country for economic and social benefits of
the people on equitable and sustainable basis
ii. Allocation and apportionment of water, based on comprehensive and integrated
plans and optimum allocation principles that incorporate efficiency of use, equity
of access and sustainability of resource
iii. Managing and combating drought as well as other associated slow onset disasters
through efficient allocation, redistribution, transfer, storage and efficient use of
water resources
iv. Combating and regulating floods through sustainable mitigation, prevention,
rehabilitation and other practical measures
v. Conserving, protecting and enhancing water resources and the overall aquatic
environment on sustainable basis
Agricultural Policies, Programs and Targets for a Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable
Development to end Poverty (PASDEP) 2005/6-2009/10 developed by the Government of
Ethiopia provides sector strategies for agriculture and livestock development during the
planning period. PASDEP which was launched in July 2006 set out to commercialize
smallholder agriculture through increased productivity and increased share of marketed
production. Promotion of water supply for irrigation purposes forms a significant aspect
of the program.
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Other water resources sector strategies have been developed to cover the period 2002-
2016. They include: financing of water resources management and development, creation
of an enabling environment, trans-boundary rivers management, stakeholders
participation and gender mainstreaming, disaster prevention and public safety, and
environmental health standards.
Decentralization:Decentralization:Decentralization:Decentralization: The Government of Ethiopia has been implementing decentralization
policies since 1995. Under these policies, much more autonomy is devolved to the
woredas, towns and rural communities to plan and manage their water supply schemes.
The Government is currently institutionalizing a sector support system that involves local
private sector and other partners in providing the goods, works and services needed to
plan, construct and maintain water supply and sanitation facilities, by providing business
opportunities and increasing their capacity. However, the approach is new so the process
will take some time to internalize and institutionalize. Capacity therefore remains a major
challenge.
The water sector in Ethiopia is also guided by several international treaties signed
between Ethiopia and its neighbours. Some of these treaties go back a century or longer.
From a policy and regulatory perspective therefore, the Ethiopia water sector has very
strong policy and legislative backing.
KenyKenyKenyKenyaaaa
The main Government documents that define the policy and regulatory environment for
the water sector in Kenya are the Vision 2030, Water Resources Policy, 1999 and the
Water Act, 2002. There is also the Strategy for Revitalization of Agriculture 2004-2014,
the Irrigation and Drainage Policy among other sectoral policies. The water Storage
Policy is currently under development.
Under Vision 2030, the Kenyan government targets to conserve the scarce water
resources in the country and at the same time harvest rain and ground water resources to
meet the country’s development needs. Investment in capacity building for institutions
involved in water sector has been prioritized. The country intends to, among other efforts
rehabilitate hydro-meteorological data gathering network, construct multipurpose dams
and also construct water and sanitation facilities to support industries and growing urban
population.
The water resources policy recognizes the multisectoral nature of water resources
management. The policy set in motion several reforms in the water sector, including the
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enactment of the Water Act, 2002 which is the main legal instrument through which the
sector is managed. These reforms have ensured the establishment of several institutions
within the water sector.
Kenya’s water sector however, still faces several socio-economic, political and technical
challenges that require stronger policy and institutional interventions. These, include,
among other issues, the serious environmental degradation within the country’s few
‘water towers’, inadequate resource allocations for sector growth and low institutional
capacity to effectively manage sector activities.
SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia
Somalia has had no functional Government since 1991. USAID reports that before the
civil war, urban WSS was managed by the public sector, but the systems were financially
stressed and water supply systems in many cities were inadequate even before the
breakout of conflict. Currently, most WSS infrastructure either is damaged or has been
poorly maintained during and after the conflict, rendering it inoperable. The continuing
conflict and lack of organized governance have resulted in a virtual absence of public
funding for the WSS sector except through limited allocations in Somaliland and
Puntland. In these areas, most funding for WSS is provided through the United Nations
and other humanitarian donors.
UNICEF provided support to the Ministry of Water and Mineral Resources in Somaliland
in the development of a Water Policy, National Water Strategy and a Water Act. The
Somaliland government has endorsed the Water Act of 2004. It remains to be seen how
effective the policy and legislations will be and whether the sector can be shielded from
the overall uncertainty facing the country.
SudanSudanSudanSudan
The Sudan National Action Programme (SNAP) developed in 2006 seeks to provide a
comprehensive framework for combating desertification in the Sudan. The action plan
was developed in the framework of the UN convention on the combating desertification,
UNCCD. Sudan Water Policy 2007 provides the general guidance for the water sector in
the country. The policy seeks to ensure that water resources are properly managed,
protected and efficiently utilized for the benefit of the Sudanese population.
The water sector in Sudan is further governed by several trans-boundary treaties in the
Nile Basin, some of which date back to as early as 1891. Table 4.4 shows a summary of the
treaties governing the water sector in Sudan.
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Table Table Table Table 4.44.44.44.4: : : : International Treaties Governing the Water Sector in Sudan
DateDateDateDate Treaty basinTreaty basinTreaty basinTreaty basin SignatoriesSignatoriesSignatoriesSignatories Treaty NameTreaty NameTreaty NameTreaty Name
5 August 19945 August 19945 August 19945 August 1994 Lake
Victoria
Kenya, Tanzania,
Uganda
Agreement to initiate program to strengthen regional
coordination in management of resources of Lake
Victoria
1 July 19931 July 19931 July 19931 July 1993 Nile Egypt, Ethiopia Framework for general co-operation between the Arab
republic of Egypt and Ethiopia
18 May 198118 May 198118 May 198118 May 1981 Kagera Burundi,
Rwanda,
Tanzania,
Uganda
Accession of Uganda to the agreement for pertaining
to the creation of the organization for the management
and
development of the Kagera river basin
24 August 197724 August 197724 August 197724 August 1977 Kagera Burundi,
Rwanda,
Tanzania,
Uganda
Agreement for the establishment of the organization
for the management and development of the Kagera
river basin
8 November 8 November 8 November 8 November
1965196519651965
Nile Sudan, Egypt Agreement between Egypt and Sudan the government
of the united Arab Republic and the government of
Sudan
16 July 195216 July 195216 July 195216 July 1952 Nile Egypt, Great
Britain, Northern
Ireland
Exchange of notes constituting an agreement between
the government of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland and the government of
Egypt regarding the construction of the Owen Falls
dam in Uganda
19 January 19 January 19 January 19 January
1950195019501950
Nile Egypt, Great
Britain on behalf
of Uganda
Exchange of notes constituting an agreement between
the government of the united Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland on behalf of the
government of Uganda and the government Egypt
regarding cooperation in meteorological and
hydrological surveys in certain area of the Nile basin
5 December 5 December 5 December 5 December
1949194919491949
Nile Egypt, Great
Britain on behalf
of Uganda
Exchange of notes constituting an agreement between
the government of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland and government of Egypt
regarding the construction of the Owen Falls dam,
Uganda
31 May 194931 May 194931 May 194931 May 1949 Nile Egypt, Great
Britain
Exchange of notes constituting an agreement between
the government of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland and the government of
Egypt regarding the construction of the owner Falls
dam, Uganda
7 December 7 December 7 December 7 December
1946194619461946
Nile Egypt, Great
Britain
Exchange of notes constituting an agreement between
the government of the united Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland and Egypt regarding the
utilization of profits from the 1940 British government
cotton buying commission to finance schemes for
village water supplies
22 November 22 November 22 November 22 November
1934193419341934
Belgium, Great
Britain
Agreement between the United Kingdom and Belgium
regarding water rights on the boundary between
Tanganyika and Ruanda –Urundi
7 May 19297 May 19297 May 19297 May 1929 Nile Egypt, Great
Britain
Exchange of notes between his Majesty's government
in the United Kingdom and the Egyptian government
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DateDateDateDate Treaty basinTreaty basinTreaty basinTreaty basin SignatoriesSignatoriesSignatoriesSignatories Treaty NameTreaty NameTreaty NameTreaty Name
in regard to the use of the waters of the river Nile for
irrigation purposes
20 December 20 December 20 December 20 December
1925192519251925
Lake Tana Great Britain,
Italy
Exchange of notes between United Kingdom and Italy
respecting concessions for a barrage at Lake Tana and a
railway across Abyssinia from Eritrea to Italian
Somaliland
13 December 13 December 13 December 13 December
1906190619061906
Nile France, Great
Britain, Italy
Agreement between Great Britain, France and Italy
respecting Abyssinia
9 may 19069 may 19069 may 19069 may 1906 Nile DR Congo, Great
Britain
Agreement between Great Britain and the
independent state of the DR Congo, modifying the
agreement signed at Brussels 12 May 1894 , relating to
the spheres of influence of Great Britain and the
Independent State of the DR Congo in East and
Central Africa
15 May 190215 May 190215 May 190215 May 1902 Nile Ethiopia, Great
Britain
Treaties between Great Britain and Ethiopia, relative
to the frontiers between Anglo- Egyptian Sudan,
Ethiopia, and Eritrea
18 March 190218 March 190218 March 190218 March 1902 Nile Ethiopia, great
Britain
Exchange of notes between Great Britain and Ethiopia
15 April 189115 April 189115 April 189115 April 1891 Nile Great Britain,
Italy
Protocol between Great Britain and Italy for the
demarcation of their respective spheres of influence in
Eastern Africa
Source: UNEP (2002). Atlas of International Freshwater Agreements
It should be noted that Sudan’s policy on environment has not properly defined the roles
of the states vies’-a-vies the roles of the Federal State with respect to water resource
management. Also, there is still need for strengthening of the various institutions in the
sector and enhancing coordination and information sharing amongst the stakeholders.
The level of investments in the sector in some parts of the Sudan is still wanting. There is
therefore need for policy initiatives to promote investments in the water storage and
supply in the Southern and Western parts of the country.
UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda
The overall macroeconomic policy of Uganda has been the Poverty Eradication Action
Plan (PEAP) 2004/5-2007/8. The country has also developed the National Water Policy
expected to promote a new integrated approach to manage the water resources in ways
that are sustainable and most beneficial to the people of Uganda. These policies put
strength on the supply of water for production as a primary objective.
Strategies in the water sector in Uganda may be looked at in three levels: as presented in
Table 4.5.
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Table: Table: Table: Table: 4.54.54.54.5: : : : Long Term Strategies for the Uganda Water Sector
PeriodPeriodPeriodPeriod StrategiesStrategiesStrategiesStrategies ConstraintsConstraintsConstraintsConstraints
1950s and 1960s1950s and 1960s1950s and 1960s1950s and 1960s Construction of dams and tanks for
domestic and livestock
A total of 316 dams and 765 valley tanks
built
No maintenance mechanism leading to
the facilities getting into various states of
disrepair
1999199919991999----2006200620062006 Emergency interventions for
construction of dams, valley tanks and
windmill powered boreholes
Relatively smaller investments due to low
capital input
2007 to date2007 to date2007 to date2007 to date Water for production strategies as
outlined in the GoU Proposal for
Provision of Water for Production to water Stressed Areas in Uganda
• High capital requirements
• Institutional capacity constraints
and institutional coordination issues
• Conflict management in the
Karamoja region
4.6 Institutional Framework for the Water Sector4.6 Institutional Framework for the Water Sector4.6 Institutional Framework for the Water Sector4.6 Institutional Framework for the Water Sector
4.6.1 Regional Level4.6.1 Regional Level4.6.1 Regional Level4.6.1 Regional Level
The GHA region is dotted with transboundary water resources. The Nile water system
covers four of the GHA member countries namely Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Sudan.
The Turkana basin is shared between Kenya and Ethiopia while Ethiopia and Sudan share
several river basins between themselves including the Nile Basin. Djibouti’s surface water
resources, through Awash, come from Ethiopia while Somalia and Ethiopia share the
Juba-Shibeli basin, among others. Ground water aquifers within the region traverses
through the various national boundaries and is recharged from the Fey highlands found
in Sudan and the highlands of Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda.
However, with all the above shared water resources, regional institutional capacity to
manage the shared resources is extremely low. Cooperation between economic blocks
namely the IGAD, EAC, COMESA and SADC, among others in managing the shared
resources is necessary to ensure capacity enhancement.
4.6.2 National Level4.6.2 National Level4.6.2 National Level4.6.2 National Level
The water sector in most parts of the GHA has lately been undergoing reforms. These
reforms are however at different stages depending on country. The overall objectives of
the reforms have been:
• To improve the efficiency within which the sector is managed through creation of
well structured institutional arrangement
• Attract investments into the sector
• Promote citizen’s participation in sector activities
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Throughout the region, institutional arrangements have been created at three main levels
as shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2Figure 4.2Figure 4.2Figure 4.2: Overview of the Institutional Arrangement of the Water Sector in GHA
4.6.34.6.34.6.34.6.3 Country CasesCountry CasesCountry CasesCountry Cases
DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti
Water management is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and the
Sea in charge of Water Resources (MAEM), which has delegated drinking water management and sanitation to the National Water and Sanitation Authority of Djibouti
(ONEAD). However, the Ministry retains the responsibility of providing water to rural
communities through its village water supply service. Other structures also intervene in
the sector. These are the Ministry of the Home Affaires which intervenes in urban
drainage and solid waste collection in the districts; the Ministries of Health and
Commerce which intervene in the bacteriological quality control of potable water; the
Ministry of Finance, Economy and Planning in charge of Privatization responsible for
investment programming and resource mobilization; and the Presidency of the Republic
through CERD, a research body with a laboratory for conducting physio-chemical tests
on water, AfDB (2007).
The civil society is also active in the water sector through several NGOs like the National
Union of Djibouti Women (UNFD), Action Against Poverty (ACP), Community
Development Centers (CDC), Bender Djedid (new land), Feminine Solidarity Association,
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Djibouti Association for Family Balance and Promotion, and Association Oui à la Vie (for
AIDS control).
Institutional Coordination: Institutional Coordination: Institutional Coordination: Institutional Coordination: The above institutions work sectorally without any overall
vision and are subject to legislation that is incomplete and not applicable across the board.
There have been several efforts to streamline the institutional coordination in the sector.
These include:
a. The establishment of the single operator, the ONEAD, charged with the duty of
streamlining operations in the sector. The ONEAD is currently just settling down
and laying the groundwork for its activities.
b. The creation of Djibouti Highways Authority (OVD) in 2007 to provide technical
services especially related to solid waste management
EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea
Institutions Dealing with Water in EritreaInstitutions Dealing with Water in EritreaInstitutions Dealing with Water in EritreaInstitutions Dealing with Water in Eritrea
The institutions involved in water resources management are in Eritrea:
• The Ministry of Land, Water and Environment (MoLWE) with the Water
Resources Department (WRD), which has the followings functions according to
the Draft Water Law (1997):
o Assess and evaluate the water resources’ potential of the country;
o Function as a resource centre for water-related data/information;
o Manage and develop national water resources;
o Evaluate, monitor and supervise all water-related studies, development
projects and programmes of national interest;
o Grant, manage and inspect the implementation of water permits and waste
discharge permits.
The Ministry’s mandate further includes legislation, and establishing a system of
water rights and obligations. The WRD is divided into two divisions according to
these two different tasks: Water Resources Management and Use Division and the
Water Resources Assessment Division. As regards water supply, the WRD initially
served the entire country, even including maintenance and repair of equipment,
but services have been decentralized since 1996. The problem is that the regional
authorities, which are now responsible for the implementation and maintenance
of rural water supply projects, do not have the capacity to effectively take over this
responsibility and several units of the WRD are therefore still involved in local
project implementation.
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• The Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) and its Soil Conservation and Irrigation
Development Unit, which is part of its Department of Land Resources and Crop
Development;
• The Ministry of Local Government (MoLG), responsible for the Regional
Administrations;
• The Ministry of Health (drinking water supply);
• The Ministry of Transport and Communication, through its mandate for
meteorological data collection.
EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia
The Ministry of Water Resources is the federal body that is responsible for the
constitutional and organizational function of the water sector. The state Governments
have jurisdiction of the water resources within their territory but when water passes the
boundary of the state it becomes the mandate and jurisdiction of the federal state. The
Ministry of Water Resources is composed of several technical departments that mainly
focus on governance and organization of the sector. Semi-autonomous bodies and the
regional water bureaus are mainly responsible for the operational functions.
Table Table Table Table 4.64.64.64.6:::: Institutional Arrangement of the Ethiopian Water Sector
InstitutionInstitutionInstitutionInstitution LevelLevelLevelLevel RolesRolesRolesRoles
Ministry of Water Resources
• National Council of water
Resources
• MWR Technical departments
• Water Resources Development
Fund
• State Bureau of Physical
planning and Water Resources
Development
National • Policy guidance for the sector
• Legislation
• Guidance to management boards of national
irrigation schemes
• Municipal water boards
• CBOs
• Studies and research coordination
• Data collection and management
• Water use and water infrastructure planning
• Resource allocation for water infrastructure
development
River Basin Authorities Regional Management of river basins
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
development
National • Houses the state bureau of agriculture and rural
development
• State irrigation development authority
• Water harvesting
department
National • Water Users organizations
• Agricultural Corporations
Ministry of Energy and Mining
• Ethiopian Electricity
Agency
National Guidelines to Ethiopian Electricity and Power
Corporation
Ministry of Finance and Economic National Resource mobilization
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InstitutionInstitutionInstitutionInstitution LevelLevelLevelLevel RolesRolesRolesRoles
Development Investment policies
Ministry of Environment and
Tourism
• Environmental protection
agency
National Ensuring environmental protection standards are
maintained
Ministry of Local Government
• Regional government
Authorities
National/Regi
onal
Implementation of water resource projects at local
authorities
Ministry of Foreign affairs International Trans-boundary water resources management
Eritrea:Eritrea:Eritrea:Eritrea:
The water needs of Eritrea are almost entirely met from groundwater resources. Except
the reservoirs of the cities of Asmara and Mendefera there are no surface water resources
in the country. The Setit is the only perennial river traversing a small southwestern tract
of the country. The available water resources hardly cater to around 15% of the
requirement of the people.
In the present situation only groundwater development and management is the viable
solution. The geology of the area, including the basement rocks is suitable as receptacles
of groundwater. Besides, the country is crisscrossed by many shears, fractures, normal
faults, extension joints and dykes which act as conduits. As a part of groundwater
management, aforestation, social forestry, horticulture and grasslands are to being
promoted extensively, initially in the central high land zone and the green belt zone that
receive more than 800 mm rainfall. The same programs are to be extended, progressively
to the western escarpment, southern lowland, northwestern lowland and the coastal
zone, which is mostly ASAL. Both surface and subsurface water development and
management are essential to meet the water requirements of the country and to avoid soil
erosion and associated problems that impact negatively on the pastoral community.
KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya
The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) is the ministry in charge of the water sector
and is therefore responsible for the overall management of water resources and general
government policy on the water sector in the country. It has its fundamental goal and
purpose as conserving, managing and protecting water resources for socio-economic
development. However, other ministries have direct impact on the water sector. These
are Ministries responsible for Agriculture, Livestock, Finance, Fisheries and Environment
and Mineral Resources and Forestry. Other Government Ministries whose functions,
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rules and regulations affect the water sector include; Ministries responsible for Lands,
Planning and National Development, Housing, Education, Cooperatives, Trade and
Industry, Regional Development Authorities, Public Health and Sanitation, Local
Government, Public works, Gender, Youth Affairs and Children and the Office of the
President
Water Act 2002 provided for the separation of roles and responsibilities with clear
mandates given to each institution. In this context, water resources management was
separated from water services provision which led to the creation of various institutions.
With regard to water resources management, the Water Resources Management
Authority (WRMA) was created. The WRMA has six catchment based regional offices to
undertake the same exercise at regional level. Concerning water services, seven Water
Service Boards (WSBs) were created under the act to undertake the services related to
water supply and sanitation.
Overall supervision of water services is carried out by the Water Services Regulatory
Board (WSRB), an organ in charge of regulating the services supplied by the regional
Boards and their providers.
Details of the institutional structure of the reformed water sector are shown in Figure 4.3.
The roles of the various institutions are defined at National, Regional and Local levels.
The other institutions in the water sector with specific responsibilities and mandates
include the National Water Conservation and Pipeline Corporation (NWCPC), the
National Irrigation Board (NIB) and Kenya Water Training Institute (KEWI).
Sudan Sudan Sudan Sudan
The Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources is the federal body in Sudan responsible
for governance of the sector. The National Council for water resources is a high level
decision-making body for policies and legislation and has representatives of the water
related ministries, the state governments and stakeholders in the water sector. The
relevant Ministries for the sector include, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources,
Ministry of Energy and Mining, Ministry of Finance and National Economics, Ministry of
Environment and Tourism, Ministry of Local Government and Ministry of Foreign
Affairs. Table 4.7 shows a summary of the institutional arrangement of the water sector in
Sudan.
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Table Table Table Table 4.74.74.74.7:::: Institutional Arrangement of the Sudan Water Sector
InstitutionInstitutionInstitutionInstitution LevelLevelLevelLevel RolesRolesRolesRoles
Ministry of Irrigation and
Water Resources (MIWR)
National Governance
National Council for Water
Resources (NCWR)
National Policy formulation
Legislation
National Coordination
Committee for the Blue Nile
National Advisory
Nile Waters Directorate and
the Dams and Nile Control
Directorate
National Management of Nile water resources
Irrigation Services Directorate National Management of Gezira and Managil, New Halfa,
El Suki and Rahad Irrigation Schemes
National Water Corporation National Governance and organization of the drinking
water subsector
Operates through the Regional Drinking Water
Corporations
Sudan Electricity Regulatory
Authority
National Governance in the electricity sector
Higher Council for
Environment and Natural
Resources
National Policy and legislation
River Basin and water Users
Organizations
Regional Service providers
Farmers and individual water
users
Local Water consumers
UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda
Water sector in Uganda is largely funded by the public sector. The sector financing has
increasingly moved from the donors to the Government as shown in the sector financing
has increasingly moved from the donors to the Government as shown in Figure 4.3
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Figure Figure Figure Figure 4.4.4.4.3333: Water : Water : Water : Water Sector Sector Sector Sector Financing iFinancing iFinancing iFinancing in n n n UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda....
(Source: Uganda national Water Development Report, 2005)
The constitutional function for managing the water resources and environment in
Uganda lies with the Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE). The Directorate of
Water Development is responsible for organizational function since it coordinates and
regulates all water sector activities. The Water Resources Management Department is
responsible for water flow and water quality monitoring, and manages water rights and
pumping permits4.
The Water Policy Committee is a multi-disciplinary and multi-stakeholders committee
that performs the constitutional function for the water sector. The committee advises the
Minister on national and trans-boundary water resources management issues and policies.
It is mandated to initiate revisions to legislations and regulations, and to coordinate sector
ministry plans and programs affecting water resources.Table 4.8 shows the key
institutions involved in the water sector in Uganda.
Table Table Table Table 4.84.84.84.8: : : : Institutional Arrangement of the Uganda Water Sector
InstitutionInstitutionInstitutionInstitution Organizational function Organizational function Organizational function Organizational function RolesRolesRolesRoles
Ministry of Water and
Environment (MWE)
Water policy committee
Directorate of water development
and water resources management
department
Develop policies for
implementation by Local
Government authorities (districts,
municipalities and local
communities
Directorate of Environmental
Affairs (DEA)
Policy formulation
4 http://www.wau.boku.ac.at/fileadmin/_/H81/H811/Skripten/811332/eder/uganda.pdf. 18
August 2009
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InstitutionInstitutionInstitutionInstitution Organizational function Organizational function Organizational function Organizational function RolesRolesRolesRoles
National Environmental
Management Authority
Implementation of environmental
regulations
National Water and Sewerage
Corporation
Water and sewerage systems
implementation
Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
industry and Fisheries (MAAIF)
Department of farm development
(Irrigation and drainage, soil and
water conservation, water and
production sections)
Policy formulation
Ministry of Energy and Mineral
Development
Electricity Regulation Authority Hydro electricity generation
through electricity companies
Ministry of Finance Financing of state projects
Ministry of Local Government Local Government Authorities Water resources management
River basins and water users
organizations
Water consumers
Private sector and NGOs Support to public sector in
provision of water and sanitation
services
The existing institutional framework has some weaknesses. These include:
• Lack of strong river basin management boards that have the capacity to manage
water resources in an integrated manner
• Lack of institutional mechanisms for conflict resolution between various land
users (livestock, crop and fisheries)
• Low institutional capacity to implement large integrated project
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4.7 Proposed Interventions4.7 Proposed Interventions4.7 Proposed Interventions4.7 Proposed Interventions
TTTTableableableable 4.94.94.94.9:::: Interventions in the Water Sector
CountryCountryCountryCountry Water Water Water Water Sector supportSector supportSector supportSector support Country statusCountry statusCountry statusCountry status Priority Priority Priority Priority
S-T M-T L-T
DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti Institutional strengthening • Country has young institutions that require technical backstopping √ √
Water supply infrastructure
development
• Water supply infrastructure poorly developed
• Country depends on ground water
√ √ √
Water storage • No meaningful water storage infrastructure in place √ √ √
Technical support for
capacity building
• Entire sector requires technical support in terms of research and management √ √
Support to regional policy
instruments
• Regional policy has been weak in promoting transboundary management of resources and
in the promotion of trade
√ √ √
EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea Improved technologies for
tapping ground water
• Country depends on ground water √ √ √
Strengthen the institutions in
Water management
• Local institutions in charge of water supply need strengthening √ √
• Water supply infrastructure poorly developed
•
EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia Eradication of prosopis • Country arid and semi arid rangelands currently threatened by prosopis √ √
Institutional strengthening • Regional and national institutions require technical and other support to perform their
mandates
√ √
Water supply infrastructure
development
• Dilapidated water supply infrastructure in urban areas
• An almost absent infrastructure in pastoral areas
√ √ √
Landuse mapping • Catchment areas need mapping and protection
• Land use mapping needed for planning purposes
√ √
Support to regional policy
instruments
• Regional policy has been weak in promoting transboundary management of resources and
in the promotion of trade
√ √ √
KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya Water storage infrastructure • Storage infrastructure poorly developed √ √ √
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CountryCountryCountryCountry Water Water Water Water Sector supportSector supportSector supportSector support Country statusCountry statusCountry statusCountry status Priority Priority Priority Priority
development • Country has one of the lowest percapita water storage in the world
Rainwater harvesting in
ASALS
• Rainwater continually causes floods in the ASALs over a short period of time,
together with adequate storage, rainwater expected to play critical role as source of water
for livestock
√ √ √
Environmental protection • Rehabilitation of Catchment areas of the country which are threatened by competing land
use
√ √
Waste water recycling • Waste water from cities provides potential for irrigation √ √ √
Water supply infrastructure
development
• Most towns across the country have no piped water supply systems
• Existing dams threatened with siltation
√ √ √
Support to regional policy
instruments
• Regional policy has been weak in promoting transboundary management of water
resources and in the promotion of trade
√ √ √
SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia Capacity building • Country needs to develop local human resource to improve water supply systems √ √
Support to community water
supply projects
• Community water supply systems have been assessed by the WB to be some of the viable
projects due to clan differences
√ √ √
SudanSudanSudanSudan Landuse planning and
mapping
• Need to demarcate conservation areas, rangelands, cropland √ √
Water supply infrastructure
development in Southern
Sudan
• Long periods of instability ensured no water supply system was developed over the years √ √ √
Capacity building • Development of adequate human and technical capacity still a challenge in the South and
North Sudan
√ √ √
Support to regional policy
instruments
• Regional policy has been weak in promoting transboundary management of resources and
in the promotion of trade
√ √ √
UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda Institutional
strengthening/capacity
building
• Ministry of Water and Environment requires technical backstopping
• Local institutions in charge of water supply need strengthening
√ √
Policy support • Implementation of policy statements through the development of specific and consistent
remains low
√ √
Support to regional policy
instruments
• Regional policy has been weak in promoting transboundary management of resources and
in the promotion of trade
√ √ √
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5.0 PASTURE RESOURCE5.0 PASTURE RESOURCE5.0 PASTURE RESOURCE5.0 PASTURE RESOURCESSSS IN THE ASAL REGIONIN THE ASAL REGIONIN THE ASAL REGIONIN THE ASAL REGION
Pastures form an important part of a successful livestock production. Our study indicates
that most areas in the region are either not endowed or are fast depleting their pasture
resources. The livestock sector in the GHA is in urgent need of interventions in pasture
production.
The distribution of pastures and forage across the region is determined by climatic
conditions. Rangelands form an immense natural resource and the major source of feed
for livestock herds across the region. The various types of grazing land vary from open
grasslands to seasonal water courses, flood plains, river banks and associated islands,
woodlands, hills and mountain slopes. Table 5.1 shows the distribution of pasture and
crop land across the GHA between 1980 and 2002.
In the section that follows, we discuss pasture availability in each of the GHA countries.
5.1 Pasture Resources in Djibouti5.1 Pasture Resources in Djibouti5.1 Pasture Resources in Djibouti5.1 Pasture Resources in Djibouti
Since 2001, Djibouti has suffered a series of droughts, which have devastated pasturelands
that rural herdsmen have traditionally relied on to feed their livestock. The World Food
Programme (2007) reports that in the northern part of the country most pastoralists will
probably not remember when it last rained in the region. Records in the region show
average rainfall over the past five years as being less than what one would have expected
15 years ago.
Nature and Types of Pastures and Forage Regimes in DjiboutiNature and Types of Pastures and Forage Regimes in DjiboutiNature and Types of Pastures and Forage Regimes in DjiboutiNature and Types of Pastures and Forage Regimes in Djibouti
Approximately a quarter of Djibouti’s residents live in rural areas that depend on pastoral
livestock production for their livelihoods. Rangeland biodiversity forms an extremely
important part of these livelihoods, because it provides pasture and fodder for animals.
Fodder plants include trees, shrubs, grasses and forbs which provide forage for both
domesticated and wild animals. Seventy to eighty percent of all woody rangeland plants
and most of herb species are palatable to either browsing or grazing livestock. The
common types of fodder are Panicum species. (Exotic), Panicum turgidum (local) Lasiurus
scindicus, sorghum, Leucaena leucocephala, Zizyphus Mauritania, Hyphaene thebaica.
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These plants are grown in small quantities with sorghum only restricted to Ambouli area
in Djibouti.
Other fodder species found in Djibouti are shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1Table 5.1Table 5.1Table 5.1:::: Fodder species in Djibouti
Grasses:Grasses:Grasses:Grasses: Trees:Trees:Trees:Trees:
Chloris pyncnothrix Acacia asak Hyphaena thebaica
Chrysopogon plumulosus Acacia ehrenbergiama Maerua spp
Cymbopogon
schoenanthus
Acacia etbaica Olea africana
Cynodon dactylon Acacia mellifera Prosopis jubiflora
Dactyloctenium
scindicum
Acacia nilotica Rhigozum somalense
Lasiurus scindicus Acacia seyal Salvadora persica
Ochtochloa Acacia tortilis Tamarindus indica
Panicum turgidum Balanites spp Tarchonanthus camphoratus
Pennisetum ciliare Cadaba spp Terminalia brownii
Cyperus laevigatus
Source: Audru et al 1997
Dominant Pastures in DjiboutiDominant Pastures in DjiboutiDominant Pastures in DjiboutiDominant Pastures in Djibouti
The common grass species locally available in Djibouti are mainly the Goroita and Sakaita
in Afar language. Acacia tortillis, and seyal which are widely distributed make very
important fodder species. The pods are highly nutritious and can be stored over a long
period to provide fodder during dry spells. Audru et al, (1997) classified pastures
dominance in three zones. These are:
Table 5.Table 5.Table 5.Table 5.2222:::: Dominant Pastures in Djibouti
RegionRegionRegionRegion Dominant Dominant Dominant Dominant pasture typespasture typespasture typespasture types
Mountainous areas and include the Arat,
Ali Sabieh, Goda and Mabla massifs
Grass pastures and fodder tree species
Depressions and valleys in the western
parts
Irrigated grass pastures of both exotic and
local Panicum species, Leucaena
leucocephala and date palm leaves
Littoral zones especially around the Gulf of
Tadjoura
Halophyte flora
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5.2 Pasture Resources in Eritrea5.2 Pasture Resources in Eritrea5.2 Pasture Resources in Eritrea5.2 Pasture Resources in Eritrea
In terms of the forage and pasture resources, not much research has been done in Eritrea.
Most of the information that is therefore documented is not derived from research
activity, but is based on general descriptions from survey type work and some
development projects. However, it should be noted that that the initial potential for
increasing the total feed resource is by optimising the natural production of the specific
ecological zones.
The bulk of livestock feed (estimated to be about 90 percent) comes from grazing on
pastures and stubble, conserved crop residues (straw and stover from sorghum, millet,
wheat, barley, teff, maize, industrial crops) and agro-industrial by-products that include
linseed and sesame cake, cotton seed and cotton seed cake and wheat bran. In general,
forage supply shortages are amplified by their poor quality. In addition agro-industrial
by-products are often inefficiently used and likewise crop residues are fed without
treatment or supplementation. The limited locally grown forages for livestock production
is not the only main problem, but management practices of forage production and its
inefficient utilization is the one that causes under nutrition as a major factor in low
productivity of livestock. The overall feed balance in Eritrea indicates that feed is in short
supply by 20 percent in terms of energy and 30 percent in terms of protein requirements
(FAO, 1994). The main feed resources are the following:
5.2.1 The Natural Pastures 5.2.1 The Natural Pastures 5.2.1 The Natural Pastures 5.2.1 The Natural Pastures
Livestock are sustained by grazing the natural pasture comprising mostly fast maturing
species, and various shrubs and trees like Acacia albida, Acacia seyal, Balanites aegyptiaca,
Acacia senegal, Terminalia brownii, Acacia mellifera, Capparis decidua, Acacia tortilis,
Acacia asak, Diospyros abyssinica, Acacia nilotica, Ziziphus spina-christi and Albizia
lebbeck are also available during and shortly after the rainy season. Annual rainfall is the
main factor influencing the availability of feed on the pastures. According to FAO (1995)
the production of feed, in dry matter (DM) terms (kg/ha), under different rainfall regimes
(mm/year) and the relative animal carrying capacity (ha/Tropical Livestock Unit), have
been estimated as follows Table 5.3:
TaTaTaTable 5.3:ble 5.3:ble 5.3:ble 5.3: Estimated DM Production and Carrying Capacity
Rainfall (mm)Rainfall (mm)Rainfall (mm)Rainfall (mm) Total Above Ground DM Production (kg/ha)Total Above Ground DM Production (kg/ha)Total Above Ground DM Production (kg/ha)Total Above Ground DM Production (kg/ha) Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)
100 n.a. over 20
200 450 17
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Rainfall (mm)Rainfall (mm)Rainfall (mm)Rainfall (mm) Total Above Ground DM Production (kg/ha)Total Above Ground DM Production (kg/ha)Total Above Ground DM Production (kg/ha)Total Above Ground DM Production (kg/ha) Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)Carrying Capacity (ha/TLU)
300 675 10
400 900 7
500 1,125 6
600 1,130 4
Source: FAO, 2005
The amount and quality of native pasture available to livestock varies with altitude,
rainfall, soil and cropping intensity. Depending on the climate, different types of pasture
grow in different agro-ecological zones of Eritrea. A close relationship exists between
pasture and climate as a consequent of plant evolvement and adaptation over long periods
of time. Because of this interaction dominant natural pasture groups have become
associated with a particular climate. The status of the different rangelands is discussed
below.
Central highlands:Central highlands:Central highlands:Central highlands: The pastures in the highlands are infertile and steep, hence fragile
under continuous uncontrolled grazing regimes. The grazing area has been shrinking over
the years because of over-grazing, extensive cultivation, improper utilization of water
resources and deforestation. The removal of forest cover and constant grazing has
depleted the resources of the browse layer. The pastures have no opportunity to recover
because hungry animals are continuously searching for any edible plant that sprouts.
Attempts to allow regeneration by closing land to grazing have shown promising results
and are becoming models for recovery. However, generally because of the above-
mentioned reasons the most palatable species of herbage and browse are decreasing in
quantity and leaving space for less palatable species. If the present trend of deterioration
persists, it may not only destroy the palatable species completely but it could also change
the land to bare soil and initiate the process of desertification. Natural grasses of the
central highlands include species of Pennisetum clandestinum , Chloris gayana, Digitaria
abyssinica, Digitaria scalarum, Setaria sphacelata, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cenchrus mitis,
Eragrostis cilianensis, Eragrostis superba, Andropogon spp., Bromus pectinatus,
Dactyloctenium aegypticum, Hyparrhenia hirta, Brachiaria semiundulata, Heteropogon
contortus, Melinis repens, Avena fatua, Eleusine indica, Cynodon dactylon, Denebra
retroflexa, Echinochloa colona, Themeda triandra and Sporobolus natalensis (GOSE,
1998a).
Western lowlands: Western lowlands: Western lowlands: Western lowlands: In the wetter southern part of the western lowlands, there appears to
be no damage to the rangelands, except in those areas adjacent to population centres. The
intensity of grazing increases in the drier northern part of the lowlands, where the grass
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is waning. The extensive and migratory system of animal husbandry allows the
rangelands to recover, unlike in the highlands. However, if the present system of
uncontrolled grazing continues with a larger animal population, the fate of the rangelands
will be similar to that of the highlands. The vegetation of this agro-climatic zone presents
a picture of great complexity, comprising a wide variety of vegetation types, which may
be called semi-arid tropical. The dominant grasses observed are species such as
Andropogon dummeri, Digitaria diagonalis, Setaria sphacelata, Chloris virigata, Eragrostis
cylindriflora, Eragrostis cilianensis, Eragrostis superba, Cyndon nlemfuensis, Aristida
adscensionis, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Elytrophorus spicatus, Aristida funiculata,
Eragrostis macilenta, Eragrostis tremula, Cenchrus biflorus, Enteropogon macrostachyus
Cyperus rotundus and Aristida mutabilis.
EasterEasterEasterEastern lowlands: n lowlands: n lowlands: n lowlands: This region is arid, having annual temperatures varying from 28-38 0C
with little seasonal variation. Pastures are of low productivity and not in good condition
in terms of ground cover, as grasslands and browse are limited within a vast desert.
Grasses, which occur naturally, include species of Cynodon spp., Cenchrus prieuri,
Eragrostis cilianesis, Aristida mutabilis, Eragrostis cylindriflora, Eragrostis superba,
Elytrophorus spicatus, Panicum triticeum, Paspalidium gemminatum, Sporobolus
spicatus, Cyperus rotundus, and Aristida adscensionis
The pastures are overstocked mainly in the dry season. In many places the soils are
severely degraded and have lost much of their water-holding capacity. The pastures are
subject to sheet and gully erosion with the onset of and for the duration of the rains.
Erosion has resulted in several areas in a significant shallowing of the topsoil generally,
and poor seed set in the heavily grazed areas. This is a significant constraint to
productivity in pasturelands, which consist almost entirely of annuals.
5.2.2 Other Feed Resources 5.2.2 Other Feed Resources 5.2.2 Other Feed Resources 5.2.2 Other Feed Resources
After natural grazing, crop residues are the most important feed sources, particularly in
the highlands. Almost every farmer stores straw, mainly barley, wheat and teff straws (in
the highlands) and sorghum and pearl millet stover in the lowlands. The animals would
not survive until the next rainy season if they did not have straw. Even with this
supplement they barely survive and are weakened. Stubble grazing of harvested fields also
gives the animals a chance to supplement their browse, or to enable the grazing land to
rest for some weeks. The villagisation of former pastoralists in the lowlands and their
transfer from pure pastoralism to livestock raising and cropping has increased the demand
for crop residues, which are highly valued and commonly traded. However crops are
reported to fail five years in ten in the low rainfall belt and three years in ten in higher
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rainfall areas in the lowlands. The supply of crop by-products, which might otherwise be
available for supplementation, is reduced or fails entirely in these years.
All these feed sources do not suffice to meet the requirements of the producers, and there
is a need to create conditions for the commercial farmers to produce their own fodder, as
in the past. At present, a few producers who have land and irrigation facilities grow green
fodder, mainly lucerne (Medicago sativa). Some farmers feed prickly pear (Opuntia ficus-
indica), it is de-thorned and chopped before feeding [for details of cactus pear as forage
and a recent FAO publication entitled Opuntia as forage]. However, cactus cladodes
should be used with other feeds to avoid the severe laxative effect which occurs when
used as the sole diet ingredient. During the dry season farmers usually run out of
conserved straw, which results in them feeding cactus in unlimited amount without
mixing with straws, which has resulted in considerable livestock deaths particularly in
the highlands.
5.2.3 Pasture Conservation i5.2.3 Pasture Conservation i5.2.3 Pasture Conservation i5.2.3 Pasture Conservation in Reference to the Econ Reference to the Econ Reference to the Econ Reference to the Eco----ZonesZonesZonesZones
Lack of feed is a major constraint to livestock production and productivity in Eritrea. This
is mainly due to continuous drought, overgrazing and acute shortage of grazing land in
the highlands which exacerbates the problem and limits livestock numbers. In order to
feed livestock all the year round, excess feed produced during the rainy season must be
conserved for the coming long dry season. The materials conserved for livestock feed in
each eco-zone differ in type and quality. However cereal straws are commonly conserved
in the highlands and stovers of sorghum and pearl millet are conserved in the western
lowlands.
In most eco-climatic zones the community owned enclosures for grazing are taken to be a
conservation system in which grazing is mainly for oxen and the injured animals until
they are cured, or for newly calved cows for short periods. In the central highlands and
the western lowlands grazing in the community owned enclosed land is for all animals,
and community doesn’t specify any class of animal. These enclosed lands are operational
only for a maximum of two to three months. Unlike in the western lowlands, in the
highlands oxen are allowed to graze daily, whether they plough or not whereas for other
animals they are excluded until the onset of the main rain in June. The enclosures
become free for all types of animals from the end of June to early August, after which
they are enclosed again.
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5.2.4 Opportunities for Improvement of Fodder Resources 5.2.4 Opportunities for Improvement of Fodder Resources 5.2.4 Opportunities for Improvement of Fodder Resources 5.2.4 Opportunities for Improvement of Fodder Resources
As indicated earlier, Eritrea is a relatively young independent nation that is only now
organizing its incipient livestock research agenda. In terms of the forage and pasture
resources little research has been carried out; most of the information that is therefore
documented is really not derived from research activity, but is based on general
description from survey type work and some development projects. However, it should
be noted that that the initial potential for increasing the total feed resource is by
optimising the natural production of the specific ecological zones. Under the current
systems of constant and complete utilization of the ground layer of natural forage, the
total production of edible grasses and herbs does not reach the maximum yield potential
as determined by the specific rainfall regime.
Cultivation and use of high quality legumes and grassesCultivation and use of high quality legumes and grassesCultivation and use of high quality legumes and grassesCultivation and use of high quality legumes and grasses
Many farmers produce high value crops such as fruit and vegetables under small-scale
irrigation. There are opportunities to complement the cropping system with the
production of high quality, high value fodder. Production of legumes such as lucerne,
cowpeas and vetch would provide an extra source of income while maintaining soil
fertility. This has been carried out in the Ministry of Agriculture regional offices and
under the supervision of the Animal Resource Department. Spate irrigation which it is
often done in the Sheab areas in the eastern escarpment zone provides an opportunity for
large-scale production of high quality fodder of sorghum and pearl millet stover. This is a
cost-effective approach as the water and fertile, alluvial soil is delivered naturally.
Renovation and expansion of spate irrigation systems will increase their capacity to
supply fodder, for harvest and sale or use in animal production on site. Also, the
integration of forage with crops would optimise both its short-term financial returns and
long-term sustainability. Forage production fills a number of roles: strips of sown,
perennial pasture between crops prevents erosion and provides high quality feed to
supplement diets of crop straws; and leguminous forage contributes to the nitrogen
budget of the system, assisting in maintaining soil fertility.
A number of exotic annual and perennial high potential grasses such as oats (Avena
sativa) Sudan grass (Sorghum sudanese) Rhodes grass (Chloris gayana) and elephant grass
(Pennisetum purpureum) as well as legumes have only been introduced quite recently to
Eritrea and are now being evaluated in adaptation studies. Preliminary trial results on
several of these forages at Halhale Research Station (Highlands) are very promising. As an
example, elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) yielded 2506 tons dry matter/ha/year in
ten cuttings....
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Under Rainfed Conditions Under Rainfed Conditions Under Rainfed Conditions Under Rainfed Conditions
Cultivation of forages would increase the output from cut-and-carry feeding systems and
thus improve livestock performance, mainly in dairy and fattening operations. Action
should be taken on oat, vetch and sorghum-sudanese for the Central Highlands Zones.
Mixed cropping of vetch-oat should be tried to produce good energy-protein balanced
forage, from this mixture. Some highly productive, perennial grasses could be also tried
such as: Pennisetum purpureum (Elephant grass), and Chloris gayana (Rhodes grass).
Similarly, establishment of mixed grass legume pastures (Rhodes grass, Setaria and
Desmodium) could be tried on enclosed land On the other hand, feed crops for use in
integrated livestock/crop production system such as sorghum: Lablab and sorghum:
cowpea should be tested in the Highlands as well as in the Western Lowlands Zones.
Lablab purpureus is particularly interesting as a drought tolerant fodder.
Under Traditional IrriUnder Traditional IrriUnder Traditional IrriUnder Traditional Irrigation Systemgation Systemgation Systemgation System
Areas under irrigation, both in the Central Highlands Zone and the Western Lowlands,
would focus their efforts mainly on high production forage legumes, such as lucerne,
cultivated for intensive cut-and carry feeding of dairy animals. This would include peri-
urban dairy producers. Some experience is available in operating these systems but
improved management and feed utilization of irrigated pasture is still required. When the
supply of irrigation water is sufficient, trials could also include dryland species and
rainfed species; growing elephant grass on the boundary of irrigated plots could be
considered.
Under Under Under Under Spate/Flood IrrigationSpate/Flood IrrigationSpate/Flood IrrigationSpate/Flood Irrigation
Spate irrigation provides an opportunity for large-scale production of high quality fodder.
This is a cost-effective approach as the water and fertile, alluvial soils are delivered
naturally. Renovation and expansion of spate irrigation systems will increase their
capacity to supply fodder, either for harvest and sale or for use in animal production on
site.
PasPasPasPasture ture ture ture ReseedingReseedingReseedingReseeding
The natural grasses of Eritrea are the best-adapted ones for each ecological situation. This
is indicated by the fact that varieties of such genera as Andropogon, Cenchrus, Chloris
and Digitaria are now sown in many countries as improved pastures. However, some
reseeding may be desirable in areas where the grasses have been completely destroyed. A
higher priority is to introduce leguminous forage into natural grazing as there are few
high quality herbaceous legumes. Introduced forage species (both woody and herbaceous)
can be established by broadcasting them on untreated rangeland. However, cultivating
the site, creating micro-water pondage and removing animals during plant development
significantly increases their chances of success. The chances of success with over-sowing
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programmes is high in areas receiving at least 500 mm of rainfall annually with species
selected for their productivity and tolerance to drought. Anticipated increases in dry
matter yields are a minimum of 50%. Avoidance of constant complete removal by
livestock is required in order to obtain significant benefit from such rangeland
reinforcement. It is necessary, of course, to correct the management faults which caused
the deterioration.
Establishment of fodder trees and the Establishment of fodder trees and the Establishment of fodder trees and the Establishment of fodder trees and the use of foliage to supplement animal dietsuse of foliage to supplement animal dietsuse of foliage to supplement animal dietsuse of foliage to supplement animal diets
Browsing and grazing provide about 90 percent of feed consumed by ruminants in
Eritrea; their supply declines rapidly in quality during the long dry season. Planting
fodder trees is gaining popularity in many tropical countries and particularly in the semi-
arid zone where they have been developed for multipurpose productive use. In Eritrea
legume fodder trees/shrubs have great potential as a source of protein and minor
nutriments, to supplement diets of large and small ruminants normally fed nutritionally
unbalanced and low digestibility roughage such as natural pasture, stubble and untreated
crop residues.
There are hundreds of fodder tree species in the world which belong to more than 40
botanical families and a wide range of productive features is also found within species. In
Eritrea development efforts on fodder trees would be carried out according to agro-
ecological zones.
Highlands Highlands Highlands Highlands
Tree legumes such as Leucaena leucocephala, Sesbania sesban and the shrub Cajanus cajan
have a very great potential for use in both the Central Highlands Zones (CHZ) and in
valley beds of the Western Lowlands, in areas with 600 mm and over of rainfall. Cactus
pear (Opuntia spp.) is forage found widespread in Eritrea particularly in the highlands;
which has not been suitably tested to date as a potentially valuable feed. Spiny cactus is
currently widely used for fruit in the Highlands. Opuntia spp. are well known as an
emergency drought feed for cattle when, although grasses have become dry and over-
grazed, the cactus remains succulent and green.
Lowlands Lowlands Lowlands Lowlands
Fodder tree research in Western and Eastern Lowland Zones must enjoy the highest
priority on account of the high density of the animal population and frequently recorded
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feed shortages (drought, low rainfall) mainly with settled people. The fodder tree
development research programme for the lowlands should be stratified to address specific
features encountered in each sub-ecological zone met in those areas. Special emphasis
should be given to studies related to the best adapted shrubs to arid and semi-arid
conditions, to species which are tolerant to poor soil fertility and low rainfall and are
drought resistant (species with deep-root systems that have easier access to water and
nutrients). The main fodder trees to be examined would be the following:
Leucaena leucocephala and the shrub Cajanus cajan (Pigeon pea) would be the main ones
to be tested in zones where rainfall is in excess of 400 mm, especially in the Western
Escarpment Zone. Many natural shrubs are well adapted to marginal and dry areas found
in Lowland zones and species such as Acacia albida, Acacia tortilis and Prosopis juliflora
are very resistant to drought; their foliage and pods are often a valuable resource where
plant cover is very poor.
Extensive pastoralism is practised in many parts of the Coastal Plains Zones under hot
desert climate and a very low rainfall of less than 200 mm. It is recommended that
introduction trials of Atriplex nummularia be done in these areas; it is one of the best-
adapted shrubs in term of forage. It makes a very significant contribution to the diet of
camels and small ruminants, especially during the dry seasons and droughts that are
common in this region.
Improvement Improvement Improvement Improvement of Nutritive Valof Nutritive Valof Nutritive Valof Nutritive Value oue oue oue of Poor Qualf Poor Qualf Poor Qualf Poor Quality Forage aity Forage aity Forage aity Forage and Grazing Landnd Grazing Landnd Grazing Landnd Grazing Land
The grazing of poor quality pasture and crop residues are the traditional resources used in
ruminant feeding. Two appropriate feeding technologies based on better utilization of
locally available feed resources have been successfully tested and are now well established
at Halhale Research Station in the highlands: urea treated straw and the manufacture and
utilization of feed-blocks. Their effects on consumption and improvement of the
nutritional quality of the straws are substantial and their effects on animal growth have
also been positive. As a part of livestock research activities of the Project "Strengthening
the Agricultural Research and Extension Division" (FAO-GCP/ERI/001/ITA), a three-
month sheep trial cycle was carried out (April-May-June 2000) aiming to investigate the
effect of urea treated straw and feed blocks on intake and liveweight of sheep during the
critical dry season (Kayouli and Asssefaw, 2000). Straw intake was substantially increased
(15 percent) when animals were supplemented with feed blocks; urea treatment has
notably increased straw intake (35 percent) and urea treatment and/or feed blocks have
significantly improved sheep live weight during the critical dry season.
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5.3 Pasture Resources i5.3 Pasture Resources i5.3 Pasture Resources i5.3 Pasture Resources in Ethiopian Ethiopian Ethiopian Ethiopia
Livestock feed resources in Ethiopia are mainly natural grazing and browse, crop residues,
improved pasture, forage crops and agro-industrial by-products. Feeding systems include
communal or private natural grazing and browsing, cut-and-carry feeding, hay and crop
residues. Livestock are fed almost entirely on natural pasture and crop residues. Grazing is
on permanent grazing areas, fallow land and cropland after harvest. Forage availability
and quality are not favourable year round and hence gains made in the wet season are
totally or partially lost in the dry season.
5.3.1 Natural Pastures5.3.1 Natural Pastures5.3.1 Natural Pastures5.3.1 Natural Pastures
Many researchers and development workers agreed that natural pasture comprises the
largest feed resource: but estimates of the contribution of this feed resource vary greatly.
Alemayehu, 1998a, estimated that 80-85 percent of all feed comes from natural pasture
while some estimates indicate the natural pasture provides 88-90 percent. This is because
the quantity and quality of native pasture varies with altitude, rainfall, soil and cropping
intensity. Currently, with the rapid increase of human population and increasing demand
for food, grazing lands are steadily shrinking being converted to arable lands, and are
restricted to areas that have little value or farming potential such as hill tops, swampy
areas, roadsides and other marginal land. This is particularly evident in the mixed farming
highlands and mid altitudes.
Grasslands are generally in regions of moderate precipitation, between 250 and 750 mm.
Grasses in different parts of the country vary according to the altitude. Most grasses are
used as forage and grasslands are usually for grazing, but also provide tall and strong grass
for thatch.
The grassland region of Ethiopia accounts for some 30.5 percent of the area of the country
and is most extensive in the western, southern and south-eastern semi-arid lowlands. On
the more humid side, open grassland and grassland with some trees are common; grasses
may cover as much as 90 percent of the area. In the drier parts patches of bush are
common and the proportion of grass is reduced to about 70 percent. Incense and honey
harvesting are common. Natural pastures provide more than 90 percent of the livestock
feed in lowlands, with wide ranges of grasses, legumes, and other herbs.
Area and Productivity:Area and Productivity:Area and Productivity:Area and Productivity: Recent information on the area and productivity of natural
pasture is scarce because of the expensive (in terms of time and money) nature of data
collection. Previous estimates of areas and productivity are very variable. The total
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grazing and browsing land was estimated to be 61-65 million hectares (Alemayehu,
1998a), but it is changing due to increasing population and cropping. Productivity
estimates also vary, probably due to variation in time and ecological change, rainfall, soil
type and cropping intensity.
The previous estimate of natural pasture yield for the lowlands was one ton DM/ha while
for the highland and mid altitude on freely drained soils it was 3 tons DM/ha, and, on
seasonally water-logged fertile areas yields were about 4-6 tons DM/ha (Alemayehu,
1998a). MoA (1984) estimate was 1.5 and 0.56 tons DM/ha for the highland and lowland
respectively.
Another yield estimate for different highland zones (MoA, 1989) was as follows:
For High Potential Cereal/Livestock Zones (HPC/LZ) of savannah grass land and humid
temperate pasture was 2 and 2.5 tons ha/year respectively.
For both Low Potential/Cereal Livestock Zone (LPC/LZ) and for high potential
Perennial/Livestock Zone (HPP/LZ) Pasture (Savannah grassland) was 1.5 and 2 tons
DM/ha/year respectively.
Species Composition:Species Composition:Species Composition:Species Composition: Natural grasslands constitute the main highland pastures. Besides
grasses, they contain 28 Trifolium species out of which 8 are endemic (Kahurananga,
1986). The highlands have been divided into different altitude zones for the description of
the grassland vegetation designated by the characteristics of the plants (Alemayehu,1985;
Kahurananga, 1986). The proportion of legumes tends to increase with increasing
altitude; particularly above 2,200 metres, there is a wide range of annual and perennial
Trifolium spp., and annual Medicago spp. At lower altitudes native legumes are less
abundant and commonly have a climbing or sprawling habit with a large variation in
their range and density in wet bottomlands. This appears to be only partly due to edaphic
differences. In the lowlands browse and shrubs are dominant plants.
Areas above 3,000 Areas above 3,000 Areas above 3,000 Areas above 3,000 MMMMetres etres etres etres
The commonest grasses are species of Poa, Festuca, Agrostis and, to a lesser extent,
Andropogon. In wetter areas sedges occur including the genera Carex, Eleocharis, and
Mariscus. Of perennial legumes, the most important are the deep-rooted Trifolium
burchellianum (var. oblongum and subsp. johnstonii) and Trifolium acaule which reach
to over 4,000 metres. Trifolium tembense is the most significant, but occurs only in the
lower range. The shrubs, Erica arborea and Hypericum revolutum are common.
Areas from 2,000 to 3,000 Areas from 2,000 to 3,000 Areas from 2,000 to 3,000 Areas from 2,000 to 3,000 MMMMetres etres etres etres
The commonest grasses are species of Andropogon, Cynodon and Pennisetum. Other
common ones are species of Setaria, Themeda, Eragrostis, Sporobolus, Brachiaria,
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Paspalum, Phalaris, Chrysopogon and Festuca aurindinacea. Productivity may be
extremely high during the later part of the wet season, but there is little growth after
early October. Legumes are prolific in this zone; the commonest perennials are Trifolium
semipilosum, and other frequently occurring ones are: Trifolium burchellianum subsp.
johnstonii, Trifolium polystachyum, and Lotus spp.. Trifolium rueppellianum, Trifolium
decorum, Trifolium steudneri, Trifolium quartinianum and Vigna sp. are the most
widespread annuals. In very wet bottom lands sedges are common. Of the legumes,
Trifolium tembense is prolific. Arable land left fallow has a dense weed cover initially,
but with heavy grazing it is colonised by grasses, including Digitaria scalarum, Cynodon
dactylon and Phalaris paradoxa. With longer fallow Cynodon dactylon and Pennisetum
spp. become more common, Trifolium semipilosum and Trifolium burchellianum are also
found in such areas. Of the browse species Erythrina is common.
Areas from 1,500 to 2,000 Areas from 1,500 to 2,000 Areas from 1,500 to 2,000 Areas from 1,500 to 2,000 MMMMetresetresetresetres
This zone is characterised by tall grasses and a higher proportion of climbing-sprawling
legumes, especially in less intensively settled areas. The commonest grasses are Chloris
pychynothrix, Cenchrus ciliaris, Hyparrhenia spp., Setaria sphacelata, Paspalum spp.,
Cynodon dactylon, Pennisetum plicatulum, Eleusine floccifolia, Eragrostis spp.,
Cymbopogon and Andropogon spp.. Perennial legumes include Neonotonia wightii,
Indigofera spp., Desmodium spp., Rhynchosia spp., Vigna spp. that grow down to about
1,500 metres in the wetter western areas and commonly to 1,800 metres in central areas.
Stylosanthes fruticosa is found in scattered sites, mainly below 1,800 metres, and may be
common in degraded areas where few other species thrive. Of the annuals, Trifolium
steudneri, Trifolium rueppellianum and Medicago polymorpha are quite frequent above
1,700 metres. Of the browse species, Albizia is common and Sesbania is prolific on wet
lake margins.
Areas Between 1,500 to 500 Areas Between 1,500 to 500 Areas Between 1,500 to 500 Areas Between 1,500 to 500 MMMMetresetresetresetres
These areas, which include the Rift valley, are covered with Acacia woodland. Much of
the Acacia has been removed as the urban demand for charcoal has increased. Heavy
grazing and low-productivity farming have followed the cutting of trees. Common grasses
include Chloris pycnothrix, Hyparrhenia anthistiriodes, Setaria acromelaena, Aristida
kenyensis, Cynodon dactylon, Panicum atrosanguineum, Microchloa kunthii,
Hyparrhenia dregeana, Cenchrus ciliaris, Heteropogon sp., Pennisetum spp. and
Bothriochloa insculpata - Of the legumes Neonotonia wightii and the less valuable
Indigofera spicata are common. Browse species are dominated by Acacia etbaica, Acacia
nilotica subsp. leiocarpa, Acacia tortilis, Acacia seyal var. seyal, Euclea schimperi, Grewia
tembensis, G. bicolor, Balanites spp., Cadaba farinosa and Capparis tomentosa.
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5.3.2 Conditions and Trends of Grazing5.3.2 Conditions and Trends of Grazing5.3.2 Conditions and Trends of Grazing5.3.2 Conditions and Trends of Grazing----landslandslandslands
In the highlands plant growth is slow due to low temperature. The high stocking density
and intensity of cultivation is out of proportion to the carrying capacity In the lowlands,
short growing season suit only fast maturing plants; limited rainfall and recurrent
drought, shrub invasion and overgrazing are major features of lowland grasslands.
Overgrazing and seasonal feed shortage are evident in the country. Many studies have
indicated, the grazing lands (except protected areas) of the country are in poor to very
poor condition and will deteriorate further unless there is immediate action.
The table below shows the estimated feed availability for livestock by region in Ethiopia.
Table 5.4:Table 5.4:Table 5.4:Table 5.4: Estimated Feed Availability to Livestock in Ethiopia
Feed Feed Feed Feed
resourceresourceresourceresource
HighlandHighlandHighlandHighland LowlandLowlandLowlandLowland Total Total Total Total
Availability Availability Availability
Feed
resource
Area
(000
ha)
Ton
DM/Ha
Total
FU
Area Ton
DM/ha
Total
FU
Area
(‘000
ha)
DM
(000
tons)
FU
(‘000,000)
Native
pastures
22,300 1.5 25,087.5 43,200 0.56 8709 65500 57642 33,796
Crop
residues
5423 1.28 3,137 - - - 5423 6930 3137
Cereals 4688 1.4 2,953 - - - 4688 6563 2953
Pulses 735 0.5 184 - - - 735 368 184
Stubble
grazing
4688 0.4 938 - - - 4688 1875 938
Industrial
by-
products
- - 133 - - - - 198 133
Total 37834 - 32432 43200 - 8709 - 73577 41141
Source: Alemayehu, 2002
Figure 5.1 shows the contribution of the various sources of feeds to the overall livestock
feed in Ethiopia.
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Figure Figure Figure Figure 5.1:5.1:5.1:5.1: Livestock Feeds in Ethiopia
From Figure 5.1, the country derives it livestock/animal feeds from three main sources i.e.
natural pastures, crop residues and byproducts from Agro-processing. It is evident that
the native pasture contributes the largest percentage of livestock feed. For more
sustainable pasture production, more resources need to be invested in better technologies
that will improve the quality and quantity of pasture.
Crop residues and agroCrop residues and agroCrop residues and agroCrop residues and agro----industrial byindustrial byindustrial byindustrial by----products: products: products: products: This is common in areas where mixed
farming is practiced. The combination of livestock and crops is perceived to be the
panacea to the perennial pasture shortages. Commonly used are cereal straw from teff,
barley and wheat. Of significant utilization also are the pulse crop residues e.g. Lentils
and fava, chickpea, maize, sorghum and millet stovers at lower altitudes. Agricultural by-
products include filter press cake, sisal waste, sweet potato tops, banana waste and
mollases from sugar factories.
Cultivated pasture and forageCultivated pasture and forageCultivated pasture and forageCultivated pasture and forage----crop species: crop species: crop species: crop species: Among cultivated feeds, oats and vetch
mixtures usually for dairy feeding are the most common. Also used are fodder beet,
elephant grass mixed with siratro and desmodiums, rhodes/lucerne mixture,
phalaris/trifolium mixture and hedgerows of sesbania, leucaena and tree-lucerne being
common.
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5.4 Pasture Resources in Kenya5.4 Pasture Resources in Kenya5.4 Pasture Resources in Kenya5.4 Pasture Resources in Kenya
Kenya’s livestock feed distribution is determined by the agro ecological zones of the
country which are, for the purposes of pasture distribution, divided into six. The
following section describes the pasture resources in each of the agro ecological zones.
i.i.i.i. The The The The Cold aCold aCold aCold and Wet High Altitude Region nd Wet High Altitude Region nd Wet High Altitude Region nd Wet High Altitude Region
This is a relatively small area with an altitude range from 2400 to 2500 m. The annual
rainfall is over 1200 mm in 4 out of 5 years and occasional frosts are experienced. The
zone covers Mau Narok in the Rift Valley, the upper Cherangani hills and upper Mt.
Elgon in Western Kenya, and the upper Nyandarua, Nyeri, Kiambu, and Aberdare Range
in Central Kenya. Much of Mt. Kenya which falls under this zone is forested. Dairy other
exotic cattle, sheep, wheat and pyrethrum mixed farming are well established. Where
the forest was cleared, the ensuing grassland was predominantly kikuyu grass
(Pennisetum clandestinum) and themeda grass (Themeda triandra) in natural association
with legume clovers such as Kenya purple clover (Trifolium burchellianum), Kenya white
clover (T. semipilosum) and Louisiana white clover (T. repens). Grassland research for high altitude areas focused on exotic species from temperate countries. While cocksfoot
(Dactylis glomerata), rye grass (Lolium perenne), tall fescue (Festuca arundinaceae), and
clovers have been shown to be promising, they are all short-lived and kikuyu grass
usually supersedes them within two to three years after establishment. Furthermore,
they do not set much seed in Kenya and hence practically all seeds are imported. Other
fodder crops used include oats (Avena sativa), kales (Brassicas), fodder beets and turnips.
ii.ii.ii.ii. The The The The Cool aCool aCool aCool and Wet Medium Altitude Region nd Wet Medium Altitude Region nd Wet Medium Altitude Region nd Wet Medium Altitude Region
This region lies within an altitude range of 1800 to 2400 m and is characterized by high
rainfall of over 1000 mm p.a. in 4 out of 5 years. The region includes Trans Nzoia, Nandi,
Kericho, Kisii and Narok districts in Western Kenya, and Nyandarua, upper Kiambu,
Nyeri, Kirinyanga, Muranga, Embu and Meru districts in Central Kenya. The majority of
Kenya`s dairy cattle area is concentrated in this zone. Being a mixed farming area (dairy
cattle with maize, coffee, tea, pyrethrum), the zones could be self-sufficient in production
of pastures, fodder, and legumes and energy sources for supplementary feeds. The natural
flora contains a number of useful pasture species such as setaria (Setaria sphacelata),
kikuyu grass, themeda grass, Glycine javanica, Kenya white clover and Kenya purple
clover.
Two species already in commercial use in Kenya are Nandi setaria, introduced from
Baraton Nandi district, and Kenya white clover introduced from Kabete in Kiambu
district. These two species perform best above 2000 m, but below this, Rhodes grass
(Chloris gayana) varieties — Boma, Elmba, Masaba, Mbarara — and Desmodium spp.
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Grow well. Other recommended grasses include setaria varieties Nandi and Nasiwa;
coloured guinea (Panicum coloratum), star grass (Cynodon plectostachyus), molasses grass (Melinis minutiflora), kikuyu grass, and congo signal (Brachiaria brizantha).Louisiana
white clover has also been shown to grow well throughout this region. Useful fodder
species include napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) giant setaria, giant panicum
(Panicum maximum), Tripsacum laxum, Sudan grass (Sorghum Sudanese), Sorghum
almum, maize (Zea mays), oats (Avena sativa), sweet potato (Ipomea batatas), and edible
cana (Cana edulis). Useful legumes include (Medicago sativa), stylo (Stylosanthes
guianensis), dolichos lab-lab (Lablab purpureus), lupins (Lupinus albus), velvet or mucuna
beans (Stizolobium spp.) and vetch (Vicia spp.).
iii.iii.iii.iii. The The The The Warm aWarm aWarm aWarm and Wet Mnd Wet Mnd Wet Mnd Wet Medium Altitude Region edium Altitude Region edium Altitude Region edium Altitude Region
This region has the greatest potential for dairy development. It is characterized by annual
rainfall of over 1,000 mm in 4 out of every 5 years, and can be as high as 2500 mm. The
rainfall comes in 2 seasons in western, eastern and central Kenya, while in areas west of
the Rift valley, only one long rainy season is experienced per year. The region includes
the most densely populated Taita Hills, Meru, Embu, Kirinyanga, Muranga, Kiambu and
Nyeri districts in eastern and central Kenya. In western Kenya, the region covers
Bungoma, Kakamega, Busia, Siaya, Kisumu, Kisii and South Nyanza districts.
Despite high and reliable rains, good soils and high population density, animal
productivity in some areas in this zone is below its potential. Dairy production is
predominantly from zebu cattle whose production potential is very much less than that of
exotic high grade cattle. The challenge, therefore, is the simultaneous introduction of
high quality and productive pasture species, as well as a dairy breed with high milk yield
potential, in order to make full use of improved leys provided. Stringent measures against
bovine diseases must be enforced.
Of the indigenous flora, useful genera of pasture grasses and legumes include Setaria, Chloris, Cynodon, Paspalum, Brachiaria, Hyparrhenia, Themeda, Echnochloa, Entolasia,
Glycine, Lotononis and Alysicarpus. For planted leys, Rhodes grass varieties (Pokot,
Masaba, Mbarara, Boma Elmba); and setaria varieties (Nasiwa and Nandi) in mixtures
with green leaf desmodium (Desmodium intortum), silverleaf desmodium (Desmodium
uncinatum), Glycine javanica, Neonotonia wightii, Stylosanthes guianensis, and Lablab
purpureus, have been observed to form excellent mixtures under grazing. Other species such as molasses grass, coloured guinea, guinea grass, and star grass have also been
recommended for this zone. Recommended fodder crops include napier grass, giant
setaria, giant panicum, Sudan grass, sweet potato, and the tree legumes Leucaena spp.,
Calliandra calothyrsus, Sesbania sesban, and are used as cut-and-carry for zero or semi-
zero grazing.
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iv.iv.iv.iv. Warm Warm Warm Warm aaaand Dry Medium Altitude Region nd Dry Medium Altitude Region nd Dry Medium Altitude Region nd Dry Medium Altitude Region
This zone has the same rainfall probability (500 — 760 mm) as the hot and dry coastal
hinterland, but the climate is modified by distance from the sea and altitude which ranges
from 1000 to 1800 m. The region includes the arable parts of Kitui and Machakos
districts, the dry lower parts of Meru, Embu, Kirinyaga and Isiolo in central Kenya and
two small dry pockets of arable land in western Kenya (Homabay areas in South Nyanza
and Uyoma in Siaya District). Central Kenya areas experience two effective rainfall
seasons per year while the Western Kenya areas have only one effective rainy season each
year. Among the useful legumes of the region are Glycine javanica, Stylosanthes spp. and
Lotononis spp. Useful grasses are Panicum maximum, Rhodes grass, and Cenchrus
ciliaris. Suitable commercial varieties are the Makueni guinea grass introduced from
Makueni into Machakos district on the basis of drought tolerance and good seed yield,
and Glycine javanica.
v.v.v.v. The The The The Hot Dry Coastal Hinterland Hot Dry Coastal Hinterland Hot Dry Coastal Hinterland Hot Dry Coastal Hinterland
This region extends inland from the hot humid coastal strip on the southern half while
the northern half extends to cover the coastline. In the south-west, the region extends
further inland in a belt around Taita Taveta. This portion is slightly modified due to
distance from the sea. The region’s mean annual rainfall is between 500 — 750 mm. The
altitude ranges from sea level to 1000 m. Though some crop cultivation occurs, the area is
too dry for high yields to be obtained and the low quality grasses cannot sustain high
yielding grade cows. The region is suitable for beef rather than dairy production. Likoni
and Makueni guinea grasses, in combination with siratro on coastal land and Stylosanthes
guianensis for inland areas, are the best choices of forage. Rhodes grass ex-Tosi has been
introduced and is showing promise. Glycine javanica, Stylosanthes mucronata, Panicum
spp. and Eragrostis spp. are naturalized in the area.
vi.vi.vi.vi. The The The The Hot aHot aHot aHot and Humid Coastal Strip nd Humid Coastal Strip nd Humid Coastal Strip nd Humid Coastal Strip
The coastal strip is approximately ten miles (16 km) wide and runs parallel to the coast
from Vanga to Malindi. The region includes parts of Kilifi and Kwale districts of Coast
Province. Annual rainfall is between 760-1270 mm falling in two seasons a year. Further
to the north-east, the strip is slightly drier. The Shimba Hills in Kwale district is the only
high elevation land rising to 150 m. The main agricultural enterprises are based on tree
crops (coconut, cashewnuts and mango) and pasture development in this region is
integrated with tree crops. The dominant coconuts with their open shade is probably the
best tree crop under which grass/legume leys can thrive. Though hot and humid
throughout the year, productive grade dairy cows can thrive in the region if livestock
diseases can be controlled and the level of nutrition kept high. Species of Stylosanthes,
Vigna and Glycine occur naturally. One developed variety of Likoni guinea (Panicum
maximum) originated from the Likoni area in this region. Macroptilium atropurpureum
(cv. Siratro), originating from Central America and bred in Australia, seems to be
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promising in this area. High yielding fodders such as napier grass, leucaena and calliandra
also grow here and are used by small-scale livestock farmers.
vii.vii.vii.vii. The The The The SemiSemiSemiSemi----Arid aArid aArid aArid and Arid Rangelands nd Arid Rangelands nd Arid Rangelands nd Arid Rangelands
These areas cover about 80% of the land surface and are occupied by about 20% of
Kenya’s population. They are in agro-climatic zones IV, V, VI and have an average
rainfall ranging from 300-800 mm per year. Rangelands are further characterized by poor
vegetation cover, fragile soils, high temperatures and frequent wind storms. Crop
production is very limited but the rangeland supports cattle, sheep, goats and camels.
Some of the naturalized herbage grass species commonly found in the Kenyan rangelands
include Themeda triandra, Sporobolus fimbriatus, Cenchrus ciliaris, Digitaria milanjiana,
Digitaria abyssinica, Eragrostis, Eragrostis cilianensis, Eustachyus paspaloides, Aristida
adscensionis, Aristida kenyansis, Panicum maximum, Cynodon spp., Bothriochloa
insculpta, Heteropogon contortus, and others. Some of the naturalized legumes include
Stylosanthes scabra, Macrotyloma axillare, Leucaena leucocephala, and Acacia spp. This
area includes the marginal areas of west Pokot, parts of Marakwet, Keiyo, Baringo, and
Kajiado.
As is the case in the rest of GHA, Kenya’s ASAL livestock depend almost entirely on
naturally occurring pastures. Figure 5.2 shows a typical pasture environment within the
ASAL.
Figure 5.2:Figure 5.2:Figure 5.2:Figure 5.2: Typical pasture in ASALs of Kenya.
(Source: Carnivores project Earthwatch Institute, 2008)
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5.4.1 5.4.1 5.4.1 5.4.1 Pasture Pasture Pasture Pasture Seed ProductionSeed ProductionSeed ProductionSeed Production
The Kenya Seed Company (KSC) was set up to provide quality plant seed for pastures and
a range of other crops. It does this through contracting farmers and also importing
legume seeds, mainly from Australia, which are needed by Kenyan farmers. The
Company imports are mainly lucerne (Medicago sativa), stylo (Sylosanthes guianensis),
desmodium (Desmodium intortum and D. uncinatum). Further, the country has also
increased its capacity for the production of industrial livestock feeds. This production is
mostly facilitated by the private sector.
Pasture seeds are normally produced in areas where the pasture species are best adapted.
In such areas, higher seed yields are obtained and the varieties are less likely to undergo
genetic drift caused by different environmental stresses such as temperature, soil type,
rainfall regime and altitude. KSC produces pasture seeds that are widely adapted and
which can be sold widely in the country and exported. The company does not produce
species that are vegetatively propagated such as napier grass, guatemala, sweet potatoes,
edible cana, giant setaria, and giant panicum. These planting materials are normally
produced at Government research centres or in farmers’ training centres. Pasture seeds
which are zone or area specific and which are not widely used by farmers, are normally
supplied by research centres. Small-scale farmers are increasingly producing pasture seed
for their own use and for sale to their neighbours. Research centres carry out on-farm
research in various fields and train farmers in various technologies for producing and
marketing pasture grasses, legumes and fodder crops seed.
5.4.2 5.4.2 5.4.2 5.4.2 Pasture Pasture Pasture Pasture ResearchResearchResearchResearch
Other international organizations such as the International Centre for Research in
Agroforestry (ICRAF) also develop appropriate fodder/legumes and make seed available to
farmers. Several factors were responsible for the development of the seed industry in
Kenya. These include: (a) establishment of Government research centres responsible for
production of basic and breeders seed and maintenance of distinctness, uniformity and
stability (DUS) of seed; (b) increased number of varieties available from research centres;
(c) development of a seed certification and seed law enforcement programme by National
Seed Quality Control Services (NSQCS) — the predecessor of KEPHIS; (d) development
of seed cleaning, processing and packaging technology; (e) a better knowledge of seed
quality; and (f) the emergence of the seed grower as a specialist.
5.5.5.5.4.34.34.34.3 Pasture QualityPasture QualityPasture QualityPasture Quality
Table 5.5 shows the feed characteristics for the different types of livestock feed available
in Kenya.
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TabTabTabTable 5.5:le 5.5:le 5.5:le 5.5: Livestock Feed Quality in Kenya
DM yieldDM yieldDM yieldDM yield NutrientNutrientNutrientNutrient CompositionCompositionCompositionComposition In vitroIn vitroIn vitroIn vitro
Feed descriptionFeed descriptionFeed descriptionFeed description Tons/haTons/haTons/haTons/ha Ash (%)Ash (%)Ash (%)Ash (%) CP %CP %CP %CP % NDF %NDF %NDF %NDF % ADL %ADL %ADL %ADL % DM digestibilityDM digestibilityDM digestibilityDM digestibility
Natural pastureNatural pastureNatural pastureNatural pasture 2.15 8.32 7. 73 72.36 6.41 44.52
StoverStoverStoverStover
Maize 2.54 11.92 2.59 69.55 9.32 41.83
Sorghum 1.00 6.80 6.53 52.97 3.26 50.06
FoddersFoddersFoddersFodders
Bana 6.80 15.54 9.08 63.37 3.93 59.08
Bajra 7.30 14.89 11.79 58.12 5.15 62.36
Panicum 5.10 13.16 12.98 60.28 5.32 56.62
Pasture grassesPasture grassesPasture grassesPasture grasses
Rhodes 3.00 9.95 11.15 73.88 6.28 54.76
Guinea grass 4.00 12.12 10.41 66.32 5.88 50.88
Cenchrus 2.60 7.73 8.21 71.10 4.94 50.22
LegumesLegumesLegumesLegumes
Leucaena 4.00 7.93 27.28 38.13 9.80 64.78
Pigeon peas - 6.81 13.90 59.88 14.83 55.16
Dolichos - 6.87 15.54 43.90 6.46 63.17
Feed Feed Feed Feed AdequacyAdequacyAdequacyAdequacy in Kenya’s ASALsin Kenya’s ASALsin Kenya’s ASALsin Kenya’s ASALs
The range in the ASAL is the main source of nutrients for both livestock and wildlife.
However, it is either extensively degraded or heavily encroached by bush or weed,
resulting in low herbage dry matter yields. The recurrent droughts in this region, the
existence of ‘pockets’ of pests, poor rangeland husbandry practices, insecurity-related
problems, high cost of livestock inputs, land scarcity due to subdivision of land holdings
as a result of rapid population growth, encroachment of the ASAL grazing areas due to
increased crop agriculture activities, and effects of el nino and la nina have worsened the situation over the years.
The pastures are thus characterized by poor yields especially in the dry season and limited
in biomass production. Unfortunately, socio-economic changes and frequent droughts
and floods have weakened the traditional mitigation strategies of the local communities
in the ASAL. The increasing human and livestock populations have instilled a lot of
pressure in these areas. These pressures reduce the available grazing areas. Farmers in
high potential areas are also experiencing acute shortages of feed in the market as well as
other farm processed feeds.
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5.5 Pasture Resources5.5 Pasture Resources5.5 Pasture Resources5.5 Pasture Resources in Somaliain Somaliain Somaliain Somalia
In Somalia, rangelands are estimated to be about 80 per cent of the nation’s land area. It
is a relatively harsh semi-arid environment with serious limits on carrying capacity of the
land. Pastureland includes the Haud region in the high plateau of northwest Somalia and
grasslands of southern Somalia.
5.65.65.65.6 Pasture Resources inPasture Resources inPasture Resources inPasture Resources in SudSudSudSudanananan
The major source of livestock feed in the Sudan is the Rangelands which forms an
immense natural resource, covering about 116 million hectares. . . . Various types of grazing
land vary from open grasslands to seasonal water courses, flood plains, river banks and
associated islands, woodlands, hills and mountain slopes. The pasture types and quality
are influenced by the geographical location. Sudan rangelands may be categorized into
three main zones:
Desert Zone:Desert Zone:Desert Zone:Desert Zone: Pasture found is usually seasonal and confined to low lying areas where run
offs collect and in water course areas. Of importance is the succulent “Guzzi” type
especially during dry periods
The SemiThe SemiThe SemiThe Semi----Desert zones:Desert zones:Desert zones:Desert zones: These zones contain Shrubs and Trees valued most during the
long dry seasons. Important among these woody species are Acacia ehrenbergiana, A.
tortilis sub-species tortilis and sub-species raddiana, Capparis deciduas. Within Central
and Eastern Sudan in the low rainfall Savanna grazing lands, Acacia mellifear, A. Senegal, A. seyal, Balannites aegyptiaca, Cadaba rotundifolia are just but a few species dominant in
the area
Low Rainfall SavannaLow Rainfall SavannaLow Rainfall SavannaLow Rainfall Savanna: Occur in sandy soils of Western Sudan and the dark cracking clays
of central and eastern Sudan northern parts are wet season grazing while the southern
parts, where water is available, are dry season grazing lands Acacia mellifera, A. senegal,
A. seyal, Balanites aegyptiaca, Cadaba rotundifolia and Combretum . Within the high Rainfall areas, important grasses found in the region include Hyparrhenia spp,
Andropogon gayanus, Setaria, Brachiaria brizantha, Chloris gayana and Sporobolus
pyramidalis
Apart from the natural pastures, some fodder crops are also grown mostly under small
scale irrigation (< 1-5 ha) for dairy cattle, small ruminants and draught animals with the
bulk being sold as green fodder in the local market. In large scale scenarios between 80-
90% of the area allocated to fodder crops is devoted to annuals, mainly forage sorghum
cv. ‘Abu Sabeen’, with limited areas under maize and lablab; the remaining area is
occupied by alfalfa, the major perennial fodder.
Buffel grass, Rhodes grass, elephent grass, para grass, panicum and clitoria have been
utilized to establish irrigated pastures, especially in animal production schemes and on
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livestock research stations. Growing fodder crops between rows of fruit trees is practised
on a limited scale; crops grown are mainly alfalfa, but clitoria, pillipesara and lablab have
also been tried with the aim of improving soil fertility, controlling weeds and producing
good quality fodder.
Crop residue and Agricultural byproducts as feed source also contribute significantly to
livestock feeding. Most common are the cereal residue of wheat, sorghum, millet maize,
cereal stubble ,legume haulms, sugar cane tops among others. Agro-processing by
products includes molasses, oil seed cake and grain and grain byproduct from processing.
Latest trends indicate a reduction in pasture availability. Figure 5.3 shows the trend in
land under pasture in Sudan from 1980 to 2002 (FAO, 2005).
Figure 5.3Figure 5.3Figure 5.3Figure 5.3:::: Trends in pasture land development in the Sudan (km2)
Table 5.6 shows the annual growth rate in area under pasture compared to crop land for
the same period.
Table 5.6:Table 5.6:Table 5.6:Table 5.6: Comparative Growth of Pasture Land and Crop Land in Sudan
PerPerPerPeriodiodiodiod Pasture (% per year)Pasture (% per year)Pasture (% per year)Pasture (% per year) Cropland (% per year)Cropland (% per year)Cropland (% per year)Cropland (% per year)
1980-1990 1.2 0.6
1990-2000 0.6 2.3
It is evident that more concentration has in the recent past gone into crop production at
the expense of pastures. The major challenge therefore is for the government to give
adequate attention to pasture production to enable increased livestock production
activities.
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5.6.1 Seed Pasture 5.6.1 Seed Pasture 5.6.1 Seed Pasture 5.6.1 Seed Pasture
The development of pastures has been lagging in the Sudan. To increase pasture
availability for livestock, the Sudan National Action Plan-Framework for combating
desertification has adopted several strategies to increase livestock feed. One such is the
establishment of seed collection and improvement centers with many species with
specific attention on the indigenous grass species.
The Sudan National Seed Administration has been involved in the production of seed of
the major fodder crops alfalfa and ‘Abu Sabeen’ as well as Sudan grass, clitoria, lablab,
pillipesara and maize. The Arab Sudanese Seed Company manages the pasture seeds on
behalf of the government of Sudan.
5.6.2 Livestock Carrying Capacity5.6.2 Livestock Carrying Capacity5.6.2 Livestock Carrying Capacity5.6.2 Livestock Carrying Capacity
According to the Sudan National Action Plan-Framework for combating desertification,
the carrying capacity of most of the rangeland areas like Kordofan, Darfur, Butana can
hardly support the livestock population in that area. The livestock population in the
region (mostly indigeneous cattle, sheep and goats) has significantly increased within the
last ten years.
5.7 Pasture Resources in Uganda5.7 Pasture Resources in Uganda5.7 Pasture Resources in Uganda5.7 Pasture Resources in Uganda
Uganda’s grazing potential is largely underutilized. Only 20% of Uganda grassland
suitable for livestock production is utilised suggesting very huge potential for expansion.
Table 5.7 shows the potential grazing areas of Uganda.
Table 5.7:Table 5.7:Table 5.7:Table 5.7: Current and Potential Grazing Areas of Uganda
Land ClassifiLand ClassifiLand ClassifiLand Classificationcationcationcation Square kilometresSquare kilometresSquare kilometresSquare kilometres PercentagePercentagePercentagePercentage
Grassland 51 118.6 21.16
Farmland 83 931.0 34.75
Woodland 40 277.7 16.67
Bush 14 198.6 5.88
Total potential grazing land 189 525.9 78.46
Total land areaTotal land areaTotal land areaTotal land area 241 548.0241 548.0241 548.0241 548.0 100100100100
Source: MAAIF, 2007
However, even with the above potential, the country has lately began experiencing
livestock feed shortages due mainly to the effects of global warming, fuelled by
deforestation and charcoal production. These have resulted into a reduction in rainfall
amounts and reliability in many parts of the country. Uganda’s Cattle Corridor, which
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stretches from western and central Uganda to mid northern and eastern regions, has seen
a dramatic shift from semi-arid to arid conditions
A food assessment carried out by Uganda’s Ministry of Agriculture (2007), Animal
Industry and Fisheries showed that approximately 980,000 households from 19 districts in
the Cattle Corridor have been seriously affected by pasture shortage for their livestock.
Coping mechanisms adopted by livestock farmers include paddocking and planting
drought-resistant pastures such as Panicum maximum. Due to the deteriorating condition
in terms of feed availability, the Livestock population in Uganda which has been
increasing steadily over the last few years is faced with the likelihood of pasture shortage.
This warrants urgent interventions to keep the sector on track. Table 5.8 shows the
livestock feed sources in Uganda.
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Table 5.8:Table 5.8:Table 5.8:Table 5.8: Cattle Feed Sources, Quality and Carrying Capacity
Uganda has six natural grassland zones. The natural pastures are fairly productive and
contain many desirable grasses and browse plants. The natural grasslands have little or no
legume component leading to low dry matter yields and poor nutritive value for the
greater part of the year. At present, there is poor utilization and low productivity of
available grasses. This is largely attributed to lack of well articulated management
guidelines for these grasslands.
Indigenous grasses are, of course, well adapted to the prevailing growing conditions; they
include: Panicum maximum, Brachiaria ruziziensis, Chloris gayana, Hyparrhenia rufa, Pennisetum clandestinum, Setaria anceps, with Pennisetum purpureum as the only
indigenous fodder grass. New superior varieties of P. purpureum have been developed at
Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute and others introduced from neighbouring Kenya
and ILRI, Ethiopia. Introduced fodder grasses which have been tested, evaluated and
adopted in various agroecological zones are Tripsacum laxum and Setaria splendida.
The only major indigenous legume which has been evaluated in detail and showed great
potential is Neonotonia wightii. Introduced legumes that have performed best and are in
use include Centrosema pubescens, Macroptilium atropurpureum, Desmodium intortum,
D. uncinatum for areas receiving over 1 000 mm of annual rain; while Stylosanthes guianensis, S. hamata, S. scabra, Aeschynomene americana and Cassia rotundifolia are
suitable for areas receiving under 1 000 mm and have poor soils.
Nutritive value, estimated average productNutritive value, estimated average productNutritive value, estimated average productNutritive value, estimated average productivity and carrying capacity by agroivity and carrying capacity by agroivity and carrying capacity by agroivity and carrying capacity by agro----ecological zones inecological zones inecological zones inecological zones in UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda
Yield componentYield componentYield componentYield component Banana-
Coffee
Banana-
Cotton
West
Nile
Northern Teso Montane Mbarara Buganada Karamoja
TDN%TDN%TDN%TDN% 51 54 53 54 54 52 51 51 51
CP%CP%CP%CP% 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.5 1.9 7.6 2.8 2.7 2.8
Available graAvailable graAvailable graAvailable grazing landzing landzing landzing land
(ha)(ha)(ha)(ha)
27,995 18,289 10,439 26,947 7,930 16,365 4,398 4,553 25,566
Dry matter(t/ha)Dry matter(t/ha)Dry matter(t/ha)Dry matter(t/ha) 5.3 4.25 4.68 4.5 4.25 4.5 3.9 1.68 4.0
Potential (DMX 10 t)Potential (DMX 10 t)Potential (DMX 10 t)Potential (DMX 10 t) 14.8 7.8 4.6 12.1 3.4 7.4 1.7 1.8 4.3
Potential (TDN x 10 t)Potential (TDN x 10 t)Potential (TDN x 10 t)Potential (TDN x 10 t) 6.2 4.2 2.6 6.5 1.8 3.6 0.9 4 2.2
CarCarCarCarrying capacity rying capacity rying capacity rying capacity
TLU/haTLU/haTLU/haTLU/ha
2.91 2.47 2.67 2.62 2.47 2.52 2.14 2.14 0.92
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Table 5.9:Table 5.9:Table 5.9:Table 5.9: Major Pasture Varieties in Uganda.
Grassland communityGrassland communityGrassland communityGrassland community CharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristicsCharacteristics
Pennisetum purpureumPennisetum purpureumPennisetum purpureumPennisetum purpureum grasslandgrasslandgrasslandgrassland
Majorly P. purpureum (Elephant grass); occurring in regions between 1 000 - 2 000 metres above sea level with fertile soils. P. purpureum is an important fodder.
Other grasses of grazing value associated with P. purpureum are Brachiaria spp, Cynodon
nlemfuensis, Panicum maximum and Hyparrhenia rufa.; the only legume is Neonotonia wightii. Useful introduced legumes include Centrosema pubescens, Macroptilium
atropurpureum, Desmodium intortum, D. uncinatum. Fodder grasses used are P.
purpureum, Tripsacum laxum, Setaria splendida; herbaceous legumes are Lablab
purpureus and Stizolobium spp. Tree legumes in use include Leucaena leucocephala, Calliandra calothyrusus and Sesbania sesban.
Moist Moist Moist Moist HyparrheniaHyparrheniaHyparrheniaHyparrhenia
grasslandgrasslandgrasslandgrassland
Grass dominated by H. rufa and P maximum which occur on fertile soils with annual
rainfall of 1 000 - 1 500 mm. Other common grasses important for grazing are Chloris
gayana, Brachiaria spp., H. variabilis and Imperata cylindrica var. africana. Most of the
grasses and legumes suitable for this system are those mentioned in the grassland
community above. Crop residues are a source of livestock feed in this system
Dry Dry Dry Dry HyparrheniaHyparrheniaHyparrheniaHyparrhenia
grasslandgrasslandgrasslandgrassland
The dominant species are H. filipendula and H. dissoluta in the dry Combetrum savannas.
Other grasses are Setaria sphacelata, Themeda triandra, Cenchrus ciliaris, Cynodon
nlemfuensis and grasses of minor feed value like Andropogon gayanus, A. schriensis, and
Heteropogon contortus. The quality of the herbage is rather low, especially in the dry season because they grow in dry, poor places
Themeda triandraThemeda triandraThemeda triandraThemeda triandra
grasslandgrasslandgrasslandgrassland
Found along the southern cattle corridor stretching from the shores of Lake Kyoga to the
Tanzanian border. Very nutritious when young. It occurs in savanna communities
associated with Acacia spp., on light texture soils at altitudes of 1 200 metres. Some of the
Acacia trees are important as fodder. Shade loving grasses like Brachiaria brizantha and Panicum maximum thrive amongst Acacia, provided that the trees are scattered. Other
important grasses are C. gayana, Cynodon nlemfuensis, and Setaria sphacelata. The
grazing value of the grasses is being reduced by weeds such as Cymbopogon afronadus and
Imperata cylindrica. Some of the adapted forages include Leucaena leucocephala, Stylosanthes spp. and Calliandra calothyrusus.
SetariaSetariaSetariaSetaria----ChrysopogonChrysopogonChrysopogonChrysopogon
grasslandgrasslandgrasslandgrassland
Covers substantial areas of the north-eastern part of the country; it is dominated by
Setaria incrassata which is characteristic of the clay plains of Karamoja. Other common
grasses are Themeda triandra, Sorghum spp., Eriochloa nubica and Dichanthium
papillosum. The annual rainfall is 750 - 1 000 mm. Further east, under rainfalls of 350 - 500 mm, are the Chrysopogon clay steppes of Karamoja which provide moderate grazing.
Bush and thickets occur at altitudes of 1 200 - 2 000 metres on shallow soils with 300 -
850 mm rainfall. These communities, which contain a great variety of species, provide a
lot of browse, but the grass cover is sparse.
Montane grasslandMontane grasslandMontane grasslandMontane grassland Grass savannahs with abundant Andropogon distachyus, Cenchrus validus, Exotheca abyssinica and Hyparrhenia cymbaria have developed at altitudes of 2 000 - 3 000 metres.
The most productive grasses are Pennisetum clandestinum and P. purpureum followed by
Setaria sphacelata found on Mt. Elgon, in the East and Southern Kigezi and on the
foothills of the Ruwenzori Mountain. The P. clandestinum grasslands have a natural clover Trifolium semipilosum (Kenya white clover) which is very compatible with the
grass
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5.7.1 5.7.1 5.7.1 5.7.1 Forage Forage Forage Forage QualityQualityQualityQuality
The TDN of the natural grasses of Uganda is summarized in Table 5.10.
Table 5.10:Table 5.10:Table 5.10:Table 5.10: Natural Grasses of Uganda, TDN
Grass SpeciesGrass SpeciesGrass SpeciesGrass Species TDN%TDN%TDN%TDN% CP%CP%CP%CP%
Hyparrhenia filipendura 54 1.8
Panicum maximum 50 3
Brachiaria brizantha 50 3.4
Andropogon gayanus 55 3.4
Themeda triandra 54 2.5
Setaria sphacelata 52 2.7
Chrysopogon aucher 48 3.5
Cynadon dactylon 47 4
Pennisetum clandestinum 60 16
5.8 Opportunities for Improvement of Pasture Resources5.8 Opportunities for Improvement of Pasture Resources5.8 Opportunities for Improvement of Pasture Resources5.8 Opportunities for Improvement of Pasture Resources
5.8.15.8.15.8.15.8.1 Policy Policy Policy Policy and and and and Institutional Institutional Institutional Institutional LevelLevelLevelLevel
Promotions of the development of forage and pasture crops:Promotions of the development of forage and pasture crops:Promotions of the development of forage and pasture crops:Promotions of the development of forage and pasture crops: National policies across the
region continue to give second place to issues of forage production and rangeland
management. It is important that governments are sensitised on the contribution forage
and pasture production can have in improving livelihoods of pastoral communities and
ensuring economic development.
5.8.2 Private S5.8.2 Private S5.8.2 Private S5.8.2 Private Sector Involvementector Involvementector Involvementector Involvement
The GHA region is becoming more and more conscious of the important role the private
sector can play to accelerate development. In the plant sector, it should be noted that
private companies are becoming increasingly involved in plant breeding and seed
production in some countries. However, their involvement is still restricted to a limited
number of major crops. These seed companies can contribute to strengthening national
capacities for seed supply. The private sector can, among other areas:
i. Invest in variety research development
ii. Assist in establishing modern seed multiplication systems through
the selection and training of farmers
iii. Assist in establishing quality control procedures;
iv. Assist in securing optimum seed storage
v. Help transfer new technologies
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5.8.3 Research5.8.3 Research5.8.3 Research5.8.3 Research
Intensifying research in the seed production area, especially forage and pasture crop seed
can be undertaken through promotion of livestock production, enhanced forage seed
production adaptation of appropriate seeding techniques in different ecological
conditions, eliminate some constraints that hinder the extension of rangeland
improvement in semi-arid and arid zones, collection and evaluation of plant genetic
resources of the main forage and pastoral native species and promote their conservation
in gene banks for ulterior utilisation and study the pastoral potentialities of local drought
resistant species and their conservation in situ for future use in the development of
marginal zones; and
Pastoral research in the long-term should be involved in seed selection and variety
adaptation (from promising ecotypes and foreign variety introductions) to improve the
utilisation of plant genetic resources.
5.8.4 Effective Co5.8.4 Effective Co5.8.4 Effective Co5.8.4 Effective Co----ordinationordinationordinationordination
Considering the limitation of human and financial resources, it is essential to co-ordinate
efforts with seed production organisms and centres and different research institutions in
aimed at:
1. Promoting local production in the existing seed multiplication centres, of
foundation seeds of forage and pasture species
2. Increasing the rate of adoption by farmers of improved forage and pasture
varieties;
3. Assisting farmers to master production techniques and other issues related to
forage crop production; and
4. Avoid resource wastages by ensuring efficiency through the exchange of expertise
and information to the development of range improvement techniques and seed
production in the Near East and North Africa.
5.8.5 Legislations and 5.8.5 Legislations and 5.8.5 Legislations and 5.8.5 Legislations and RegulationsRegulationsRegulationsRegulations
One of the constraints to certified seed production of forage and pasture species in most
countries in the region is the absence of technical rules for these species. It would be
useful to set-up rules for at least species being multiplied in a given country. These rules
have to be adapted to farmer’s conditions relating to standards for multiplication, number
of generations, and production techniques.
5.8.6 Institutional 5.8.6 Institutional 5.8.6 Institutional 5.8.6 Institutional Capacity BuildingCapacity BuildingCapacity BuildingCapacity Building
Institutions within the region will need capacity building to ensure that they are able to
enforce and implement various policies and legislations regarding rangeland forage and
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pasture management. Such capacity building should also aim at expanding the reach of
these institutions to effectively support production systems in the ASALs.
5.8.7 Integration of the 5.8.7 Integration of the 5.8.7 Integration of the 5.8.7 Integration of the FormalFormalFormalFormal and and and and Informal Seed SystemsInformal Seed SystemsInformal Seed SystemsInformal Seed Systems
This is a prerequisite to the preservation of landraces and traditional varieties and
conservation of plant genetic resources, which must be promoted by the formal seed
sector. The role of NGOs in implementing projects that support on-farm seed production
should not be neglected, and efforts should be made to strengthen these activities.
5.9 Regional Level5.9 Regional Level5.9 Regional Level5.9 Regional Level
5.9.1 Networking5.9.1 Networking5.9.1 Networking5.9.1 Networking
Strengthening of the existing networks dealing with forage and pasture seed production
in the region should be a priority. The exchange of plant materials, expertise and
information linked to research on forage and pasture species should be promoted. The
FAO, for example, may assist with the development and management of an information
sharing instrument on pasture and forage across the region.
5.9.2 5.9.2 5.9.2 5.9.2 Regional Pasture Regional Pasture Regional Pasture Regional Pasture and Forage Improvement Activitiesand Forage Improvement Activitiesand Forage Improvement Activitiesand Forage Improvement Activities
Cross boundary projects on the improvement and promotion of pasture and forage
development can go a long way in ensuring disparities are minimised. Such interventions
are likely to reduce the incidences of pasture-related conflict across the region.
5.10 Constraints to Pasture Development within the GHA5.10 Constraints to Pasture Development within the GHA5.10 Constraints to Pasture Development within the GHA5.10 Constraints to Pasture Development within the GHA
Pasture development within GHA has been one of the key limiting factors to livestock
production. For instance a study carried out in the arid region of Turkana District in
Kenya established that livestock within the region experience feed deficits for most of the
year except for the wet month of April as shown by the feed balance presented in Figure
5.4.
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Figure 5.4Figure 5.4Figure 5.4Figure 5.4:::: Livestock Feed Supply and Demand in Turkana District in 2000.
(Source: Notenbeat, 2007)
The above scenario is due to several constraints within the pastoral ecosystems across the
region. These constraints include:
5.10.1 Water5.10.1 Water5.10.1 Water5.10.1 Water
The single most important constraint to pasture development in the rangelands of the
GHA is water resource. The scarcity of water within the GHA rangelands is a
fundamental constraint of pasture development that must be addressed to improve these
ecosystems. These issues are discussed in Chapter Four of this report.
5.10.2 Lack 5.10.2 Lack 5.10.2 Lack 5.10.2 Lack of Specific Government Strategies for of Specific Government Strategies for of Specific Government Strategies for of Specific Government Strategies for Rangeland RehabilitationRangeland RehabilitationRangeland RehabilitationRangeland Rehabilitation
Although there are many techniques for rehabilitation of degraded rangeland (seeding
methods, soil moisture conservation techniques, water harvesting, water spreading etc.)
most are rather costly compared to the likely economic returns. The more fundamental
approach would therefore be that which involves pastoralists in sound environmental
management and conservation techniques. To achieve this, an integrated multi-sectoral
approaches need to be adopted across issues of policy, institutional arrangements,
technical approaches and investment interventions within the rangelands. Particularly
important also are clear land tenure arrangements that will motivate the beneficiaries to
utilize rehabilitated sites in a sustainable manner.
On seeding, two specific constraints have been identified (FAO, 2006):
1. Seed sector constraints
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2. Inherent constraints to the development of range improvement activities
5.10.3 Seed Sector Constrain5.10.3 Seed Sector Constrain5.10.3 Seed Sector Constrain5.10.3 Seed Sector Constraintstststs
Production of forage seeds for pastoral communities faces several challenges. These are:
a)a)a)a) Lack Lack Lack Lack of Adapted Species and Varietiesof Adapted Species and Varietiesof Adapted Species and Varietiesof Adapted Species and Varieties
Introduced forage and pasture species and varieties in the region have appeared, on many
occasions, to not be adapted to the local environment. Several countries are lacking
organized programmes for breeding and releasing forage varieties. Even in countries
where some forage crop improvement programmes have been undertaken, initial seed
multiplication remains one of the bottlenecks for improved variety development.
b)b)b)b) Constraints to the evaluation of seed requirementConstraints to the evaluation of seed requirementConstraints to the evaluation of seed requirementConstraints to the evaluation of seed requirement
Forage seed supply is impaired by the lack of a realistic seed demand forecast system and
late distribution. In fact, seed production in the region is highly dependent on the
amount and the distribution of rains within the year. Therefore, seed requirements
fluctuate from year to year. In addition, the use of farmer's own seed and farmer-to-
farmer exchange reduces the actual demand of certified seed.
c)c)c)c) Absence of legislatAbsence of legislatAbsence of legislatAbsence of legislation for pasture seedion for pasture seedion for pasture seedion for pasture seed
Up until now, in many countries of the GHA no certification legislation has been
instituted for forage and pasture species. This hinders the development of varieties for
these species. However, even where such legislation occurs, they have not been
adequately implemented
5.10.4 5.10.4 5.10.4 5.10.4 Research Research Research Research DeficiencyDeficiencyDeficiencyDeficiency
Despite efforts by different researchers and scientists in the fields of forage crops in
general and range improvement in particular during the last few years, research in the
area of forage and pastoral seed production is almost lacking in the region. Furthermore,
due to insufficient funds allocated to research and the limited number of specialists
working in this area the development of the seed sector as a whole in the region is
constrained.
Data deficiencyData deficiencyData deficiencyData deficiency
Due to the low research mentioned above, there has been inadequate date for planning on
areas and types of range, seasonal changes, grazing potential and capacities of the
different range types is a serious constraint to planning at national and regional levels
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Lack Lack Lack Lack of Farmer Interest and Private Sector Involvementof Farmer Interest and Private Sector Involvementof Farmer Interest and Private Sector Involvementof Farmer Interest and Private Sector Involvement
The seed production of pasture and range species by farmers and private companies is
non-existent. A lack of farmer’s interest is observed even for the certified seed production
of other forage species for which the demand is important. This can be explained by the
fact that prices that are paid to forage seed producers are not competitive compared to
some other remunerative crops. Moreover, it is necessary to underline the lack of specific
equipment for seed production and the lack of efficiency of technical support of these
farmers, which translates into low yield levels.
Inefficiency of extension and promotionInefficiency of extension and promotionInefficiency of extension and promotionInefficiency of extension and promotion
Extension efforts currently deployed by some countries in the region for the promotion of
forage and pastoral crops remains insufficient. Due to financial constraints and lack of
incentives to motivate extension agents, extension services are almost ineffective, which
is illustrated by the limited adoption of improved varieties by farmers. Extension efforts
in the field of seed production in general have to be improved to help farmers master
production techniques. A weakness in the seed marketing system in general is the lack of
extension efforts by seed companies and co-operatives to increase seed sales
Burning Burning Burning Burning of Pasture Landof Pasture Landof Pasture Landof Pasture Land
In most countries in the GHA vegetation cover is burnt for many reasons which include:
to clear the land for cultivation, for regrowth of perennial grasses for grazing animals, to
bring wild game into the open and to drive away bees so that honey can be collected from
wild hives. Fires may also be caused accidently and by natural phenomena. Uncontrolled
burning is a serious threat to rangelands.
Expansion of croplandExpansion of croplandExpansion of croplandExpansion of cropland
Expansion of both dry land and irrigated farming has occurred at the expense of range
and woodlands, giving insufficient consideration to the importance of these resources to
pastoralists and their herds, and without attempting integration of livestock into the
developed cropping system, or creating alternative feed sources to compensate for the loss
of natural grazing and browse. FAO has estimated that the annual rate of deforestation in
the Sudan is approaching five hundred thousand hectares, one of the highest in Africa.
5.10.5 Inher5.10.5 Inher5.10.5 Inher5.10.5 Inherent Constraints to the Development of Range Improvement Activitiesent Constraints to the Development of Range Improvement Activitiesent Constraints to the Development of Range Improvement Activitiesent Constraints to the Development of Range Improvement Activities
Population pressures:Population pressures:Population pressures:Population pressures: Demographic pressures occurring in different countries in the
region has caused an increase in demand for agricultural and livestock products. This has
pushed farmers to overexploit pastoral resources and has led to overgrazing, causing
productive rangelands to convert into marginal croplands.
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Other natural and human factors:Other natural and human factors:Other natural and human factors:Other natural and human factors: Recurrent droughts, weak legislations to the range
management activities, insufficient technical support to livestock holders in pastoral
regions and low level of research to support rangeland production continue to hamper
rangeland development in the region. As a result, private investments in these regions
have remained low.
These constraints have a direct or indirect effect on the development of pastoral seed
demand. Although it is noted that rangeland seeding practices have given positive results
in the past, their use has remained very limited mainly due to inadequate investment by
Governments in rangeland improvement activities.
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6. SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT IN THE 6. SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT IN THE 6. SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT IN THE 6. SUSTAINABLE LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT IN THE
ASAL REGIONASAL REGIONASAL REGIONASAL REGION
6.1 6.1 6.1 6.1 Livestock Livestock Livestock Livestock Production SystemProduction SystemProduction SystemProduction System
An understanding of the various livestock farming and production systems is important in
developing a suitable development strategy. Livestock production systems have a direct
relationship to livestock disease risks and vulnerability.
There are two main production systems practiced within the GHA accounting for over
80% of the total livestock numbers. These are pastoral or agro-pastoral production
systems and the mixed crop-livestock production system. Tables 6.1 and 6.2 show the
number of livestock within each of the production systems.
Table Table Table Table 6.16.16.16.1:::: Pastoral/agro Pastoral Production Systems - Animal Numbers (2000)
Pastoral / AgPastoral / AgPastoral / AgPastoral / Agropastoral Production (‘000)ropastoral Production (‘000)ropastoral Production (‘000)ropastoral Production (‘000)
Cattle Sheep Goats
Country Numbers % Numbers % Numbers %
Djibouti 297 100 464 100 511 100
Eritrea 1,415 63 1,435 65 906 52
Ethiopia 6,551 20 1,797 17 2,788 33
Kenya 5,165 44 4,252 55 6,801 70
Somalia 5,141 100 13,773 100 12,269 100
Sudan 30,570 82 36,539 80 25,596 73
Uganda 1,415 23 163 17 873 16
TotalTotalTotalTotal 50,55350,55350,55350,553 53535353 58,42358,42358,42358,423 71717171 49,74449,74449,74449,744 68686868
Source: FAO, 2004
Table 6.2Table 6.2Table 6.2Table 6.2: Mixed Crop – Livestock Production Systems - Animal Numbers (2000)
Mixed Crop Mixed Crop Mixed Crop Mixed Crop ---- Livestock Production (‘0Livestock Production (‘0Livestock Production (‘0Livestock Production (‘000)00)00)00)
CattleCattleCattleCattle SheepSheepSheepSheep GoatsGoatsGoatsGoats
CountryCountryCountryCountry NumbersNumbersNumbersNumbers %%%% NumbersNumbersNumbersNumbers %%%% NumbersNumbersNumbersNumbers %%%%
Djibouti ... ... ... ... ... ...
Eritrea 831 37 767 35 853 48
Ethiopia 25,958 78 9,069 83 5,764 67
Kenya 2,389 20 3,517 45 2,941 30
Somalia 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sudan 6,530 18 9,396 20 9,377 27
Uganda 4,176 69 770 83 4,583 84
TotalTotalTotalTotal 39,88339,88339,88339,883 42424242 23,52023,52023,52023,520 29292929 23,51823,51823,51823,518 32323232
Source: FAO, 2004
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Further categorization of the production systems, taking into account variation in
climatic conditions have been carried out by FAO (FAO, 2007). According to this
approach, the Horn of Africa has at least seven different production systems. Figure 6.1
shows these production systems.
FigFigFigFigureureureure 6.1: 6.1: 6.1: 6.1: Livestock production systems in the Horn of Africa
(Source: FAO, 2007)
Table 6.3 summarizes the distribution of the various production systems within the GHA
and the number of cattle supported under each system.
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Table 6.3Table 6.3Table 6.3Table 6.3:::: Production Systems within the GHA
CountryCountryCountryCountry Estimated Cattle Numbers by Production System (millions)Estimated Cattle Numbers by Production System (millions)Estimated Cattle Numbers by Production System (millions)Estimated Cattle Numbers by Production System (millions)
LGA LGH LGT MIA MRA MRH MRT Other Total Total Total Total
Djibouti 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 0.0 n.a n.a 0.0 0.00.00.00.0
Eritrea 0.0 n.a n.a n.a 0.0 n.a n.a 0.0 0.00.00.00.0
Ethiopia 5.29 0.05 0.31 0.0 11.64 1.75 30.15 1.72 50.9550.9550.9550.95
Kenya 3.94 n.a 0.71 n.a 2.82 1.38 5.35 2.02 16.2216.2216.2216.22
Somali 5.89 n.a n.a 0.18 0.52 n.a n.a 0.87 7.467.467.467.46
Sudan 23.02 1.32 0.08 0.00 0.12 0.01 0.03 4.27 28.8628.8628.8628.86
Uganda 0.36 0.29 0.01 n.a 2.12 3.78 1.15 0.60 8.318.318.318.31
TotalTotalTotalTotal 38.4938.4938.4938.49 1.671.671.671.67 1.121.121.121.12 0.180.180.180.18 17.2217.2217.2217.22 6.926.926.926.92 36.6736.6736.6736.67 9.499.499.499.49 111.80111.80111.80111.80
Source: Adapted from FAO, 2007
6.1.16.1.16.1.16.1.1 Grassland Based Systems (LG)Grassland Based Systems (LG)Grassland Based Systems (LG)Grassland Based Systems (LG)
Grassland based livestock production systems account for the bulk of meat production in
the world. In sub Saharan Africa, these systems account for 12.5% of the total beef
produced. The systems have mainly indigenous livestock though increasingly cross
breeding is taking place. Grass land based livestock production systems within the GHA
contribute significantly to the total livestock in the region. The following section
discusses the three main grassland based systems practiced within the GHA region.
Livestock Only, Arid/ Semi arid tropics Livestock Only, Arid/ Semi arid tropics Livestock Only, Arid/ Semi arid tropics Livestock Only, Arid/ Semi arid tropics and subtropics (LGA) production systemand subtropics (LGA) production systemand subtropics (LGA) production systemand subtropics (LGA) production system
The LGA system is a land based system in tropical and subtropical regions with growing
periods of less than 180 days per year and where grazing ruminants are the dominant
form of land use. Livestock production in these regions account for more than 90% of the
overall production of the regions while 10% or less of the dry matter eaten by animals is
provided by crop production5 (crop by-products, stubbles or annual crops).
This is the dominant livestock production system within the region. The system is mainly
pastoral due to scarcity of rainfall, water and pastures. The region hosts a herd of about
38.5 million cattle (or up to 35%). Managing production risks caused by feed variability is
the single most important problem facing this production system.
As a coping strategy to the feed variability problem, pastoralists attach a lot of importance
to small patches of wetlands that exist within these areas. Lately, Governments of the
5 FAO, 1995
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region are putting financial resources in the development of water supply systems for
domestic, livestock and irrigation use. Environmental concerns and problems of land
degradation that are common within these production systems are discussed later in this
report.
Humid and SubHumid and SubHumid and SubHumid and Sub----Humid Tropics aHumid Tropics aHumid Tropics aHumid Tropics and Subnd Subnd Subnd Sub----Tropics (LGH) production systemTropics (LGH) production systemTropics (LGH) production systemTropics (LGH) production system
This production system is mainly found within the regions of GHA that enjoy more than
180 days of pasture growing period. Such regions include South west Sudan, Northern
Uganda and parts of Southern Ethiopia. This system is home to about 1.7 million cattle
within the GHA. The main challenges hindering expansion of livestock production under
the system are; the prevalence of trypanosomiasis due to tse tse fly infestation, poor feed
quality, poor road infrastructure, limited room for horizontal expansion due to
environmental concerns.
Temperate Zones and Tropical Highlands (LGT) Production SystemTemperate Zones and Tropical Highlands (LGT) Production SystemTemperate Zones and Tropical Highlands (LGT) Production SystemTemperate Zones and Tropical Highlands (LGT) Production System
This system is practiced mainly within the highlands of Central Kenya, Southern and
central highlands of Ethiopia, parts of Southern Sudan and the Uganda highlands where
daily mean temperatures range between 5 – 20°C. This system has seen the introduction
of temperate livestock breeds in the specified regions within the last few years. However,
local breeds still play an important role. Cross breeding through Artificial Insemination
has been promoted as a way of improving the local varieties.
Range is the primary feed resource of the system making the livestock vulnerable to
changing weather patterns. These regions have potential for greater forage production as
has been experienced in the more intensive and similar systems of New Zealand and
Oceania. The system can accommodate various types of livestock especially dairy and beef
cattle and wool sheep.
The overall production from this system is however low as it supports majorly subsistence
production. The main economic contribution to regional livestock production would be
its support to biodiversity, environmental conservation and water catchment. The
balance between intensive production and ecosystem protection remains the biggest
challenge for increased productivity under the LGT system.
6.1.26.1.26.1.26.1.2 Mixed Irrigated Husbandry (MI) Production SystemsMixed Irrigated Husbandry (MI) Production SystemsMixed Irrigated Husbandry (MI) Production SystemsMixed Irrigated Husbandry (MI) Production Systems
Mixed irrigated system of production offers great opportunities for the region. This
system is widely practiced in Asia and industrialized countries and is a strategy to delink
production systems from recurrent weather changes. Africa contributes about 0.1% of the
total world livestock production from the MI systems. The GHA region makes negligible
contribution to the MI system with only Somalia reported to have an estimated 180,000
cattle under the Arid and semi arid tropics and subtropics (MIA) production system.
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Arid and semi arid tropics and subtropics (MIA) production systemArid and semi arid tropics and subtropics (MIA) production systemArid and semi arid tropics and subtropics (MIA) production systemArid and semi arid tropics and subtropics (MIA) production system
The MIA production system is a mixed system of arid and semi arid regions in which
irrigation makes year round intensive crop production feasible. The system is resource
intensive given that water resources are scarce in these regions.
Development of the MIA production system in the GHA is thinly spread with efforts
currently going on in Ethiopia and Sudan. Kenya has, on the other hand put in place
policies that are geared at promoting the system in the dry lands of eastern and North
Eastern provinces. Private investments in parts of northern Somalia has made some
production possible under the system.
6.1.36.1.36.1.36.1.3 Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed Rainfed Systems (Rainfed Systems (Rainfed Systems (Rainfed Systems (MRMRMRMR))))
There are three main categories of MR systems practiced within the Horn of Africa.
These are; Temperate Zones and Tropical Highlands production system (MRT), Humid
and sub-humid tropics and sub tropics (MRH) and arid and semi arid tropics and
subtropics. Mixed rainfed production system is a combination of rainfed crop and
livestock farming in temperate and tropical highlands through which crops contribute
not more than 10% of the value of the total farm output. The system is dominant within
the OECD and other developed countries.
The whole of sub-Saharan Africa contributes to less than 4 percent of meat production
output from this production system. Within GHA, the production system is found in all
the GHA countries except Djibouti and Eritrea. The system supports close to 60% of the
cattle population within the region.
Temperate Zones and Tropical Highlands production system (MTemperate Zones and Tropical Highlands production system (MTemperate Zones and Tropical Highlands production system (MTemperate Zones and Tropical Highlands production system (MRT)RT)RT)RT)
Within GHA, this system is practiced in the tropical highlands of Ethiopia where the
large numbers of livestock provide a variety of services in support of crop production,
Kenya where dairy development and dairy cattle improvement has taken root and a little
bit in Sudan and Uganda. Under the system, livestock provide a range of services meant to
aid crop production such as ploughing and supply of manure under less intensive
production systems. In Ethiopia, the system supports over 30 million heads of cattle
compared to about 5 million in Kenya and just about 1.1 million in Uganda.
This system of production has been the most versatile in the region in response to
technological innovation, adaptation to the negative impacts of climate change and
changing land use practices. The future challenges to MRT production system within the
GHA is the adoption of cleaner production practices that conserve the environment while
at the same time coping with the increasing demand for livestock products.
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Humid and Humid and Humid and Humid and ssssubububub----humid Tropics and Subtropics (MRH)humid Tropics and Subtropics (MRH)humid Tropics and Subtropics (MRH)humid Tropics and Subtropics (MRH)
This production system is based on a mixed farming method under varying socio-
economic and climatic conditions. Within the GHA, the system is prevalent in Uganda,
Ethiopia and Kenya in that order. About 6.9 million cattle are reared under the MRH
productions system within the Horn of Africa. As with the MRT system, this production
system also depends on livestock from traction and manure.
As population pressures increase in the region, the challenge for the MRH production
system is to devise ways of increasing productivity under reduced land resource
availability. The environmental concerns within the GHA make this requirement
necessary.
Arid and Arid and Arid and Arid and Semi Arid Tropics Semi Arid Tropics Semi Arid Tropics Semi Arid Tropics and sub and sub and sub and sub TropicsTropicsTropicsTropics (MRA) (MRA) (MRA) (MRA) Production SystemsProduction SystemsProduction SystemsProduction Systems
The MRA is a mixed production system in tropical and subtropical regions with a
vegetation growth period of less than 180 days. The soils in these regions are normally
less productive and rainfall is usually too low to sustain a complete cropping period.
Livestock production is normally the primary income generating activity.
Worldwide, the system supports about 11 percent of world cattle population and 14
percent of sheep and goats. Within the GHA, this systems supports close to 18 million
heads of cattle and over 50 million goats and sheep. Crop production in this system is very
low and normally for subsistence only. Rangeland degradation resulting into low fuel
wood availability make livestock dung a significant source of fuel.
The other environmental concern within this system is the high methane production per
animal. Methane production from this system is high per unit of meat or milk produced.
There is therefore room for research with respect to livestock breeding and husbandry
practices within these regions.
6.1.46.1.46.1.46.1.4 Production TrendsProduction TrendsProduction TrendsProduction Trends
Figures 6.2 and 6.3 show the production trends of meat and milk across the GHA region.
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Meat production trendsMeat production trendsMeat production trendsMeat production trends
Figure 6.2: Figure 6.2: Figure 6.2: Figure 6.2: Meat Production Trends, Tonnes
(Source: FAOSTAT, 2009)
From the above diagram, most the countries in the GHA, except Uganda, show
improvement in meat production. However the improvement is very small as compared
to more developed countries. In 2007, the average meat production in the GHA was less
than 500,000 tonnes. This figure is very small compared to South African, who produced
more than 2,000,000 tonnes.
Milk production trendsMilk production trendsMilk production trendsMilk production trends
FigureFigureFigureFigure 6.3: 6.3: 6.3: 6.3: Milk Production Trends, Tonnes
(Source: FAOSTAT, 2009)
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The milk production in the GHA is also very low, compared to the amount produced in
more developed countries such as New Zealand. However, all the countries in the region
have shown positive improvement between 1980 and 2007, with Kenya and Sudan
recording the greatest growth.
6.1.56.1.56.1.56.1.5 Livestock Livestock Livestock Livestock Breeds aBreeds aBreeds aBreeds and Performancend Performancend Performancend Performance
The GHA region has a large and diverse reservoir of animal genetic resources, the
majority of which are indigenous and are classified according to the communities and
regions where they are found. The pastoral communities in the region predominantly
own indigenous breeds of livestock whose contribution to livelihood can still be
enhanced if the genetic pool was improved. However, a part from providing basic
livestock products, one other important contribution of the livestock to the pastoral
livelihood systems is draft power. Table 2.6 summarises the merits of indigenous and
exotic cattle breeds within the pastoral ecosystems.
Table Table Table Table 6.46.46.46.4:::: Merits of Indigenous and Exotic Cattle and their Crosses
Relative potentialRelative potentialRelative potentialRelative potential Adaptation and survivalAdaptation and survivalAdaptation and survivalAdaptation and survival
Cattle typeCattle typeCattle typeCattle type Milk Meat Draft power Disease and drought
resistance
LocalsLocalsLocalsLocals Poor Excellent Excellent Excellent
CrossesCrossesCrossesCrosses V. Good V. Good Good Good
ExoticExoticExoticExotic Excellent Medium Medium Poor
Source:Source:Source:Source: Addis Ababa chamber of commerce, 2008
Findings6 in Ethiopia revealed that the country is dominated by the indigenous blood
groups of cattle. Crossbred and exotic animals account for less than 1% of the total herd.
As in the cattle herd, almost all the Ethiopian sheep and goats are of indigenous blood.
Exotic and crosses contribute to a negligible portion, more so in the case of sheep than
goats. Research7 shows that these negligible numbers of improved genotypes in the
Ethiopian national herd composition have a profound impact on the productivity of the
herd.
In Uganda, it is estimated that 95% of the cattle population is composed of indigenous
breeds and only 3% are improved or exotic. Small numbers of exotic breeds exist on
commercial ranches, most notably Boran, and to a lesser extent, the Bonsmara.
In Kenya, however, exotic and cross breeds are present in larger numbers than in any
other GHA state. The Ministry of Livestock Development (MoLD) estimates that 3
million dairy and dairy crosses cattle are kept. Friesian cattle are the dominant breed but
6 Focus Group Discussions held in Ethiopia in May, 2009 7 Addis Ababa Chamber of Commerce, 2008
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Ayrshire and Channel Island breeds are also found in Kenya. In some areas, improved
Boran and Sahiwal bulls have been introduced. About 10% of the adult animals are
breeding males. Zebus are kept by pastoralists in mixed herds with indigenous breeds of
sheep, goats, and camels in the northern rangelands.
Cattle in Somalia8 are mainly indigenous species that descended from Bostaurus, or Zebu.
Productivity is low but can be improved with good management in more favourable
conditions. The Low levels of production characterize most of these species which are
being replaced slowly by slowly. Indigenous breeds especially dairy cattle (Kenana and
Butana) are currently under severe pressure as to the introduction of foreign breeds like
Friesian
6.1.66.1.66.1.66.1.6 Conservation of Indigenous Livestock BreedsConservation of Indigenous Livestock BreedsConservation of Indigenous Livestock BreedsConservation of Indigenous Livestock Breeds
The GHA region generally consists of a rich animal diversity that comprises the bovines,
camels, small ruminants, poultry, pigs and other emerging livestock. This diversity is
important is important in a wide range of environmental, socio-economic and cultural
conditions. Pastoral communities specifically rely heavily or almost entirely on domestic
animal diversity for their subsistence and livelihoods. This diversity provides several
benefits to the pastoral communities. Such benefits include:
i. Food security and household nutrition
ii. Contribution to improved rural livelihoods and economies
iii. Agro ecological management
iv. Animal power and labour management
v. Cultural values and social services
By allowing use of marginal environments, indigenous livestock provide maximum
production from these otherwise low productive ecosystems. They are also valuable
reservoirs of genes for adaptive and economic traits, providing diversified gene pool,
which can help meeting future challenges that may result from changes in production
sources and market requirements.
In terms of knowledge requirements, indigenous livestock breeds and associated
indigenous knowledge have advantages in animal healthcare, with notable economic
benefits. Indigenous breeds are often tolerant to local diseases, whilst herders can easily
solve their animal health problems with traditional ethno-veterinary remedies. In
essence, the use of indigenous breeds and the associated indigenous knowledge entails a
number of labour, economic and environmental values that are critical for livestock
production among pastoral communities.
8 Final Report “Towards a Livestock Sector Strategy” in Somalia, 2004
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6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 Livestock Management PracticesLivestock Management PracticesLivestock Management PracticesLivestock Management Practices
6.2.1 6.2.1 6.2.1 6.2.1 Livestock Management SystemsLivestock Management SystemsLivestock Management SystemsLivestock Management Systems
The type of management practices in livestock production greatly affects yields and
output in the GHA region. Traditionally, livestock production has been an important
source of income for the rural poor in all the GHA countries. It is anticipated that
expansion of livestock production will offer one of the best opportunities for improved
livelihoods and economic integration between pastoralists and farmers in the region
under the improved management systems. Research done in Ethiopia,9 for example,
discloses that the improved scales of animal products such as milk and meat can be
achieved through improving livestock management systems. This research has also shown
that the productivity of indigenous livestock resources that are under traditional
management can be increased, while the cost per unit of output can be reduced if their
management is improved and commercialized. This is also true for chicken and small
ruminants.
Further information on the same indicates that strengthening and expansion of
institutions of higher learning is one way of directly improving livestock management
systems. Production of trained human resource in animal husbandry and health fields in
particular should therefore be done in order to improve productivity and quality.
Findings indicate that individual animal output and output from the national herd as a
whole is low in Somalia. This situation arises from traditional management practices
including relatively poor animal welfare, lack of feed and poor quality feed, and
inadequate provision of health inputs.
6.2.2 6.2.2 6.2.2 6.2.2 Livestock Information ManagementLivestock Information ManagementLivestock Information ManagementLivestock Information Management
Informed planning and decision-making is key for the success of livestock production,
health and management. In the GHA region, it is a major problem affecting livestock
production. Quality and timely information on disease pattern, production levels,
genetics and pastures and feed regimes is mandatory for improved livestock production
and sustainable livelihoods. Hence, capacity in collecting, collating and analysing
livestock data and sharing of generated information are of paramount importance.
Transparency in the animal health matters and traceability or follow up of animals from
“stable to table” is key issues in animal trade and this is made possible by well planned
management of information system. This can be achieved through publishing scientific
journals as Bulletin of livestock production, health and management, development of a
website to be used as one of the main mediums of disseminating information to all
9 Livestock Resource Potentials in Ethiopia: Constraints and Opportunities for intervention by the
private sector, 2008
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stakeholders, establishment of data banks, documentation of experiences and best
practices from the animal production programmes and establish a data base and inventory
of animal and feed resources.
6.3 Emerging Livestock6.3 Emerging Livestock6.3 Emerging Livestock6.3 Emerging Livestock
Emerging livestock are animals that have not received adequate attention in terms of
research and development. These include ostrich, guinea fowls, donkeys, crocodiles and
snakes. Ostrich and crocodile farming seem to be taking root in the region both as a
tourist attraction and as sources of foreign exchange. In some instances, snake farming has
also bee adopted.
To-date there are about sixty (60) ostrich farmers in Kenya concentrated in the arid and
semi arid lands with a population of approximately 10,000 birds valued at about KSh 1
billion. One of the main Ostrich farms in the country is located in Kitengela in Kajiado
(in ASAL) district which acts both as a tourist site and a source of Ostrich meat. The farm
earns the country foreign exchange from its operations. A number of similar farms exist
within the peri-urban areas of the ASALs.
Mamba Village near Bamburi Cement factory in Mombasa is the largest crocodile farm in
Africa. The crocodile is reared largely for its meat and skin. The donkey and the buffalo
are important draft animals and future plans aim at addressing their nutrition, breeding
and disease control. Other non-conventional livestock like the quails, guinea fowls, snails,
snakes and frogs exist in the wild and are a source of meat and skin for export markets.
Uganda Crocs Limited (UCL) is a private crocodile farm in Katebo village in Uganda. The
farm export crocodile products mainly skins to Europe earning the country foreign
exchange. In Ethiopia, Arba Minch is a Government-owned crocodile ranch located in
the southern town of Arba Minch next to the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa.
6.3.1 6.3.1 6.3.1 6.3.1 Developing Developing Developing Developing Emerging Livestock SubEmerging Livestock SubEmerging Livestock SubEmerging Livestock Sub----SectorSectorSectorSector
From the above, it is clear that most strategies on emerging livestock have been left in the
hands of the private sector. Whereas this could be a good case of public private
partnership, the following gaps still remain:
1. Existing government policies across the GHA do not give adequate attention to
emerging livestock. A lot of concentration at policy level has been on the
traditional types of livestock leaving out emerging livestock as part of ‘private
investments’. This approach will need to change to enhance the contribution of
emerging livestock to the economies
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2. Due to the above, sourcing for finance for the development of the emerging
livestock sub-sector remains a difficult exercise and a purely private venture with
government regulations designed more to hinder than to support such investments
3. Licensing procedures for these investments are usually lengthy and complicated.
There is therefore need to streamline the licensing requirements for investments
in emerging livestock
4. Local consumption of emerging livestock products remains low due to cultural and
other beliefs. There will therefore be the need to sensitize communities and
societies on the potential of emerging livestock as normal human food.
6.46.46.46.4 Livestock Composition and DistributionLivestock Composition and DistributionLivestock Composition and DistributionLivestock Composition and Distribution
Most GHA member countries do not have reliable livestock data and as such, livestock
planning is based on approximations and extrapolations of data collected several years
back. Uganda is the only member country with up-to-date livestock data, having carried
out a livestock census in 2008. Table 6.5 shows the livestock population distribution
across the GHA.
Table Table Table Table 6.56.56.56.5:::: Livestock Population
Livestock Livestock Livestock Livestock
typetypetypetype
Population by Country (millions)Population by Country (millions)Population by Country (millions)Population by Country (millions) TotalTotalTotalTotal
Djibouti Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Somalia Sudan Uganda
Cattle 0.04 1.96 40.4 14.0 4.6 41.3 11.4 113.7
Goats
1.0
1.72 16.3 12.0
31.3
42.1 12.5
202.14 Sheep 2.12 20.7 8.0 51.0 3.4
Poultry
(chicken)
- 1.38 32.2 25.8 - 45.3 37.6 142.28
Camels 0.05 0.076 0.4 0.9 6.2 4.4 0.03 12.056
Pigs - - - 0.4 - - 3.2 3.6
Beehives* - - 4.0 1.1 - - 0.8 5.9
Sources: Various
The GHA region has a broad range of livestock species comprising camels, cattle, goats
and sheep, donkeys, pigs and poultry. Most of the livestock are the indigenous breeds.
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Some cross breeds and exotic breeds are also found. This heterogeneity in the genetic
composition of livestock poses major challenges in developing and implementing a
coherent breeding and development programme.
Figure 6.4Figure 6.4Figure 6.4Figure 6.4:::: Livestock Distribution Across the GHA
(Source: FAO, 2007)
6.5 Pastoral Farming Systems6.5 Pastoral Farming Systems6.5 Pastoral Farming Systems6.5 Pastoral Farming Systems
Pastoralism is both a production system and a livelihood support system where livestock
breeding mainly uses spontaneous vegetation resources for pasture mostly in an extensive
fashion either on farm site or in the context of transhumance or nomadism. Pastoralism
in the GHA accounts for about 60% of livestock production.
Pastoral production systems are defined as those in which 50% of the households gross
service comes from primary livestock production or livestock related activities. It has
been observed that pastoralists use dry land natural resources sustainably where other
land use systems cannot thrive. Pastoralists keep mixed herd of grazers and browsers to
ensure that livestock use different resources (grass and shrubs). They also predominantly
have communal ownership and management of land and natural resources so that they
can move freely in search of pasture in different locations at different times of the year.
Figure 6.5 shows a typical pastoral settlement system in Mandera district of Northern
Kenya.
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FiFiFiFigure 6.gure 6.gure 6.gure 6.5555:::: Pastoral settlement in Mandera District
(Source: ALLPRO Project)
The pastoral production systems in Kenya are increasingly being challenged by emerging
socio-economic trends and changes in climate and land use patterns. For example, in
Kajiado District, the movement of pastoralists is restricted due to land subdivision and
titling of already overused lands. In North Eastern Province, a similar trend is emerging
where individuals are fencing off land for private use. Young boys and girls who go to
school from the pastoral communities are also loosing the necessary coping skills for
sustaining pastoral livelihoods. It is important, therefore, to address the challenges of
change management among pastoralists to ensure sustainable livestock development and
sustainable livelihoods.
EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia
The AfDB’s Pastoral Development Study documented extensively the challenges of
pastoralism in Ethiopia. As common across the region, pastoralists in Ethiopia are found
at the periphery of decision making process. In Ethiopia, the federal constitution
recognizes pastoralism as a way of life and protects the pastoral system from negative
attacks. However, other challenges to the pastoral system still exist. These include:
i. Water scarcity and lack of pastures
ii. Poor physical and social infrastructure
iii. Policy initiatives that are not responsive to the needs of the pastoral systems
iv. Environmental degradation of the rangelands
v. Inadequate veterinary services
vi. Poor marketing infrastructure
vii. Lack of financial capital
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Several interventions are ongoing within the various GHA member countries to address
the various challenges facing pastoralism.
SudanSudanSudanSudan is putting in place a programme to establish water harvesting within the known
livestock corridors. EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia is adopting a more integrated approach to pastoral
development by putting in place integrated and multifaceted programmes meant to
address the issues of water, social infrastructure and animal health issues among the
pastoralists while KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya has established a Ministry in charge of the Arid and Semi arid
Lands with a specific mandate to design strategies and interventions necessary to boost
pastoralists contribution to the mainstream economy. UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda has developed extensive
Water for Development strategy targeting water stress areas.
With the above interventions across the
region, pastoral lifestyles are bound to change
as most pastoralists become semi sedentary
agro-pastoralists settling around water points,
business centres and social infrastructures.
Experience elsewhere shows that pastoralists
who are semi-sedentary enjoy better
livelihoods compared to those who are
nomadic.
Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.6666a: a: a: a: Paddocked cattle in Djibouti
For example, the Maasai in Kenya who are nomadic pastoralists enjoy somewhat inferior standards of living compared to their Tanzanian counterparts who are semi sedentary.
This shows that there is need to adopt an approach that encourages the pastoralists to
accept modern husbandry systems.
6.6 Livestock Marketing6.6 Livestock Marketing6.6 Livestock Marketing6.6 Livestock Marketing, Trade and Infratructure, Trade and Infratructure, Trade and Infratructure, Trade and Infratructure
The significance of marketing in the development of sustainable livestock sector cannot
be overstated as effective marketing is a key driver of any sustainable production process.
An analysis of the sector showed that the GHA region suffers from dilapidated livestock
marketing infrastructure (quarantine stations, veterinary checkpoints, stock routes,
holding grounds) and poorly organized livestock market information systems which
constitute major constraints for livestock producers. This lack of market infrastructure
has hampered access to market information by livestock farmers. Improvement of this
infrastructure coupled with a modern market information system has the potential of
improving market access and profitability of the livestock enterprises.
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Livestock market within the
region may be looked at from
three perspectives namely, the
external market characterized by
stringent OIE rules and bilateral
agreements, the regional market
within which countries can
negotiate and agree on various
standards and internal markets
within the individual countries.
Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.6666b:b:b:b: Camels housed at the regional quarantine station in Djibouti
6.6.16.6.16.6.16.6.1 External External External External MarketMarketMarketMarket
Case study of the Regional Quarantine Facility, DjiboutiCase study of the Regional Quarantine Facility, DjiboutiCase study of the Regional Quarantine Facility, DjiboutiCase study of the Regional Quarantine Facility, Djibouti
The livestock quarantine facility in Djibouti is one of the facilities within the region
linking the GHA livestock sector to the market, mostly in the Middle East. The facility
facilitates the export of live animals from Ethiopia, Somalia and Djibouti. Table 6.6 shows
the percentage of various types of livestock received by the facility for the period May
2007 to April 2009.
Table 6.6:Table 6.6:Table 6.6:Table 6.6: Livestock Exports at the Djibouti Quarantine Station
Type of livestockType of livestockType of livestockType of livestock Country of originCountry of originCountry of originCountry of origin Mean weightsMean weightsMean weightsMean weights
Somalia Ethiopia
Sheep and goats 92 8 25-40 kg
Cattle 32 68 Ethiopia: 300-450kg
Somalia: 150-300 kg
Camels 61 39 Ethiopia: ≥ 400 kg
Somalia: ≤ 300 kg
Figure 6.8 shows the number of live animals exported from the facility between March
2007 and April 2008. In terms of numbers, sheep and goats composed 92% of all live
animals exported from the facility during the period.
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Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.7777:::: Live Animals Exports from the Regional Quarantine Centre, Djibouti
(Source: Regional Livestock Quarantine Centre, Djibouti)
Assessment of the Djibouti Marketing ModelAssessment of the Djibouti Marketing ModelAssessment of the Djibouti Marketing ModelAssessment of the Djibouti Marketing Model
The livestock marketing model adopted by the quarantine facility in Djibouti is presented
in Figure 6.8. The facility acts as a linkage between the livestock producers and the
market. Transport of livestock, facilities and services form an important part of the model.
The model is dependent, to a greater extent, on the legal and regulatory framework posed
by the host country and by several other international players. It is further dependent on
the infrastructure on the ground for its transport system.
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Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.8888:::: Regional Quarantine Station Marketing Model
Lessons from the Regional Quarantine FacilityLessons from the Regional Quarantine FacilityLessons from the Regional Quarantine FacilityLessons from the Regional Quarantine Facility
i.i.i.i. Public Private Partnerships in Livestock DevelopmentPublic Private Partnerships in Livestock DevelopmentPublic Private Partnerships in Livestock DevelopmentPublic Private Partnerships in Livestock Development
It is possible to develop a working public-private sector partnership in the livestock
sector. Such a partnership can be at the level of production, value addition or marketing.
The public sector however, must do more to create a conducive policy, legal and
regulatory framework to facilitate such partnerships.
ii.ii.ii.ii. CrossCrossCrossCross----Border Livestock TradeBorder Livestock TradeBorder Livestock TradeBorder Livestock Trade
The regional livestock quarantine facility obtains livestock for export from Ethiopia and
Somalia. These transactions are properly documented and the necessary revenues paid to
the host country. This is an important lesson that can help curb informal cross-border
trade through which governments lose substantial revenues.
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iii.iii.iii.iii. Dealing with Punitive Terms of TradeDealing with Punitive Terms of TradeDealing with Punitive Terms of TradeDealing with Punitive Terms of Trade
Certain trading conditions posed by Western countries have serious negative impacts on
livestock production across the region. Adoption of the model above may reduce a
country’s vulnerability to the general bans that are sometimes imposed by the western
markets on local livestock and livestock products.
Importation of Livestock ProductsImportation of Livestock ProductsImportation of Livestock ProductsImportation of Livestock Products
Table Table Table Table 6.6.6.6.7:7:7:7: Main Livestock Products Imported by GHA Countries (2007)
CountryCountryCountryCountry LivestockLivestockLivestockLivestock product within top 20 product within top 20 product within top 20 product within top 20
imports into country in 2007imports into country in 2007imports into country in 2007imports into country in 2007
Quantity (Quantity (Quantity (Quantity (tonnestonnestonnestonnes)))) Value (‘000 Value (‘000 Value (‘000 Value (‘000
USD)USD)USD)USD)
Djibouti • Milk
• Cattle meat
• Chicken meat
4,996
7,830
5,786
12,171
13,388
5,348
Eritrea • Milk
• Cattle meat
• Chicken meat
94
1457
Ethiopia No livestock product import ranked
amongst country’s top 20 imports
N/A N/A
Kenya No livestock product import ranked
amongst country’s top 20 imports
N/A N/A
Sudan • Whole Milk
• Skim milk
23,266
3,368
153,577
14,423
Uganda No livestock product import ranked
amongst country’s top 20 imports
N/A N/A
Source: FAOSTAT 2009
6.6.26.6.26.6.26.6.2 Regional Regional Regional Regional MarketMarketMarketMarket
Cross border livestock trade represents one of the most significant growth areas of
regional trade in Eastern Africa. The trade is now being considered as one of the few
success stories in the regional livestock sector. The overall cross-border trade in the
region is estimated to be in excess of USD 60 million annually with the GHA countries
contributing to over 70% of this trade. Figure 6.9 shows the growth in cross border trade
between Somalia/Kenya, Ethiopia/Kenya and Ethiopia/Sudan between 1991 and 2007.
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Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.9999:::: Cross Border Livestock Trade in the IGAD
(Source: COMESA, 2009)
Despite its immense capacity to contribute to national economies and poverty alleviation,
regional cross-border trade within the GHA is poorly understood even by policy makers
and as such remains poorly developed. This has ensured that the trade remains largely
informal. Some of the challenges facing regional cross-border trade in livestock are:
i.i.i.i. Marketing InfrMarketing InfrMarketing InfrMarketing Infrastructure within Pastoral Communities along the Bordersastructure within Pastoral Communities along the Bordersastructure within Pastoral Communities along the Bordersastructure within Pastoral Communities along the Borders
The GHA member countries share long stretches of borderline that is usually poorly
manned and lack basic livestock marketing infrastructure. The borderlines lack livestock
holding grounds, security, customs posts, among other vital facilities. In most cases, basic
facilities like customs posts are situated up to 200 km apart.
ii.ii.ii.ii. Market InformationMarket InformationMarket InformationMarket Information
Small scale traders and patoralists often find themselves vulnerable to brokers at the
borderlines due to lack of market information. This makes them lose to the more
informed traders who exploit their ignorance. However, the use of cellular phone
technology is rapidly sealing this information gap.
iii.iii.iii.iii. Animal HealthAnimal HealthAnimal HealthAnimal Health
It is difficult to for pastoralists to effectively participate in the collection of vital livestock
health data and participate in vaccination programs unless they are adequately
empowered through sensitization and effective coordination within the pastoral regions.
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TADs therefore remain a challenge throughout the region due to the capacity lapse at the
borders.
iv.iv.iv.iv. Centralized Decision MakingCentralized Decision MakingCentralized Decision MakingCentralized Decision Making
In most instances, decision making, even at official border points is slow as local
organizations and institutions are entirely dependent on the central government for
decisions related to trade. This encourages local pastoralists to seek alternative and
quicker methods of trading on their livestock.
v.v.v.v. Conflicts and InsecurityConflicts and InsecurityConflicts and InsecurityConflicts and Insecurity
Cross-border conflicts within the GHA have for a long time negatively impacted on trade.
It is reported10 that:
i. CBT between Somalia and Kenya has been halted several times in recent years
due to conflict and by Kenya’s concerns about insecurity in Somalia;
ii. CBT between Ethiopia and Eritrea has been virtually nil since the war between
the countries halted the trade in the late 1990s;
iii. CBT between Uganda/Kenya and southern Sudan was stopped several times in
recent years because of conflict and insecurity.
iv. CBT between Ethiopia and Somalia/Somaliland has been slowed numerous
times in recent years due to conflict, as well as increased confiscations of trade
goods by government officials.
6.66.66.66.6.3.3.3.3 Internal MarketsInternal MarketsInternal MarketsInternal Markets
Over the years, local demand for livestock products has exceeded supply. The GHA
region therefore remains a net importer of most livestock products. Net trade in livestock
products has largely been negative with imports exceeding exports as shown in Figures
6.10a-d.
10 Little, P. D. 2007. Unofficial cross border trade in eastern Africa. Presented at the FAO workshop on “Staple Food Trade and Market Policy Options for Promoting Development
in Eastern and Southern Africa,” March 1-2, 2007, FAO Headquarters, Rome, Italy
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Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.Figure 6.10101010a:a:a:a: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Djibouti
Figure 6.1Figure 6.1Figure 6.1Figure 6.10000b: b: b: b: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Kenya
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Figure 6Figure 6Figure 6Figure 6.1.1.1.10000c:c:c:c: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Sudan
Figure 6.1Figure 6.1Figure 6.1Figure 6.10000d:d:d:d: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Uganda
In Somalia, livestock marketing is mainly a private sector affair through dealers and local
markets. Livestock are used to supply local markets, shipped to various countries in the
Arabian Peninsula, and trekked or transported to markets in Kenya and Ethiopia.
Livestock also enter Somalia through the borders with Ethiopia and Kenya.
6.6.46.6.46.6.46.6.4 InfrastructureInfrastructureInfrastructureInfrastructure
A well developed physical infrastructure is necessary for the development of sustainable
livestock sector. Physical infrastructure across the GHA region and more specifically in
pastoral regions is poorly developed. This has retarded the production and marketing
efforts in the livestock sector leading to widespread poverty.
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Road and Rail Road and Rail Road and Rail Road and Rail transport network within the GHA is generally underdeveloped. There is
generally absence of road and rail network in the pastoral regions and where they exist,
they are generally in poor conditions. There are, however, efforts to improve especially
the road network. Some of these efforts include the ongoing efforts to complete the
Addis-Nairobi highway linking Kenya and Ethiopia. Over long distances though, like in
the case of the Sudan, it is more efficient and cost-effective to transport live animals by
rail other than by road. The need for further enhanced investments in road and rail
within the region can however, not be overemphasized.
EnergyEnergyEnergyEnergy, especially electricity is an important factor in supporting production and
marketing activities in the livestock sector. The energy sector within the GHA is quite
underdeveloped. In Ethiopia, for example, 13% of the population is estimated to have
access to electricity grid compared to about 8% in Kenya. Uganda has only about 6% of
the population covered. These figures compare miserably to those found elsewhere. In
Western Europe for example about 98% of the population is covered while in Africa,
Ghana for example, has 35% access to electric power and South Africa enjoys over 80%
access to electricity. Egypt enjoys about 9% connectivity. There is therefore, need to
invest heavily in the sector to enhance its productivity.
Efficient telecommunicationstelecommunicationstelecommunicationstelecommunications system is a useful tool in bridging the information gap
between producers and markets. It is also useful in ensuring the sharing of data necessary
for decision making by the producers. The livestock sector requires an effective
telecommunication system to support its activities. GHA countries are currently
implementing aggressive telecommunications policies. The cellular phone has gone a long
way in ensuring populations is linked to the national telecommunications grid. In Kenya,
over 50% of the populations now have access to cellular phone. Access to the service in
Djibouti is still beyond the reach of most pastoral livestock farmers. The wireless
telephone system provides a tremendous opportunity to expeditiously and effectively
provide 100% access to livestock producers. This system should be pursued for both voice
and data communication in the sector.
On internet infrastructure,internet infrastructure,internet infrastructure,internet infrastructure, GHA countries are making considerable efforts in ensuring
internet services accessible to majority of their citizens. Access to internet infrastructure
would support production activities in the livestock sector. An international consortium
is currently installing undersea fibre optic cable under The East African Marine Systems
(TEAMS) project that is meant to enhance access to internet services in the region. The
countries of Djibouti and Ethiopia are also in the process of installing their own fibre
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optic cable under the SEA ME WE 5 project. The mobile GSM system provides an
opportunity for 100% access to the internet by producers in the sector.
In general, Livestock marketing Infrastructure Improvement Programme in the region
should focus on the following:
i. A special livestock improvement fund, a credit scheme for livestock
farmers
ii. Physical infrastructure development project, targeting pastoral areas
iii. Marketing infrastructure improvement project
MarketMarketMarketMarket access:access:access:access: Existing markets for most of the livestock and livestock products are
usually located in the major towns and cities. However, in most instances, there exists
localized market centres within the ASAL regions (Delloitte, 2006). Livestock have to be
trekked long distances, sometimes hundreds of kilometers to access markets. There is
need for the establishment of bulking sites as temporary holding grounds for livestock
before transportation to the major markets.
Information: Information: Information: Information: Lack of market information makes livestock farmers in the ASALs
vulnerable to abuse by the few middlemen who are their only source of price
information. Expanded extension services, investments in infrastructure and mass media
can play an important role in ensuring market information reaches the livestock farmers.
6.6.5 6.6.5 6.6.5 6.6.5 Value AdditionValue AdditionValue AdditionValue Addition
Value addition in the livestock sector is crucial to enhanced incomes to producers and the
growth of the sector. Value addition consists of animal control and housing, slaughter,
packaging, conditioned transport, production of cheese, butter, yoghurt and other
products. Production of leather products, dried milk, buttons, dressed poultry, glue,
cooking fat, gun powder are also important to the value addition chain.
It is necessary that infrastructure for primary and secondary value addition be in place in
order to maximize returns from the livestock sector. This infrastructure includes holding
pens, cattle dips, animal housing, abattoirs, tanneries, dairies, cooling plants and other
relevant facilities.
In Kenya, there are private and public sector infrastructure for value addition in the
livestock sector. These include the Government-owned Kenya Meat Commission which
slaughters and processes products from cattle, sheep and goats. Farmers Choice is a
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private sector firm which processes products from pigs, cattle and poultry. The firm
produces sausages, bacon, ham, pork and other products for both local and external
markets. Kenchick Limited processes eggs and broilers for the local and export markets.
In Uganda, Ugachick Limited processes eggs and broilers for the local and export market.
Milk is produced from various animal sources in GHA. These include cows, goats, sheep
and camels. The most developed infrastructure for milk processing exists in Kenya. These
include the state-owned Kenya Cooperative Creameries and private and cooperative
sector firms such as Brookside Dairies Limited, Spinknit Limited, Limuru Dairies, Kwale
Dairies, among others. In Uganda, Sameer Agriculture and Livestock is one of the largest
milk processing firms. Others include Alpha Dairy Products (U) Limited, Jesa Firm dairy
and GBK Dairy Products (U) Limited, among others. Sudan and Ethiopia also have several
private milk processors.
A Delloite/USAID study carried out in 2006, in its analysis of the hides and skins sub-
sector, noted that Kenya has a great potential for value addition. The sub-sector however
experiences the following problems:
i. Low local demand for hides and skins especially for camel hides
ii. Small domestic market due to the closure of tanneries and suppressed market for
domestic leather products sue to uncontrolled importation of second hand
products
iii. Poor quality of hides and skins due to poor flaying and curing methods
iv. High investment costs requirements and stringent standards for environmental
management
The value addition products from the dairy sector include fresh milk, whole milk,
fermented milk, flavored milk, skim milk, condensed milk, dried milk powder, butter,
ghee, cheese and yoghurt, among others. There is tremendous scope for increase in milk
production and amount of processed products. For example, in Kenya, 80% of the milk is
marketed and consumed in the raw form thus reducing the potential for earning higher
incomes. Needless to say, consumption of raw milk also poses health risks. Per capita
consumption of milk within the GHA region is way below the world average at just about
10%. There is therefore, a large potential for investment in value addition capacity in the
region for increased incomes and improved livelihoods.
Quality StandardsQuality StandardsQuality StandardsQuality Standards
In a 2007 study on the Competitive Commercial Agriculture in Sub–Saharan Africa (CCAA) commissioned by the World Bank and the FAO, Sub-Saharan Africa’s inability to
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meet the increasing international demand for animal certification and traceability was
cited as one of the major hindrances to the development of the sector. GHA countries
have suffered a lot in having trade bans imposed on their livestock exports from time to
time. The region continues to put in place measures targeted at helping clear this barrier.
Some of these efforts include:
i. The plans to put up DFZs in Kenya, Uganda and Sudan
ii. Establishment of regional quarantine facilities in Djibouti and Sudan
iii. Continuous bilateral negotiations
iv. Capacity building through participation in Pan-SPSO and other initiatives
v. Construction of new and improvement of existing abattoirs across the region
vi. Efforts to have an integrated livestock information management system for
planning and traceability, among other efforts
6666.7 Financing of the .7 Financing of the .7 Financing of the .7 Financing of the Livestock SectorLivestock SectorLivestock SectorLivestock Sector
6.7.1 Need for Financing6.7.1 Need for Financing6.7.1 Need for Financing6.7.1 Need for Financing
Livestock sector across GHA supports a large section of citizens and livelihoods. The
sector has the potential of attracting rapid economic growth and boosting regional peace
and integration. However, despite its huge potential, the existing financial institutions
within the region do not recognize livestock as possible collateral when providing credit
facilities. No special products are designed by the major financial institutions to target the
livestock sector. Pastoral communities in Ethiopia, for example, have since 2003,
unsuccessfully lobbied for the establishment of a financial institution that would be
responsive to the needs of the pastoralists. This is more disturbing given that no
meaningful economic activity can take effect without a strong financial backing.
Various GHA member countries have recently initiated ambitious programmes meant at
improving the livestock sector. Programmes such as the establishment of DFZs are capital
intensive and may not be adequately financed by the public sector on its own. Donor
support and the support of other private investors may therefore be required if the target
goals are to be realized.
6.7.2 Public Sector Financing6.7.2 Public Sector Financing6.7.2 Public Sector Financing6.7.2 Public Sector Financing
Public sector financing of livestock sector remain wanting throughout the region. It is
surprising that crop production has continued to receive greater attention in financial
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resources allocation from the central government. The following example is a reflection
of public sector financing of the livestock sector within the GHA.
6.7.3 Private Sector Financing6.7.3 Private Sector Financing6.7.3 Private Sector Financing6.7.3 Private Sector Financing
The performance of the livestock sector has largely been dependent on uncoordinated
and spontaneous private sector funding. Consequently, the sector has declined over the
years. One therefore hopes that current efforts by the Government to revive Agricultural
sector in general and the Livestock sector in particular will lead to the provision of
adequate public funds for livestock production and marketing so that the resource-poor
livestock producers particularly in the ASAL areas will receive adequate services.
6.7.4 Cooperative Societies6.7.4 Cooperative Societies6.7.4 Cooperative Societies6.7.4 Cooperative Societies
The cooperative movement has been one of the success stories in Kenya. The sector is
largely financed by the farmers themselves with Government role being largely
regulatory. It has been observed that cooperative societies help farmers benefit from
economies of scale enabling small production systems reduce their costs of production. It
is a potential for the pastoral livestock systems. In this respect, the development of
community ranches is a form of cooperative movement.
6.7.5 Financing of Livestock6.7.5 Financing of Livestock6.7.5 Financing of Livestock6.7.5 Financing of Livestock----related Sectorsrelated Sectorsrelated Sectorsrelated Sectors
Effective financing of the livestock sector must take into consideration the financial
layout of the all the other sectors that input into the livestock sector. These include
related sectors like water, land, environment, pasture, industry and trade. Financing of
these key sectors may be from the public sector, private sectors or from Cooperative
Organisations.
An assessment of the sector financing across the region revealed that the financing of the
livestock-related sectors has been generally low both from the public and private sectors.
Low public sector funding may be associated with low economic growth across the region
while unfriendly investments policies hinder private sector participation. Table 6.8
summarizes the sector financing issues across the GHA.
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Table Table Table Table 6.86.86.86.8:::: Financing of Livestock-related Activities
LivestockLivestockLivestockLivestock----related related related related
sector/industrysector/industrysector/industrysector/industry
FinancingFinancingFinancingFinancing
Livestock breeding and
production
• Public financing remains very low
• Donors and NGOs continue to be active in financing activities
• Pastoral livelihoods is less attractive to investors
Water • Largely public financing
• Investment levels remain inadequate
• Underdeveloped infrastructure require huge capital outlay
• Recent developments show GHA member governments increasing
their funding in the sector (See Figure below)
• Strategies for PPPs need to be developed
Pastures • Near-absent public financing
• Private sector involvement still lagging
• Low funding on research
Land • Funding for policy enactment has been on the rise regionally
• Public sector financing of reforms on the increase
• Private sector funding normally targeted to change of use from
pasture to other industries
Environment • Financing of environmental policies by public sector remains low
• Institutional funding from public and private sectors inadequate
Industry and trade • Private sector participation has been on the increase
• Trade and industry policies are still non-responsive to the needs of
the regional market
6.7.66.7.66.7.66.7.6 Donor Financing Donor Financing Donor Financing Donor Financing tttthrough hrough hrough hrough Livestock Development ProgrammesLivestock Development ProgrammesLivestock Development ProgrammesLivestock Development Programmes
The livestock sector in GHA has benefitted from several programmes and projects over
the years. Some of these programmes have been donor-supported while others are
developed and fully supported by the member Governments. The programmes/ projects
normally derive their objectives and relevance form the national Livestock/ Agriculture
policies from time to time.
In Ethiopia, since 1958, there have been in place several livestock development projects
listed below:
i. The First livestock Development project (FLDP), 1958-1973
ii. The Addis Ababa Dairy development Project (AADDP), 1972-1981
iii. The Dairy Development Enterprise (DDE), 1979 to date
iv. The Second Livestock Development Project (SLDP), 1973-1981
v. The Third Livestock Development Project (TLDP), 1975-1992
vi. The Southeast Range Land Project (SERP), 1981-1991
vii. The Fourth Livestock Development Project (FLDP), 1988-1991
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The National Livestock Development Project in Ethiopia is a recently concluded AfDB-
funded project targeting animal production, animal health, capacity building and forage
development. It was a nationwide project covering nine regional states and two city
administrations with a budget of USD 45 million. The Pastoral Community Development
Project (PCDP) is an ongoing 15 years project jointly funded by the World Bank/IDA
(USD 80 million), IFAD (USD 40 million), Communities (USD 14 million) and the
Government of Ethiopia (USD 5 million). These projects derive their strengths from the
Programs and Targets for a Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable development to End
Poverty (PASDEP), which is the overall policy guiding the sector.
In Kenya, the National Agricultural and Livestock extension programme (NALEP) is an
inter-ministerial implementation framework for the National Agricultural Extension
Policy (NAEP), which was published in December 2001. The main features of the new
policy include pluralistic and demand-driven extension services, based on participatory
planning and implementation by a mix of service providers, including Ministry staff, the
private sector, NGOs and Community-Based Organizations (CBOs). NALEP does retain
some of the features of the Training and Visit system, notably an administration based on
Districts and the maintenance in each District of a cadre of Subject-Matter Specialists
(SMS) and field staff, known as Frontline Extension Workers (FEW). The GOK has opted
for the Unified Extension Service Approach, which uses field extension workers to
deliver advice and assist farmers in the transfer and adoption of technologies. Although
the policy of the GOK is to have a demand-driven partnership type extension service,
which promotes research-extension-farmer linkages, this approach has not been effective
among nomadic pastoral communities in Northern Kenya.
Currently, the AfDB has several ongoing projects in Uganda targeting the livestock and
fisheries sector with budgetary allocation of over USD 52 million. These include:
i. National Livestock Productivity Improvement Project
ii. Tse Tse-Fly Eradication Project
iii. Fisheries Development Project
Southern Sudan Livestock and Fisheries Development Project operates in Sudan at a cost
of USD 42 million. The World Bank-funded project has the following five components:
(1) institutional development and capacity building of Ministry of Animal Resources and
Fisheries (MARF) and State Directorate of Animal Resources and Fisheries (SDARF); (2)
improvement of service delivery for animal health; (3) livestock marketing support; (4)
development of fisheries production and marketing; and (5) rural livelihood support for
vulnerable groups.
Several NGOs continue to support various livestock development programmes across the
region. These include Land-O’ Lakes, ACDI VOCA, Netherlands Development
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Organisation (SNV), Heifer International, ADRA International, USAID, GTZ, Care
Kenya, Care Somalia South Sudan, Oxfam, World Vision, FARM Africa, among others.
6.7.76.7.76.7.76.7.7 Recent and Ongoing InterventionsRecent and Ongoing InterventionsRecent and Ongoing InterventionsRecent and Ongoing Interventions
The AfDB is one of the major development partners in the livestock sector in the GHA
region. Several other development partners have also been crucial in supporting the
sector. The GHA, through the LPI has initiated several livestock
development/improvement initiatives across the region.LPI Similar initiatives by the
AU-AIBAR within the region are given in Table 6.9
Table Table Table Table 6.96.96.96.9:::: AU-AIBAR and Donor Supported Interventions
ProjectProjectProjectProject Countries coveredCountries coveredCountries coveredCountries covered FFFFundingundingundingunding
PACE/SERECU (Pan African
Program for Control of Epizootics
/ Somali Ecosystem)
Ethiopia – Kenya – Somalia EU (4.0 million Euro),
Governments of Ethiopia and
Kenya, FAO, OIE
Rinderpest Eradication and
Control Unit) Final Rinderpest
eradication plan
22 Countries in West, Central
and East Africa
EU (6.0 Million Euro)
NEPDP (North Eastern Pastoralist
Development Program)
Kenya – Ethiopia – Somalia
USAID (2 million USD)
Avian Influenza Emergency
Program Emergency Control of
HPAI in affected countries
(Human & Avian)
13 countries African Dev Bank (6.5 million
USD)
DLWEIP (Dryland Livestock
Wildlife-Environment Interface
Project)
Kenya, Burkina Faso GEF (1 million USD)
SPINAP – AHI (Support
Programme for Integrated
National Action Plans - Avian &
Human Influenza)
47 ACP Countries EU (21.5 million Euro + 1,1
million Euro AU/IBAR)
PANSPSO (Participation of
African Nations in Sanitary &
Phyto-sanitary Settings Office)
47 ACP Countries EU (3.85 million Euro)
SOLICEP (Somali Livestock
Certification Project)
Somalia EU (2.8 Million Euro + 0.3 million
Euro AU/IBAR)
Source: AU-AIBAR, 2008
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6.7.86.7.86.7.86.7.8 Opportunities for InterventionOpportunities for InterventionOpportunities for InterventionOpportunities for Intervention
The funding environment for the livestock sector has been characterised by:
i. Strategic and focussed approach on specific livestock production aspects including
health, trade, environment, livelihoods, among others
ii. The main players in financing the livestock sector within GHA have been the EU,
AfDB, WB, GTZ, DFID, USAID, France, China, Denmark and Thailand. However,
the level of funding has generally been low
iii. Key technical assistance for the region’s livestock sector has been from OIE, FAO,
ILRI, FARA, NEPAD, IAEA and Galv.Med. need to develop local (regional)
capacities for technical support is therefore necessary
iv. Regional Economic Communities (RECs) play an important role in determining
key areas of intervention. Regions with higher capacity for representation at the
RECs are able to mobilise resources much more effectively. There is therefore
need for GHA to develop stronger political and economic ties to enhance the
block’s participation at the REC level
As discussed, there exists a large financing gap in the livestock sector within the GHA.
Several options may be adopted to help bridge these gaps. These include:
i. Advocacy for higher budgetary allocations from the national budget
ii. Mobilisation of resources from development partners for both development and
budgetary support
iii. The donor community should be encouraged to facilitate the growth of the private
sector initiatives through the provision of concessional funds through private
sector financial institutions for the borrowing by the private sector
iv. Development of strategies for Public Private sector Partnerships (PPPs) in specific
projects such as the construction of abattoirs and livestock bulking sheds
v. Creation of incentives for the private sector to get involved in processing and
value addition
vi. Strengthening SACCOs, Cooperatives and other financial institutions to make
credit facilities available for the sector
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6.7.9 6.7.9 6.7.9 6.7.9 A Case for HighA Case for HighA Case for HighA Case for High----input Highinput Highinput Highinput High----output Breedsoutput Breedsoutput Breedsoutput Breeds
The above argument for indigenous breeds in pastoral systems does not in any way
undermine the significance of high-input high-output livestock varieties. While it is
certainly the case that the argument for maintaining biodiversity includes a thread that
regards their indiscriminate promotion as responsible for long term damage to the
environment and a likely incubator for a series of epizootics, HIHO breeds are integral in
feeding the world and therefore need to have a defined place (Blench, 2005).
These breeds have been found to function well in areas where input supply chains are
short and long-term socio-economic stability is assured. This is because HIHO breeds
depend on reliable infrastructure and relative predictability of price of inputs which
partially explains why they have been more successful in Europe and Asia than in Africa
and around cities rather than in rural areas.
Apart from the obvious advantage of high yields expected from the HIHO livestock
breeds, these livestock breeds have other advantages too that include:
i. The breeds can be modified to respond to changing global demand for livestock
products
ii. Ease of standardization of livestock products from different parts of the world and
from varying production systems
iii. At policy level, it is easier to plan for production systems within which HIHO
breeds are produced and managed
iv. Breeding of these HIHO livestock varieties promotes scientific innovation and
research which are vital for planning for new challenges.
6.7.10 Opportunities for 6.7.10 Opportunities for 6.7.10 Opportunities for 6.7.10 Opportunities for InterventionInterventionInterventionIntervention
At policy level, the challenges with respect to AGR include:
i. The development of livestock biodiversity strategies that are in line with regional
policies
ii. Development of a framework of implementation of the above strategies that
allows for input from evolving science, and
iii. Mobilization of adequate resources to support the policies and strategies and to
ensure all stakeholders comply
iv. Development of adequate institutional capacity to drive the above processes
So far, no GHA member country has adequate capacity to carry out the above.
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6.8 Animal6.8 Animal6.8 Animal6.8 Animal----HHHHuman uman uman uman Health ImpactHealth ImpactHealth ImpactHealth Impact
6.8.1 6.8.1 6.8.1 6.8.1 Animal Animal Animal Animal HealthHealthHealthHealth
Diseases and parasites reduce the productivity of livestock in all the agroecological zones.
Epidemic diseases such as RVF, contagious bovine pleura-pneumonia, rinderpest and New
castle disease, fowl pox and the infectious coryza constitute a region wide risk and can
cause high mortalities and severe economic loss, FAO (2004).
The impact of these diseases on livelihoods of the pastoral communities cannot be
overstated. The disease negatively impact on livelihoods at two levels, namely by
disrupting the market end of the supply chain and by lowering productivity and thus
affecting household incomes. Disease prevalence also influences livestock breeding within
the pastoral systems ensuring that only certain breeds are able to survive. Figure 6.11
shows the overall impact of livestock diseases on pastoral livestock production process.
FigFigFigFigureureureure 6.6.6.6.11111111: : : : Impact of Livestock Diseases
(Source: Notenbeart, 2000)
Livestock diseases and poor health are both production and marketing constraints which
must be effectively tackled to enhance sustainable livestock production for improved
livelihoods. The GHA region suffers low livestock disease control and handling
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preparedness. The situation is further complicated by informal cross border trade
characterized by uncontrolled movement of livestock across the regional borders. Table
6.10 shows the top ranked livestock diseases across the GHA.
Table Table Table Table 6.106.106.106.10 Major Diseases/Pathogens in the GHA
Disease/ pathogenDisease/ pathogenDisease/ pathogenDisease/ pathogen RegionRegionRegionRegion
overalloveralloveralloverall
PastoralPastoralPastoralPastoral MixMixMixMixed (Agroed (Agroed (Agroed (Agro----
pastoral)pastoral)pastoral)pastoral)
PeriPeriPeriPeri----urban(small urban(small urban(small urban(small
scale)scale)scale)scale)
RuminantsRuminantsRuminantsRuminants
Ectoparasites A A A
Gasyro-innestinal
Helminthes
A A A A
Respiratory complexes A A B B
Rift valley fever A - D A
East coast fever A A C C
Trypanosomiasis B A B B
Contagious bovine
pleuro pneumonia
B D A B
PoultryPoultryPoultryPoultry
Infectious coryza A B C C
New castle disease A B A C
Fowl pox B B D C
Coccidiosis B E B C
Source: FAO, 2004
Notes on Disease classifications: A: Top 10 ranked disease
B: 11-20
C: 21-30
D: 31-40
E: 41-50
TrTrTrTripanosmiasisipanosmiasisipanosmiasisipanosmiasis is arguably one of the most important animal diseases within the GHA
affecting the survival of especially the small ruminants in the tse tse infested humid and
sub humid zones. Figure 6.12 shows the distribution of tse tse fly within the GHA.
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FigFigFigFigureureureure 6.16.16.16.12222: : : : Tse tse fly Distribution within GHA Region
(Source: FAO, 2007)
Table 6.11 shows the potentially number of cattle across the GHA potentially at risk from
tripanosomiasis.
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Table 6.11Table 6.11Table 6.11Table 6.11:::: Numbers of Cattle Exposed to Trypanosomiasis in GHA
PrPrPrProduction systemoduction systemoduction systemoduction system DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya SomaliSomaliSomaliSomali SudanSudanSudanSudan UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda TotalsTotalsTotalsTotals
LGALGALGALGA 0 0 425,545
11%
865,345
30%
344,500
8%
2,694,820
16%
39,280
15%
4,369,490
15%
LGHLGHLGHLGH n.a. n.a. 42,770
98%
n.a. n.a. 958,060
99%
75,300
36%
1,076,130
88%
LGTLGTLGTLGT n.a. n.a. 16 190
7%
130,830
25%
0 6210
98%
4,700
44%
157,930
20%
MIAMIAMIAMIA n.a. n.a. 0 n.a. 53,030
40%
0 n.a. 53 030
11%
MRAMRAMRAMRA 0 0 1,277,160
15%
1,582,800
77%
146,440
39%
622,200
4%
449,810
29%
4,078,410
13%
MRHMRHMRHMRH n.a. n.a. 1,750,250
100%
889,965
88%
n.a. 10,000
100%
1,635,930
59%
3,814,375
75%
MRTMRTMRTMRT n.a. n.a. 2,209,075
10%
784,360
20%
n.a. 18,930
95%
251,650
30%
3,264,015
12%
OtherOtherOtherOther 0 0 327,430
26%
531,800
36%
128,230
20%
93,910
3%
187,230
43%
1,268,600
18%
TotalTotalTotalTotal 0 0 5,578,420
15%
4,785,110
40%
672,200
13%
4,402,360
11%
2,643,900
43%
18,081,990
17%
Source: FAO, 2007
N/B:N/B:N/B:N/B: Percentages indicate the number of animals at risk as a proportion of the total number of cattle occurring in that stratum
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Livestock trade in DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti is seen as only being sustainable through strengthening of
disease surveillance to respond to importer country needs. Djibouti faces severe drought
conditions due to the consequences of consecutive failed rainy seasons, where erratic
rainfall patterns adversely affect the replenishment of water catchments and the
regeneration of pastures. Delayed rains result in abnormal pastoral migration patterns and
a further depletion of already exhausted pasture and browse in all grazing areas. These
frequent migrations of the Djibouti pastoralists have led to various livestock diseases like
Rift Valley Fever, Foot and Mouth disease, Rinder Pest and what is locally known as
Sougudud. Sougudud is a locally known disease in Djibouti which is caused by a blood
parasite that is transmitted by ticks and is associated with a 30-50 % case fatality rate
according to the governmental veterinary department. Rift Valley Fever, Foot and Mouth
disease in Djibouti are normally predominant during the heavy rain falls.
Livestock diseases in EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia are the major cause of economic losses to the peasant
farmer and pastoralists amounting to hundreds of millions of birr annually. Livestock
diseases are an important cause of reduced productivity in about 80% of the highland
livestock cropping system. This loss of productivity affects the key livestock products
including meat and milk as well as draft, hides and dung fuel. Although many of the
diseases could be controlled by available vaccine technology, timely recognition of the
disease followed by acquisition of the pharmaceuticals are lacking due to the remoteness
of the livestock holder and the shortage of infrastructure facilities to support health
services delivery. Consequently, the majority of disease interventions consist of mass
inoculations following outbreaks rather than preventive measures.
The most common livestock disease in Ethiopia is trypanosomosis. Trapanosomiasis
mainly affects the Southern part of Ethiopia. In Konso district in South Ethiopia for
example, 16% of cattle die each year, 20% of cows abort and more than half the calves die
due to tsetsefly infestation which causes trypanasomosis.
The Borana pastoral communities of Southern Oromia in Ethiopia south of Addis Ababa
are also highly affected by various livestock diseases. Haralo, Dhasi and Gololcha
communities too are highly affected.
The most important notifiable diseases in KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya are Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD),
Anthrax, Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP), Lumpy Skin disease, Contagious
Caprine Pleuropneumonia (CCPP), New Castle Disease, East Coast Fever and
Trypanosomiasis. There are, however, emerging notifiable diseases, like Avian Influenza,
which are of great economic and public health importance. Of more significance also are
the non-notifiable diseases like worms, reproductive disorders, mastitis, scours, zoonotic
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and tick borne diseases that affect large number of livestock in the country and which
need sustained vigilance and surveillance in order to control.
The four main diseases affecting livestock production in SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia11 are Guux
(haemorrhagic septicaemia), Gol (trypanosomiasis), Jadeeco (contagious ecthyma) and
Cabeeb (Foot and mouth disease); Gol (trypanosomiasis), Gooryan (helminthiasis), Boh
(pneumonia) and Cadho (mange); Darato (Babesiosis), Jadeeco (contagious ecthyma),
Kaaddhiig (Anaplasmosis) and Banbirig (bacterial enteritis) and Goryaan (helminthiasis),
Banbirig (enteritis), Gol (trypanosomiasis) and Kaaddhiig (Anaplasmosis) in cattle, camels,
sheep and goats respectively in Somali and English languages respectively. The diseases
have been named in reference to clinical signs, organs or part of the body affected.
In SudanSudanSudanSudan, livestock disease problem is complicated by the vast area of the country and the
fact that it is bordered by nine countries. Livestock cross borders to four or five of these
countries in search of grazing and water with the possibility of communicating serious
diseases into the country. In terms of livestock distribution in the country, Western
Sudan has the most livestock (40%), followed by southern Sudan (27%) and central Sudan
(23%).
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), rinderpest and brucellosis are the most common diseases
affecting livestock in SudanSudanSudanSudan. These animal diseases have taken and continue to take
significant toll on the potential benefits of livestock production. The federal government
of Sudan retains responsibility for controlling infectious diseases and other general
livestock diseases. The government produces and distributes vaccines but the private
sector provides animal medicines. Disease control efforts in Sudan are largely conducted
and funded by international organizations e.g. FAO, UNICEF, VSF and local NGO’s with
the co-operation of the government. The Sudanese government co-ordinates its disease
control efforts through the Animal Health and Disease Control General Directorate
which is under the ministry of Animal Resources.
In UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda, a number of diseases remain endemic. These include; Foot and Mouth Disease,
Contagious Bovine Pleurapneumonia, Tick-Borne Diseases, Helminthosis and
Tripanosomiasis for cattle. In small ruminants, contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia, Orf
and Helminthosis are a serious challenge. Poultry suffers from Newcastle Disease,
Gumboro, Coccidiosis and Salmonellosis. Pigs suffer from African Swine Fever and
Helminthosis. There are also Zoonotic diseases such as Tuberculosis, Brucelosis and
Anthrax.
11 Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium on Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics for Somalia, 2006
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Table Table Table Table 6.126.126.126.12 Some Aspects of Disease Control Initiatives across the GHA
CountryCountryCountryCountry Disease control initiativesDisease control initiativesDisease control initiativesDisease control initiatives Key challenges/gapsKey challenges/gapsKey challenges/gapsKey challenges/gaps
DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti • Sensitization programs amongst key sector stakeholders especially on the most important diseases like Rift Valley Fever and
rinderpest
• Development of guidelines for evaluation of rinderpest
• Strengthening of disease surveillance system.
• The Global Rinderpest Eradication Program (GREP) established by the FAO to develop strategies of disease control in high risk
countries, has been working towards eradication of the Rinderpest in Djibouti
• Weather (drought)
• Low spread of veterinary personnel
EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia • Strengthening of Community-based approaches for provision of livestock services
• Promotion of NGO initiatives aimed at expanding access to livestock services.
• Several National and regional programs and projects on livestock health
• Use of local knowledge
• Strengthening of surveillance of TADs
• Country considering the relatively new concept of compartmentalization
• Mobility of pastoral communities
• Drought
• Exclusion of FMD under a compartmentalized
system as per OIE requirements
KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya • Control of Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR)
• Establishment of Disease Free Zones
• Strengthening of country’s disease surveillance system
• Review of policies and regulatory framework
• Control of TADS
• Financing gaps
• Livestock/wildlife interactions
• Weather (drought)
• Inherent challenges to DFZs
SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia • The Somali Animal Health Services Project (SAHSP) aims at enhancing access by Somali livestock sector stakeholders of improved
animal health services that comply with internationally acceptable standards
• SAHSP is providing support for the establishment of livestock disease surveillance and reporting systems as well as emergency
preparedness and response systems for epidemic diseases of livestock.
• Conflict
• Lack of policy, regulatory and institutional
framework
• Thin spread of veterinary services
SudanSudanSudanSudan • Vaccination programs – emergency and preventive
• Livestock movement control in case of an outbreak
• Therapeutic Secondary Infection management
• Screening at quarantine centers prior to export
• Training of community animal health workers (CAHWS) who administer drugs and vaccines on a fee recovery basis.
• Spatial distribution of pastoralists
• Ease of border crossings with neighboring
countries,
• Big size of livestock populations
• Political instability in the West and South
UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda • Policy formulation and reviews in line with SPS measures on animal health.
• Institutional restructuring.
• Strengthening of extension services
• Strengthening of disease surveillance and reporting infrastructure
• TADS
• Cattle rustling in the North East
• Drought
• Infrastructure
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6.9 Human6.9 Human6.9 Human6.9 Human----Livestock InteractionLivestock InteractionLivestock InteractionLivestock Interaction
6.9.1 6.9.1 6.9.1 6.9.1 Zoonotic DiseasesZoonotic DiseasesZoonotic DiseasesZoonotic Diseases
Zoonoses are defined as infectious diseases that can be transmitted naturally between
humans and wild or domestic animals. These diseases are particularly important in the
context of emerging infectious diseases of humans as the majority of these are of zoonotic
origin Slingebergh et al (2004)12. The above definition of zoonoses fits a wide array of
epidemiological situations. These may be classified as:
i. Pathogens that are largely confined to animal reservoirs – human cases are
infrequent or represent dead-end infections such as anthrax and rabies
ii. Well-established pathogens in both animals and humans such as bovine
tuberculosis, salmonellosis
iii. Others present an intermediate situation with animals as the main hosts, but with
occasional outbreaks occurring in humans, but with a transmission chain leading
to eventual extinction such as monkey pox, Hanta, Lassa and Ebola viruses
iv. Zoonotic agents that gradually adapt to human-to-human transmission and are
readily transmissible between humans. An example is the human tuberculosis
v. Pathogens of animal origin that suddenly appear in human populations (Human
Immunodeficiency Virus [HIV], influenza type A and, probably, Severe Acute
Respiratory Syndrome [SARS]).
The factors that influence the spread of livestock (including zoonotic) disease can be
categorized into four main epidemiological domains (Slingebergh et al. 2004).
i. Husbandry factors
ii. Host metapopulation
iii. Transmission pathways
iv. Pathogen characteristics
Within the GHA, there have been several transboundary zoonotic diseases (TZD)
reported. Table 6.13 shows the main TZDs reported within this region.
12 Slingenbergh, J., et al. 2004. Ecological Sources of zoonotic diseases. Rev. sci. tech. int. Epiz., 2004, 23(2)
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Table Table Table Table 6.136.136.136.13:::: Ranking of Zoonotic diseases in GHA13
RankRankRankRank Production system Production system Production system Production system
rankingrankingrankingranking3333
Species rankingSpecies rankingSpecies rankingSpecies ranking
Disease/Pathogen Disease/Pathogen Disease/Pathogen Disease/Pathogen
(alphabetical (alphabetical (alphabetical (alphabetical
within each group within each group within each group within each group
rank)rank)rank)rank)
Global Global Global Global
indexindexindexindex2222
PastoralPastoralPastoralPastoral AgrAgrAgrAgroooo----
pastoralpastoralpastoralpastoral
PeriPeriPeriPeri----
urbanurbanurbanurban
Cattle Cattle Cattle Cattle SheepSheepSheepSheep BuffaloBuffaloBuffaloBuffalo PigsPigsPigsPigs PoultryPoultryPoultryPoultry
AAAA Anthrax 12 A A A A A A A -
Bovine
tuberculosis
15 A A A A - A - -
Brucella abortus 100 A A A A - A - -
Cysticercosis 17 A A A - - - A -
Rift Valley
Fever(RVF)
7 A A - A A - - -
Tryponosomosis 15 A A - A - - A -
BBBB Botulism 1 A B B A - - - -
Cysticercus bovis 2 A B B A - - - -
Mange 1 A - - - - - - -
Notes:Notes:Notes:Notes:
1. A = top 10 ranked diseases; B = 11-20
2.2.2.2. Disease impact scores (weighted by region/production system-specific relative importance of the
affected species, the number of poor, and the specific region) were normalized to an index of 0 to 100
with 100 representing the highest impact
3.3.3.3. Pastoral systems correspond to the rangeland-based systems (LGA, LGH, and LGT; which may
include large-scale commercial beef production); agro-pastoral systems to the mixed crop-livestock
systems (MRA, MRH, MRT, MIA, MIH, MIT), peri-urban systems to the landless farming systems
(LL).
6.9.2 6.9.2 6.9.2 6.9.2 Strategies for Management of Zoonotic DiseasesStrategies for Management of Zoonotic DiseasesStrategies for Management of Zoonotic DiseasesStrategies for Management of Zoonotic Diseases
In a joint report with other players in the livestock sector, the WHO reports several
strategies for combating Neglected Zonotic Disease (NZD) in Africa (WHO, 2007). These
approaches would apply to the control and management of all zoonotic diseases within
the GHA region. They include:
i. Promotion of ‘one health’ approachPromotion of ‘one health’ approachPromotion of ‘one health’ approachPromotion of ‘one health’ approach to integrated surveillance and control
of NZDs which would include the linking of veterinary and medical
13
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9 September 2009
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aspects at all levels with an aim of promoting and facilitating
communication, cooperation and collaboration across sectors and
disciplines
ii.ii.ii.ii. Advocacy and information sharing and coordination through:Advocacy and information sharing and coordination through:Advocacy and information sharing and coordination through:Advocacy and information sharing and coordination through:
a) Establishment of international and regional resource centres
for producing, gathering and distributing educational and advocacy
materials
b) Establishment of a regional secretariat to coordinate
activities in conjunction with a scientific advisory committee tasked
with facilitating and promoting priority research and training
activities
c) Increased awareness among decision makers
iii.iii.iii.iii. Improved research to include:Improved research to include:Improved research to include:Improved research to include:
a) Integration of research activities with surveillance and
control needs
b) Recognition and support to centres of excellence in NZD
research
c) Promotion of pilot studies in various aspects of NZDs
iv. Enhancement of diagnosis and surveillance at national and regional leveEnhancement of diagnosis and surveillance at national and regional leveEnhancement of diagnosis and surveillance at national and regional leveEnhancement of diagnosis and surveillance at national and regional levelslslsls
through:through:through:through:
a) Ensuring availability of diagnostic facilities and trained staff
at both levels
b) Development and management of reporting systems for both
veterinary and medical data
c) Promotion of systematic collection and assimilation of
relevant data
v.v.v.v. Enhanced Enhanced Enhanced Enhanced control of NZDs through such activities as:control of NZDs through such activities as:control of NZDs through such activities as:control of NZDs through such activities as:
a) Formulation and validation of integrated control packages to
address several related disease/health/ livestock problems
b) Targeting of most vulnerable populations such as rural
smallholders, pastoral communities and urban/peri urban livestock
producers
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c) Carrying out of pilot intervention studies to identify most
appropriate, acceptable, cost effective and sustainable strategies
d) Promotion of cost-effective integrated approach to NZDs
within existing health and agricultural systems
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Table Table Table Table 6.146.146.146.14: Transboundary Diseases Transmitted between Wildlife and Livestock
Disease and causative Disease and causative Disease and causative Disease and causative
agentagentagentagent
Domestic/wildlife associationDomestic/wildlife associationDomestic/wildlife associationDomestic/wildlife association StatusStatusStatusStatus
Rinderpest
Morbillivirus
Wide domestic and wild host range in ruminants and suids.
Wildlife species are poor maintenance hosts; most affected are
buffalo, kudu, eland and warthog. Acute disease seen in cattle,
wild ruminants and pigs
Currently restricted to the Somali ecosystem in
Kenya and Somalia with occasional epidemics
Peste des petits ruminants
Morbillivirus
Wild/domestic small ruminants are the hosts. Disease cycles
endemically in nomadic herds and transhumance introduces it
to native populations
Serologicl evidence in sheep and goats in
Kenya, 2001. Significance due to importance of
sheep and goats to food security
Rift valley fever
Phlebovirus
Many species of Culex and Aedes mosquitoes can transmit the disease. No vertebrate reservoir host identified. Reservoir is
drought-resistant eggs of Aedes
Disease agent endemic in eastern Africa and
causes sporadic epidemics after long inter-
epidemics periods. A pathogenic zoonosis
Foot and mouth disease
Aphthovirus
Wildlife species are not reservoirs except buffalo, which are
persistent carriers of SAT1 and SAT2 serotypes. Highly
contagious and spreads rapidly. Cattle, pigs, sheep, goats and
wildlife (e.g. wildebeest n Serengeti) affected. Types A, O, C,
SAT1 and SAT2 have been isolated in Kenya
Widespread and endemic in cattle and wildlife.
Major epizootic potential. Livestock movement
control and vaccination are priorities for
control.
African swine fever
African swine fever virus
Disease of domestic and wild pigs. Maintenance hosts are
argasid ticks (Ornithodorus spp.); secondary role played by free-
ranging porcine hosts ( warthogs are asymptomatic carriers of
the virus)
Has major epizootic potential. First reported in
1921. Reappeared after 30 years and involved
movement of pigs
Contagious bovine
pleuropneumonia
Mycoplasma mycoides mycoides S.c.
Closely associated with livestock movement and not dependent
on a wildlife reservoir. Sources of new outbreaks are chronic
livestock carriers
Endemic in North Eastern Kenya, Ethiopia and
Somalia. Newly infected districts in central
Kenya. Vaccination critical to control spread.
Brucellosis
Brucella spp
Low prevalence of antibodies in wild bovids in Kenya. Not
thought to be a major problem in wildlife. Difficult to eliminate
disease from pastoral livestock
Prevalence and incidence not well
documented. Limited epizootic potential.
Vaccination of livestock possible
Anthrax
Bacillus anthracis
Outbreaks documented in domestic species in absence of
wildlife. Anthrax in wildlife reported as both sporadic cases and
major epidemics. Links between disease in wildlife and
domestic species unclear
Moderate epizootic potential
Tripanosomiasis
Trypanosoma species
Wildlife including elephant, rhino, buffalo, warthog, hippo and
various artiodactyls are maintenance hosts and are
trypanotolerant, but can show high infection rates with various
trypanosome species. Domestic livestock, horses and dogs
affected
Moderate epizootic potential. Important disease
of cattle and horses. Severely hampers livestock
industry in tse tse fly endemic belts as shown in
Table 6.2
Source: Adapted from Wambua, 2007
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7 POLICY, 7 POLICY, 7 POLICY, 7 POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKLEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKLEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKLEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
7.1 7.1 7.1 7.1 Policy Policy Policy Policy and Regulatory Framework iand Regulatory Framework iand Regulatory Framework iand Regulatory Framework in n n n WaterWaterWaterWater SectorSectorSectorSector
Water is a scarce resource in the ASAL regions. Its scarcity has caused adverse effects on
the livelihoods of the ASAL communities; put at risk vegetation threatened the very
existence of livestock in the ASALs. As a result each country in the GHA has formulated
policies and regulatory frameworks to address water sector requirements in the ASAL
areas.
7.1.1 7.1.1 7.1.1 7.1.1 DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti
Djibouti is classified as one of the driest countries in the GHA. FAO defines Djibouti as an
extremely impoverished country with few water resources. It is often subjected to
prolonged and repeated drought and floods and hence relays on relief food.
Djibouti has always had a water problem and no viable solutions have yet been found.
The major water policy in Djibouti has been to improve water access. But the main
difficulty is that the only available water sources are groundwater and rain runoff, which
are adversely affected by the arid climate and the salt water wedge flowing in from the
sea (salinity is much higher than the limits set by the World Health Organization). The
alternative solution of seawater desalination is complicated because of the initial
investment required, the considerable energy that is needed but is not yet available in the
country, and the possibility of a high cost per cubic meter produced (PRSP 2005).
The Djibouti government through the Ministry of Agriculture targets to increase water
accessibility in the rural areas. In 2006 it partnered with organizations such as UNICEF,
World Food Programme, and Food and Agriculture Organization to implement a project
meant to increase the number of wells fitted with solar pumps in the country so that the
general livelihoods of the people is improved and at the same time ensure.
Water management is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and the
Sea in charge of Water Resources (MAEM), which has delegated drinking water
management and sanitation to the National Water and Sanitation Authority of Djibouti
(ONEAD).
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7.1.2 7.1.2 7.1.2 7.1.2 EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea
Eritrea main policy objectives are to guarantee food security by introducing modern
technology, irrigation, terracing, soil and water conservation, with less dependence on
rainwater. 20% of Eritrea’s population lives in the urban areas and 57% of the total
population has access to safe drinking water. There is no recorded measurement of runoff
is available but only internally produced renewable water resources are available located
in the western part of the country (Fao 2005).
Draft National Water Policy Framework of (1997) was officially in 2003. Recently
efforts have been made to formulate water policies and strategic approaches developed
which include:
i. Provision of safe, adequate and accessible water for all;
ii. Improved coverage of appropriate sanitation in both urban and rural areas;
iii. Integrated management and fair allocation of the available water resources to
meet the needs of all sectors of the population;
iv. Assessment, conservation, regulated utilization and quality protection (that is,
maintenance or enhancement) of all water resources, and also the mitigation of
water-related hazards;
v. Economically and environmentally sound and sustainable water resources
development, according to a prioritized schedule
The Ministry of Land, Water and Environment (MoLWE) together with the Water
Resources Department (WRD) are mandated to regulate water resources and
environment conservation in Eritrea.
7.1.37.1.37.1.37.1.3 EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia
Ethiopia is endowed with a substantial amount of water resources. Trans-boundary river
basins are estimated at 80-90% of Ethiopia's water resources found in the four river basins
namely, Abay (Blue Nile), Tekeze, Baro Akobo, and Omo Gibe in the west and south-
western part of Ethiopia where the population is no more than 30 to 40 per cent. Most of
the Ethiopia’s water resources are shared which dictates a collective responsibility
between Ethiopia and neighboring countries.
A comprehensive and integrated Water Resources Management Policy (MoWR),
prepared by the MoWR, was adopted in 2000. Some of the guiding principles are: i)
recognition of water as a scarce and vital socio-economic resource to be managed and
planned strategically; ii) recognition of water as an economic good; iii) stakeholders to be
involved in water resources management
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Water Resources Policy is to enhance and promote all national efforts towards the
efficient, equitable and optimum utilization of the available Water Resources of Ethiopia
for significant socioeconomic development on sustainable basis. The Water Sector
Development Programme (WSDP) prepared for 2002-2016 aims to improve the existing
situation; however, the investment required for the implementation of this programme
cannot be financed by national funds alone.
The Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) is responsible for the overall planning,
development, management, utilization and protection of the country’s water resources, as
well as supervising all water development activities carried out by other institutions.
Large-scale water supply is also handled by the ministry through its Water Supply and
Sewerage Department. Other government ministries involved in water regulation are:
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural development, Ministry of Energy and Mining, Ministry
of Environment and Tourism, Ministry of Local Government and Ministry of Foreign
affairs.
7.1.4 7.1.4 7.1.4 7.1.4 KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya
Kenya is classified as a water scarce country. Her water resources have been governed by
the Water Act since independence. The National Development Plan 2002-2008
recognizes Kenya as a water scarce country whereby the water demand exceeds
renewable freshwater sources. It is also clear from the National Water Master Plan of
1992 out of 164 sub-basins with perennial river flows, 90 would continue to suffer from
surface water deficit by 2010 while already 33 sub-basins without perennial river flow
have an apparent water shortage.
The funding of irrigation development is in transition as the emphasis has shifted from
government-led development to participatory and community-driven development. As a
result of the change of approach and policy, irrigation development has been categorized
so that schemes in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASAL) have to be developed through
grants, with the beneficiaries providing contribution in terms of unskilled labour and
local materials. Community-based market-oriented irrigation schemes are currently
developed through cost-sharing rather than full cost recovery on infrastructure. Full cost
recovery approach has been discontinued because it has been found to be a hindrance to
irrigation development especially where major infrastructure is involved. In both cases
operation and maintenance are the responsibility of the community.
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The Water Act was reviewed, published and passed by parliament in 2002 to establish
Water Resources Management Authority. Water Resources Management Authority
(WRMA) was created. The WRMA has six catchment based regional offices to undertake
the same exercise at regional level. So that Overall supervision of water services will
consequently be carried out by the institutional framework that gives responsibility for
providing decentralized services to seven regional Water Services Regulatory Board
(WSRB). Environment management in Kenya is carried out by the National Environment
Management Authority.
7.1.5 7.1.5 7.1.5 7.1.5 SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia
Most of the water resources are shared with Ethiopia such as the Setit and Mereb – Gash
rivers, and Shebelle river; Ethiopia carries out upstream developments hence making it
difficult for Somalia to utilize such water resources. This is a great disadvantage to
Somalia which is dry and adorned with limited resources. In the rural areas municipal
water supply is derived from surface dams, boreholes, shallow wells and springs, often
distributed by donkey carts to households.
In Somaliland, a draft water Act and a Water Policy were prepared in 2004. The
ownership of land and water is based on the Somali social organization where each clan is
associated with a particular territory. The law says that water is public property but
allows appropriation and usage is acquired by administrative permits
The adoption of the Somaliland water policy, strategy and act (in 2005) was followed up
in 2007 with assistance to roll out and promote the policy, and in Puntland to develop a
water policy. Building on the successful use of public-private partnerships as a model for
managing water systems, three new towns made concrete progress towards setting up a
water company under municipal/central government oversight. Management support and
training to established water companies, agencies and boards continued, with four billing
systems installed and four water boards trained.
The water regulation body is Somalia Aid Coordinating Body (SACB) was created in 1994
and partners include donor governments, United Nations (UN) agencies and international
and local non-governmental organizations (NGOs). This umbrella body works closely
with Food Security Assessment Unit (FSAU) through regular assessments of vulnerability
and food economy. Bodies that regulate water in at community level Canal committees
and water use associations also exist in some areas, but there is no clear pattern of water
allocation rights and fees
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7.1.6 7.1.6 7.1.6 7.1.6 SudanSudanSudanSudan
In Sudan most of the population lives along the Nile and its tributaries, and some of the
people live around water points scattered around the country. The erratic nature of the
rainfall and its concentration in a short season places exposes Sudan in a vulnerable
situation, especially in rainfed areas. Surface water in Sudan comprises the Nile river
system (nilotic water) and other, non-nilotic streams. 64 percent of the Nile Basin lies
within Sudan, while 80 percent of Sudan lies in the Nile Basin (FAO Statistics 2007).
Sudan water policy is focused on increase of water accessibility to communities that live
away from Nile River System. However,there has limited efforts to implement policies
and strategies in the water sector because of prolonged political instability hence water
access for most of the communities has been limited especially those living in the dry
lands.
The Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources (MIWR) is the federal body in Sudan
legally responsible for all water affairs. It offers technical advice and assistance to water
projects within the states and the private sector. It is in charge of the groundwater, the
non-nilotic streams and valleys under the Groundwater and Wadis Directorate. It
undertakes this task in coordination with the relevant sectors, departments and technical
offices. It also offers technical advice and assistance to water projects within the states
and the private sector. It is in charge of the groundwater, the non-nilotic streams and
valleys under the Groundwater and Wadis Directorate.
Other government organizations that regulate water use include, The Ministry of
Agriculture and Natural Resources (MANR) supervises the Agricultural Corporations that
manage the large irrigation schemes. Other relevant Ministries for the water sector
include, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Ministry of Energy and Mining,
Ministry of Finance and National Economics, Ministry of Environment and Tourism,
Ministry of Local Government and Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
7.1.77.1.77.1.77.1.7 UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda
Water sector is one of the priority sectors in Uganda emphasized in the National Poverty
Eradication Action Plan (PEAP). The Uganda government initiated reforms in the water
sector, in 1997. Reforms advocated for the adoption of a ‘Sector Wide Approach to
Planning (SWAP)’ for the sector which guarantees the participation of all stakeholders in
the planning and implementation of water sector activities. The government targets to
improve a water coverage so that the population can have access to an improved water
source within a walking distance of 1.5 Km in a rural area and 0.2 Km in the urban area
by 2010 (ROU 2005).
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The constitution of the Republic of Uganda provides the broad legal and policy
framework within which all water sector legislation, policies and development plans are
developed. The framework comprises of a set of policies and laws the most notable of
which include: The National Water Policy (1999); The Water Statute (1995); The
National Water and Sewerage Corporation Statute (1995), and the Local Government Act
(1997). It is under this framework that the government of Uganda is involved in projects
for the surface water abstraction, ground water abstraction and drilling of boreholes in
the ASALs to provide water for domestic use and for the livestock found in this areas..
The Ministry of Water, Lands and Environment (MWLE) has the overall responsibility
for initiating the national policies and for setting national standards and priorities for
water development and management. The Directorate of Water Development (DWD) is
the leading Government agency responsible for managing water resources, coordinating
and regulating all sector activities. Other ministries in the water sector are Ministry of
Agriculture, animal industry and Fisheries (MAAIF), Ministry of Energy and Mineral
Development, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Local Government.
7.2 7.2 7.2 7.2 Policy and Policy and Policy and Policy and Regulatory Framework Regulatory Framework Regulatory Framework Regulatory Framework in Pasturein Pasturein Pasturein Pasture
Livestock is vital to the economies of many developing countries, and especially those of
the Greater Horn of Africa. In order to ensure food security and poverty reduction in the
ASALs region, countries in the GHA have targeted livestock development. Sustainable
livestock development therefore calls for policies that target livestock production, health,
breading, livestock feed and markets. However, ASALs in the GHA are characterized by
low rainfall and consequently poor vegetation cover which substantially reduces pastures
and forage for livestock consumption. Policy and regulatory frameworks that pastures in
the GHA countries are varied since pasturelands are largely dependent on the land tenure
systems in each country.
7.2.1 7.2.1 7.2.1 7.2.1 DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti
Djibouti experiences prolonged droughts which contribute to the drying up of
pasturelands. Arable land is 0.04% of the total land area while 99.96% comprises of
permanent meadows and pastures, forests and woodlands, built-on areas, roads, barren
land. The government of Djibouti has partnered with FAO in supporting a Technical
Cooperation Programme project which to provide vegetable and fodder crop seed to 7000
vulnerable farming families. The project is also assuring provision of hoes, rakes, watering
cans, and salt licks for livestock.
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Rangelands biodiversity forms an extremely important part of community livelihoods in
Djibouti, because they provide pasture and fodder for animals. In the recent past Nomads
have benefitted from some rural development programs, particularly pasture hydraulics
and animal health programs to improve their livestock and the creation of forage
perimeters. However, because of the persistence of drought, which has become cyclical,
nomads live in a state of chronic food insecurity (PRSP 2008).
7.2.2 7.2.2 7.2.2 7.2.2 EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea
Ownership of land in Eritrea is the exclusive right of the government. The government
includes relating to its management as resource from environmental and economic
perspectives is a process by which the resources of land are put into good effect for the
best use of humans. Most of the pastureland in the dry districts are a high risk of drying
up because prolonged droughts.
In order to ensure pasturelands are protected the government has pursued permanent and
temporary closures. The two categories of closures are found throughout the country the
first is implemented for unlimited period of time and is called "Permanent Closure" and
the other is called "Temporary Closure" and is carried out for a limited period of time, for
a few months to a few years. The immediate objectives of the permanent forest and
woodland closures are to create favourable conditions for a vegetation recovery through
natural regeneration, develop pastoral reserves for the growing livestock and woody
biomass for the local people, to protect the endangered tree and avi-fauna species from
extinction; control of runoff and loss of arable land by erosion, and increase infiltration
for water conservation and for more soil moisture.
7.2.3 7.2.3 7.2.3 7.2.3 EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia
In Ethiopia there are Constitutional provisions for pastoral land in Ethiopia therefore
livestock in the ASALs areas benefit from organized pastoral systems.Ethiopia has over
the years practiced the use.The indigenous agroforestry systems that are in operational in
the country are a mix of silvopastoral and agrosilvopastoral systems. Ethiopian drylands
account for more than two-thirds of the total landmass. There are enclosure areas is
common in many parts of Ethiopia, especially in northern Ethiopia Apart from providing
critically needed fodder for livestock, enclosure areas are also important in conservation
of dryland biodiversity.
The local community is involved in delineating the boundaries of the enclosure area.
Northern Ethiopia (Tigray region) is the hillside distribution system, in which communal
hillside plantations in degraded elevations are planted with eucalyptus and set aside as
pasturelands. Individual planting of trees was adopted as the mode of replanting the
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hillsides. The hillside distribution system has been in operation for over a decade now,
and has been adopted by the Tigray Regional government through the Bureau of
Agriculture and Natural Resources as a means of allocating land in degraded hillsides to
landless members of communities.
7.2.4 7.2.4 7.2.4 7.2.4 KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya
Land tenure systems in Kenya are characterized by private/modern,
communal/customary, public/state and open access. Pastureland in the ASAL regions are
communal or customary or at times open access land. These in ASAL regions in Kenya
have degenerated over time destroying the pastureland and forage cover.
Land laws in Kenya entrenches policies on land and natural resources management.The
government of Kenya has also adopted policies to rehabilitate such areas to enhance
pasture growth through various donor projects. Institution for pasture seed production.
The project operates a technology dissemination system that is hinged on application
extension tools such as Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRA) and Community Action
Plans (CAP). These tools are used for community-based diagnosis and prioritization of the
felt needs of the community as well as planning the implementation schedules and
frameworks of the suggested interventions. Both tools enhance the participation of
farmers and pastoralists in agroforestry programmes. The physical planning act which
guides any physical implementation plan. It guides the creation of Parks, rangelands
7.2.5 7.2.5 7.2.5 7.2.5 SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia
Somalia has one of the highest inter-annual variations of rainfall of any mainland African
state, and it is this variability that has the most pervasive influence on pastoral and
agropastoral production systems. Somalia’s agro-pastoralist and settled farmers live in
villages or small settlements where water resources are reliable, while the nomadic
pastoralists move seasonally with their livestock depending on the availability of pasture
and water. Somalia lacks a central government that would ensure that enactment of a
land policy in the country.
7.2.6 7.2.6 7.2.6 7.2.6 SudanSudanSudanSudan
Rangelands form an immense natural resource and the major source of feed for the
national herd. The various types of grazing land vary from open grasslands to seasonal
water courses, flood plains, river banks and associated islands, woodlands, hills and
mountain slopes.
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Desert Zone grazing lands consist of ephemeral herbs and grasses confined to water
courses and flat low lying areas that receive runoff. The valuable ‘Gizzu’ grazing
(succulent plants) is part of this zone and supports sheep and camels during the cool
season without the need for drinking water.
7.2.7 7.2.7 7.2.7 7.2.7 UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda
Some of the problems affecting the drylnands of Uganda have been cited as overgrazing,
deforestation, inappropriate farming systems, land and tree tenure and bush burning.
Enactment of the Land Act (1998) in Uganda is the framework within which Policies on
land and natural resources management. The policy framework for institutionalization of
the concept of agroforestry in Uganda is in place. The Government’s Plan for the
Modernization of Agriculture (2000), the Forest Policy (2001) and the National Forest
Plan (2002) all are supportive of the promotion and adoption of agroforestry as a strategy
for poverty alleviation.
7.2.8 Summary of Policy Interventions7.2.8 Summary of Policy Interventions7.2.8 Summary of Policy Interventions7.2.8 Summary of Policy Interventions
Table 7.2:Table 7.2:Table 7.2:Table 7.2: Policy Interventions in Water and Pasture
CountryCountryCountryCountry ResourceResourceResourceResource Policy reform and objectivePolicy reform and objectivePolicy reform and objectivePolicy reform and objective Country statusCountry statusCountry statusCountry status Priority Priority Priority Priority
S-T M-
T
L-
T
DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti Pasture Harmonization of sector
laws
• Legislative reforms needed
National land policy • Need for national livestock
policy
√ √
Early warning system
droughts
Land use policy mapping
• Link country to the √ √
√ √ √
Water Legislation on water • No clear strategies and policy
on water
Decentralized water
management bodies
• Centralized water
management for the rural
areas
√
Coordination of institutions
in water management
• Fragmented functions √ √
Increase capacity to
implement water projects
• Costly to tap underground
water
√ √ √
Form a overall body to
operate water resources
• ONEAD not able to
streamlines operations in the
sector
√ √ √
EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea Pasture Land use mapping • Non existent √ √
Early warning system • Country developing a pilot
that could serve as a useful
model
√ √
Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and Rangelands not
mapped
√
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CountryCountryCountryCountry ResourceResourceResourceResource Policy reform and objectivePolicy reform and objectivePolicy reform and objectivePolicy reform and objective Country statusCountry statusCountry statusCountry status Priority Priority Priority Priority
Animal feeds • Strategy for feed
improvement needed
√ √
Water Coordination of water
management institutions
• Functions are fragmented
Amendments on national
water policy to allow for
decentralized water boards
• The ministry Ministry of
Land, Water and
Environment (MoLWE)
centrally operated.
√
Strengthen capacity to
access underground water
• Limited number of sunk
boreholes
√ √
•
EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia Pasture Harmonization of sector
laws
• Proposals for legal reforms
underway
• Need for enhanced regional
cooperation on livestock
health
√ √ √
Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and Rangelands not
mapped
√
Animal genetic resource and
breeding
• Law required √ √
Extension services • Implement the commodity-
based development strategy
√ √
Water •
Strengthen Decentralized
systems
• √
√
Improve Efficiency in
Community water
management bodies
• Exist but access people access
water points
√
√
√
Strengthen capacity on
operation and maintenance
• Maintenance of existing
projects
√
√
√
KeKeKeKenyanyanyanya Pasture Harmonization of sector
laws
• On going √ √
Early warning system • Need to strengthen the
country’s EWS and link it
to the GHA EWS
√ √ √
Land tenure rights and
security
• Implementation of the
National land policy
√ √ √
Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and rangelands
improvement policy needed
√ √
Water National water storage
policy to be enacted
• to be enacted √
Strengthen decentralized
water management bodies
• Regional water boards exist
and require
√ √ √
Increase capacity to • Costly to tap √ √
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CountryCountryCountryCountry ResourceResourceResourceResource Policy reform and objectivePolicy reform and objectivePolicy reform and objectivePolicy reform and objective Country statusCountry statusCountry statusCountry status Priority Priority Priority Priority
implement water projects underground/rain water in
ASALs
•
SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia Pasture Conflict resolution • Resolve conflict in the
country to open it up for
policy, legislative and
institutional development
√ √ √
Early warning system • Put in place an EWS for the
country
√ √ √
Water National water policy • No clear strategies on water
policy water policy and
strategy endorsed in 2004
Decentralized water
management bodies at
community level
• Centralized water
management by UN in
partnership with others
donors
√ √ √
Increase capacity to
implement water projects
• Costly to tap underground
water
√ √ √
Technical support • No government/Ministry of
water is non functional
√ √ √
SudanSudanSudanSudan Harmonization of sector
laws
• Proposals for reform
harmonization already
made at country level
√ √
Early warning system • No action yet √ √ √
Land tenure rights and
security
• Proposed law to establish
land commission
• Modification of law on
settlement and registration
of land of 1925
√ √
Pasture and rangelands • Proposed law on the
protection of the
environment
√ √
Animal alternative feeds • Proposed law on forage and
animal feeds
√ √
Water National water policy • No clear strategies on water
policy
√
National policy on water
storage
• Formulation on going √
Strengthen capacity of
decentralized water
management bodies
• Centralized water
management for the rural
areas
√ √
Increase capacity to
implement water projects
• Nile basin projects not
enough to meet water needs
√ √
UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda Harmonization of sector
laws
• Significant progress made in
enacting new laws in line
with regional needs
√
Early warning system • No action yet √ √ √
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa September 2009
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CountryCountryCountryCountry ResourceResourceResourceResource Policy reform and objectivePolicy reform and objectivePolicy reform and objectivePolicy reform and objective Country statusCountry statusCountry statusCountry status Priority Priority Priority Priority
Land tenure rights and
security
• Policy exists. Pastoral
tenure rights not clearly
articulated
√ √
Pasture and rangelands • Proposed pasture and
rangelands policy
√ √
Water National water policy • No clear strategies on water
policy
Decentralized water
management bodies
• One body manages water
resources
√
Increase capacity to
implement water projects
• Costly to tap
underground/rain water
National water storage
policy
• Non existent √ √
Legend Legend Legend Legend
S-T, Short Term (< 5 years)
M-T, medium Term (5-10 years)
L-T, long Term (Over 10 years)
7.3 Livestock Policy and Regulatory Fram7.3 Livestock Policy and Regulatory Fram7.3 Livestock Policy and Regulatory Fram7.3 Livestock Policy and Regulatory Frameworkeworkeworkework
7.3.1 7.3.1 7.3.1 7.3.1 Regulatory FrameworkRegulatory FrameworkRegulatory FrameworkRegulatory Framework
The fact that virtually all GHA states are actual or potential exporters of livestock
products means that the internal aspect of the regulatory framework has to be shaped
around the needs of the external one, thereby necessitating a continual process of
adjustment.
The GHA countries are signatories of the major international regulatory institutions
including the World Trade Organization (WTO) that governs international trade, Codex
Alimentarius that sets international standards for food safety, and OIE which deals with
trade aspects of international animal health. While all GHA countries belong to the OIE,
Djibouti and Somalia are not signatories to Codex while only Djibouti, Kenya and Uganda
are Members of WTO.
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(i) Exte(i) Exte(i) Exte(i) External Dimension rnal Dimension rnal Dimension rnal Dimension of of of of Livestock PolicyLivestock PolicyLivestock PolicyLivestock Policy andandandand Regulatory FrameworkRegulatory FrameworkRegulatory FrameworkRegulatory Framework
Table 7.3:Table 7.3:Table 7.3:Table 7.3: GHA Membership in the WTO, Codex and OIE
CountryCountryCountryCountry WTOWTOWTOWTO CodexCodexCodexCodex OIEOIEOIEOIE
Djibouti X X
Eritrea X X
Ethiopia X X
Kenya X X X
Somalia X
Sudan X X
Uganda X X X
GHA countries are members of regional economic blocs which dictate. These economic
blocks promote various terms of trade depending on prevailing conditions. The blocks
also negotiate multilateral agreements on behalf of member countries. Stronger economic
blocks have stronger bargaining power in the international market. Any regulatory
framework adopted by the GHA must therefore take consideration of the variations
within the economic blocks shown in Figure 7.1.
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Figure 7.1Figure 7.1Figure 7.1Figure 7.1: : : : Major Economic Blocks across Africa
(Source, IGAD, 2009)
(ii) Internal Dimension of the Regulatory Framework(ii) Internal Dimension of the Regulatory Framework(ii) Internal Dimension of the Regulatory Framework(ii) Internal Dimension of the Regulatory Framework
This is made up of the laws, institutions and practices of the GHA member states
themselves acting alone or as part of a regional initiative.
GHA GHA GHA GHA Level:Level:Level:Level:
• GHA does not yet have a common policy and legal framework for trade in
livestock products and its members are free to pursue their own policies
individually or in cooperation with others
• The result is a rather fragmented regulatory approach to what are fairly similar, if
not identical, policy challenges. Not only are GHA member states not developing
an GHA-wide framework, different countries are pursuing a multiplicity of
different and sometimes overlapping bilateral and regional initiatives
• The absence of a coordinated policy in a situation of porous borders has the
potential to hinder the smooth development of the livestock sector in the entire
GHA region. GHA member states can do more to harmonize their policy
initiatives in the livestock which is vital to their economies;
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At the national level, there are significant differences among the national legal systems of
the GHA member states, particularly those of Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan;
• There is need for greater convergence, reflecting the commonality of challenges
faced and the often identical requirements that have to be met in order to
participate in the international market.
• Their internal regulatory challenges are also increasingly similar, including:
o Incomplete, out-dated and incoherent sanitary and food safety regulations
o Multiple and excessive taxation of livestock destined for export
o Legal uncertainties, weak and inefficient judiciary,
o Disregard for the rule of law in day-to-day administrative decision making
o lack of effective coordination among different levels of government in the
enforcement of laws
o Absence of established communication channels between stakeholders in
the livestock industry and relevant government institutions, and
o Overall lack of capacity to use law as an instrument to implement policy
decisions.
Most of these problems are mere manifestations of the general underdevelopment of the
countries’ legal systems and they can only be overcome gradually and as part of long-term
overall development objectives.
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7.3.27.3.27.3.27.3.2 Institutional FrameworkInstitutional FrameworkInstitutional FrameworkInstitutional Framework
The institutional arrangement of the regional livestock sector is presented in Table 7.4
Table 7Table 7Table 7Table 7.4.4.4.4:::: Institutional Roles within the Livestock Sector
LevelLevelLevelLevel InstitutionsInstitutionsInstitutionsInstitutions RolesRolesRolesRoles
GlobalGlobalGlobalGlobal OIE Setting up of international market standards
FAO Collection and dissemination of information
WHO Monitoring quality standards and designing response mechanisms
ILRI Research
Others Advocacy, research, marketing etc
RegionalRegionalRegionalRegional GHA Policy advocacy
Information gathering and dissemination
NGOs Implementation of livestock development activities
Community sensitization
ILRI Research
Others Advocacy, research, marketing etc
NationalNationalNationalNational Relevant ministries Policy formulation
Regulation
National research institutions Research
Other specialized national
institutions
Advocacy, research, marketing etc
LocalLocalLocalLocal Farmers organizations Capacity building
Implementation
Marketing
Cooperative societies Production
Marketing
NGOs Capacity building
Marketing
Data collection and dissemination
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7.3.37.3.37.3.37.3.3 Proposed Interventions in LivestockProposed Interventions in LivestockProposed Interventions in LivestockProposed Interventions in Livestock Policy and RegulatoryPolicy and RegulatoryPolicy and RegulatoryPolicy and Regulatory FrameworkFrameworkFrameworkFramework
Table 7.Table 7.Table 7.Table 7.5555:::: Policy Interventions
CountryCountryCountryCountry Policy reform anPolicy reform anPolicy reform anPolicy reform andddd
objectiveobjectiveobjectiveobjective
Country statusCountry statusCountry statusCountry status Priority Priority Priority Priority
DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti Harmonization of sector
laws
• Legislative reforms needed S-T M-T L-T
National livestock policy • Need for national livestock policy √ √
Early warning system • Link country to the GHA EWS √ √
Livestock census • Livestock census last carried out in 1980 √ √
Animal genetic resource
and breeding
• Need for collaboration at regional level to collect and
preserve genetic resources
√ √ √
Veterinary services • Country needs veterinary personnel √ √ √
Hides, skins, leather and
trade
• Country needs to enhance its position as regional
livestock trading centre
√ √ √
EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea Need for enhanced
regional cooperation on
livestock health
• Policy does not meet pastoralist needs for their livestock √ √ √
Land tenure rights and
security
• Land is government owned √ √ √
Sedentarization of
pastoralists
• Pastoralist move from one place to the other √ √ √
•
•
EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia Harmonization of sector
laws
• Proposals for legal reforms underway
• Need for enhanced regional cooperation on livestock
health
√ √ √
National livestock policy • No national livestock policy √ √
Early warning system • Country developing a pilot that could serve as a useful
model
√ √
Livestock census • Required √ √
Land tenure rights and
security
• Land laws exist and constitution recognizes pastoral
lifestyles. Enforcement of constitutional provisions still
lagging
√ √
Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and Rangelands not mapped √
Animal genetic resource
and breeding
• Law required √ √
Dairy development • Comprehensive policy required √ √
National meat policy • Required √ √
Animal feeds • Strategy for feed improvement needed √ √
Hides, skins and leather • Enhance operational capacity of existing tanneries from
45% to 90%
• Improve quality of hides and skins
√ √
Marketing, trade and
infrastructure
• Development of livestock holding areas as an alternative
to DFZs
• Improvement of market centres, roads,
telecommunications and electricity supply
• Enhancement of the cooperative movement
• Regulation of live animal transportation
√ √ √
Honey and beeswax
production
• Need to formulate policy to deal with product
adulteration
√ √
Extension services • Implement the commodity-based development strategy √ √
KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya Harmonization of sector
laws
• On going √ √
Early warning system • Need to strengthen the country’s EWS and link it to the
GHA EWS
√ √ √
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CountryCountryCountryCountry Policy reform anPolicy reform anPolicy reform anPolicy reform andddd
objectiveobjectiveobjectiveobjective
Country statusCountry statusCountry statusCountry status Priority Priority Priority Priority
Livestock census • Required √
Land tenure rights and
security
• Implementation of the National land policy √ √ √
Pasture and rangelands • Pasture and rangelands improvement policy needed √ √
Animal genetic resource
and breeding
• Law required √ √
Dairy development • Dairy development policy in place -
National meat policy • Required. The meat control bill under discussions √ √
Veterinary services • Veterinary Disease Control Bill drafted. Need for
inclusion of emerging diseases in the bill
√
Marketing, trade and
infrastructure
• Opening up of northern Kenya through establishment of
road network
• Improvement of livestock marketing infrastructure such
as market centres, holding yards, etc
√ √ √
SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia Conflict resolution • Resolve conflict in the country to open it up for policy,
legislative and institutional development
√ √ √
Veterinary services • Boos country’s capacity to manage livestock diseases √ √ √
Early warning system • Put in place an EWS for the country √ √ √
SudanSudanSudanSudan Harmonization of sector
laws
• Proposals for reform harmonization already made at
country level
√ √
National livestock policy • Part of Agriculture Revival Programme, 2008 √ √
Early warning system • No action yet √ √ √
Livestock census • Last census in 1976 √ √
Land tenure rights and
security
• Proposed law to establish land commission
• Modification of law on settlement and registration of
land of 1925
√ √
Pasture and rangelands • Proposed law on the protection of the environment √ √
Animal genetic resource
and breeding
• Law on Livestock genetic resources proposed √ √
Dairy development • Proposed law on dairy development products √ √
National meat policy • Proposed law on production of meat and meat products
• Revision of the law on meat health and inspection of
1974
√ √
Animal feeds • Proposed law on forage and animal feeds √ √
Veterinary services Modification of laws on : Modification of laws on : Modification of laws on : Modification of laws on :
• Veterinary quarantines, 2004
• Cattle routes surveillance, 1974
• Contagious livestock diseases, 2001
• Disease free zones, 1973
√ √ √
Hides, skins and leather • Modification of law on Sudanese Hides and skins, 1954 √ √
Marketing, trade and
infrastructure
ProposProposProposProposed laws on:ed laws on:ed laws on:ed laws on:
• Organisation of livestock markets
• Competition and dumping
• Organisation of international trade in livestock and its
products
√ √
UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda Harmonization of sector
laws
• Significant progress made in enacting new laws in line
with regional needs
√
National livestock policy • Required √ √
Early warning system • No action yet √ √ √
Livestock census • Done, 2008 -
Land tenure rights and
security
• Policy exists. Pastoral tenure rights not clearly articulated √ √
Pasture and rangelands • Proposed pasture and rangelands policy √ √
Animal genetic resource
and breeding
• Policy in place -
Dairy development • Act in place -
National meat policy • Policy and masterplan in place -
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CountryCountryCountryCountry Policy reform anPolicy reform anPolicy reform anPolicy reform andddd
objectiveobjectiveobjectiveobjective
Country statusCountry statusCountry statusCountry status Priority Priority Priority Priority
Animal feeds • Policy in place -
Veterinary services • NAADs requires additional resources to ensure better
extension and veterinary service delivery
√ √
Hides, skins and leather • Animal hides and Leather Development Policy in place -
Marketing, trade and
infrastructure
• Country is net importer of most livestock products.
Interventions to boost production of various livestock
products
√ √ √
Legend Legend Legend Legend
S-T, Short Term (< 5 years)
M-T, medium Term (5-10 years)
L-T, long Term (Over 10 years)
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8. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES8. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES8. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES8. CROSSCUTTING ISSUES
8.1 Peace Building, Disaster Management and Security8.1 Peace Building, Disaster Management and Security8.1 Peace Building, Disaster Management and Security8.1 Peace Building, Disaster Management and Security
8.1.18.1.18.1.18.1.1 Pervasive Conflict in the GHAPervasive Conflict in the GHAPervasive Conflict in the GHAPervasive Conflict in the GHA
Many natural resources, such as water, forests, land and minerals are declining due to
degradation, overuse and threats including climate change. Conflicts among communities in
many parts of GHA occur as communities compete for increasingly scarce resources. Figure
8.1 presents some of these conflicts.
Dinka
Nuer
Figure 8.1Figure 8.1Figure 8.1Figure 8.1: : : : Inter and Intra Pastoral Conflicts within the GHA
(Source: Abebe D. 200214)
14 www.vsf-belgium.org/dzf/download/nl/1348/fileid
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The above conflicts have had serious negative impacts on the livelihoods of the population
and the economies of the various states. The livestock sector is also adversely affected by
these conflicts. The negative impacts of the conflicts are as a result of several factors. Some of
these include:
i. Diversion of resources by the states from other economic activities to manage the
conflicts
ii. Loss of human life as many conflicts result in fatalities
iii. Loss of human capital as local experts get displaced while others move to safer cities
iv. Loss of international goodwill and support for economic activities
v. Loss to economy as businesses shut creating massive unemployment
vi. Shut down of social systems including education and health
Evidence from various studies indicates that there exists a relationship between precipitation,
forage availability and the behavior of pastoralists including occurrence of conflicts amongst
pastoral communities (Meier and Bond, 2005).
8.1.2 F8.1.2 F8.1.2 F8.1.2 Frameworkrameworkrameworkramework for Conflict Managementfor Conflict Managementfor Conflict Managementfor Conflict Management
The GHA protocol on the establishment of conflict early warning and response mechanism
(CEWARN), signed in Khartoum in January 2002 provided the framework for member states
to establish, among other things, the national conflict early warning and response units
(CEWERUs). In response to this, various member states including Kenya, Ethiopia, Sudan
and Uganda are currently putting in place mechanisms and policies to facilitate the
implementation of the CEWARN protocol.
It is also important to recognize traditional management systems including conflict recognize traditional management systems including conflict recognize traditional management systems including conflict recognize traditional management systems including conflict
resolution mechanismsresolution mechanismsresolution mechanismsresolution mechanisms. These traditional conflict resolution systems have worked well in the
past and their efficacy have largely been eroded by the introduction of western conflict
resolution models, which are adversarial rather than reconciliatory. New institutional
structures like the District Peace and Development Committees that combine formal and
customary approaches in conflict management should be strengthened.
In the following section, we briefly discuss how the various conflicts within the GHA region
continue to impact on local populations and the various states.
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Djibouti and EritreaDjibouti and EritreaDjibouti and EritreaDjibouti and Eritrea
Djibouti and Eritrea continue to suffer cross border conflicts that threaten both countries. A
recent food security alert by USAID and Famine early Warning Systems Network (FEWS-
NET) cited persistent drought and conflict as the main reason for food insecurity in Djibouti.
The main casualties of the conflict being pastoral livestock farmers.
Eritrea is however, not free from the conflict inflicted suffering. The country’s long
protracted war with Ethiopia coupled with persistent droughts continue to define the
livelihood of the citizens. The uneasy calm between the two countries (Ethiopia/Eritrea)
remain a major cause of concern for the productive sectors of the economies.
EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia
Pastoral conflicts in Ethiopia seem to be much more complicated than within the rest of the
GHA. An example of these conflicts is the conflict between the Boran and Digodi
communities in the South eastern part of the country.
According to Abdullahi M. 2005, there are many problems that have fuelled the
Boran/Digodi pastoral conflicts. As a consequence of the conflicts, a large part of prime
grazing land together with essential pasture and water points are deserted. This has
aggravated the scarcity of pasture and water as well as overgrazing in other areas. The result
is environmental degradation and infestation of parasites causing animal diseases. In
addition, many pastoralist families have been displaced and have become vulnerable to
starvation. The flow of displaced people has contributed to the destruction of the already
fragile environment. It has become a question of survival for the displaced to cut and burn
trees for firewood. The two pastoralist groups have also become good markets for arms
smugglers, as there is a great demand for weapons.
The Oromiya community, which forms almost 60% of the entire pastoral community in
Ethiopia has began putting in place expansive programmes aimed at addressing the myriad of
issues facing the Oromiya pastoralists. Most of the programmes are integrated and
multisectoral in nature. They include: provision of water, healthcare, education and security,
among others. The community is also addressing governance issues amongst the pastoralists
through establishment of institutions such as the Oromiya Pastoral Commission.
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KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya
Kenya has over the year enjoyed relative calm compared to its GHA neighbours. However,
the pastoral communities within the country continue to suffer both internal and external
conflicts. The Pokots and Marakwet communities are examples of two of the Kenyan
communities constantly in conflict over resources. Consequently, these conflicts, among
other inherent issues, have led to stagnation of development in these areas.
At policy level, the Government is currently finalizing the National policy on peace building
and conflict management to address the issues of conflict within the various communities
within the country and cross border.
SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia
The current civil war in Somalia began in 1991 after the collapse of the Siad Barre
Government. According to a study by the World Bank in 2005, before the civil war in 1991,
Somalia was one of the poorest countries in the world with a high level of dependence on
foreign aid. Its gross national product (GNP) per capita was US$170 and its life expectancy
only 47 years. The situation has improved marginally, at best. Somalia continues to bulidgg
one of the poorest countries in the world on development indicators. Table 8.1 shows some
of the basic country indicators.
Table 8.1: Table 8.1: Table 8.1: Table 8.1: Somalia Development Indicators, 2001–02
Indicator Performance
GNP per capita US$226
Extreme poverty 43.2%
Life expectancy 47 years
Infant mortality 132 per 1,000 live births
Under-five mortality rate 224 per 1,000 live births
Unemployment 47.4%
Sources: World Bank. 2003. UNDP Human Development Report, Somalia. 2001.
The Somalia conflict is a complex mix of governance, clan issues and politics. The latest
addition to the conflict, piracy, is a major global concern. According to the WB study, the
following are some of the characteristics of the overall conflict in Somalia.
i. Nearly all armed conflicts in contemporary Somalia break out along clan lines.
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ii. Clan identities are malleable and can be shaped by leaders to pursue control of
resources and power. iii. Clan identities are not the basis for conflict; rather, their deliberate manipulation
creates and exacerbates divisions.
iv. Clan groups can serve as destructive or constructive forces as well as traditional
conflict moderators.
Livestock is one of the largest income-generating exports in Somalia, which before 1991
accounted for around 80 percent of the country’s income earnings. The livestock production
system is mostly pastoralism. However, several bans posed by the major markets due to
various reasons and the continuing civil strife have greatly affected the sector, impacting
negatively on pastoral livelihoods. Most of the economy currently depends on remittance
from the Diaspora estimated to remit about US$360 million annually according to the
Somalia Socio-Economic Survey 2002.
Several efforts are ongoing to address the conflict in Somalia. The IGAD, AU, EU, Arab states
and several African states are helping find ways of reducing the negative impacts of the
conflict and to find a functional Government in Somalia. However, some of these external
forces especially the individual countries attempting to intervene in the conflict end up
taking sides, further aggravating the problem.
The World Bank suggests that interventions in the Somalia conflict would therefore have to
target the establishment of a conflict-sensitive approach to development activities focusing
on the following aspects:
i. Avoid of fuelling of clan/group competition
ii. Encourage and support cross-clan or clan-neutral activities and partners
iii. Help bridge groups
iv. Understand the role of religion
v. Do not create an aid-dependent Somalia.
vi. Encourage Small scale development projects
vii. Build on community strengths
viii. Mobilize Somalia’s human resources
ix. Strengthen the economic backbone of society
x. Fight unemployment, especially among young men
xi. Develop non-partisan governance
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SudanSudanSudanSudan
Sudan is Africa’s largest country covering 967,493 sq.miles. the country has a population of
about 34.5 million composed of Black (52 %) Arab (39%) Beja (6%). By religion, Sudan is
70% Sunni Muslim, 25% indigenous beliefs and 3% Christian15.
Sudan has had two main conflicts, the Southern conflict being the longest in the region and
the recent flare-ups in the Western part of Darfur. As expected, these conflicts resulted into
massive destruction on infrastructure, collapsed healthcare, education and welfare systems
and serious negative impacts on the economy.
There are currently several initiatives targeting the conflict regions of Sudan. The signing of
the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in June 2004 in Nairobi has brought relative
calm in Southern Sudan. In the Western part however, interventions by the AU, EU and the
UN are yet to bear fruit. Several NGO activities in these conflict regions are also ongoing.
Organisations such as Oxfam GB, GTZ and Care International remain active in several parts
of the Sudan.
UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda
Uganda, like most of its neighbours has not been spared from conflicts, both internal and
external. The country had a long civil war since its independence from Britain in 1964. It
was until 1986 that a military regime established some relative calm in the country.
However, two conflicts, one in the North and North Western part of the country (mainly
political) and the other within the pastoral Karamoja region (mainly over pastures) have
continued to negatively impact on development activities of these regions.
Whereas the country currently seems optimistic that the LRA conflict is finally coming to a
close, reducing intracommunity conflicts over resources in the Western part of the country
will require a lot more effort and resources. The Karamoja/Pokot conflicts caused by
competition for water and pastures require a combined effort between Kenya and Ugandan
authorities through:
i. Establishment of programmes that will ensure adequate water and pastures on both
sides
15 http://www.flashpoints.info/countries-conflicts/Sudan-web/Sudan_briefing.htm
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ii. Expansion of social and governance systems
iii. Disarmament of local communities
iv. Sensitization of communities
Cross Border conflictsCross Border conflictsCross Border conflictsCross Border conflicts
There exist several cross-border conflicts between states and communities living within the
GHA region. The UNDP Human Development Report 2005 titled Kenya and Uganda
Pastoral Conflict Case Study outlines some of the inherent problems facing the communities
of Karamoja in Uganda and their Pokot and Marakwet neighbours in Kenya. This type of
conflict, commonly known as cattle rustling is a classical example of the pastoralists’ struggle
for scarce resources. Figure 8.2 shows the coverage of the Karamoja conflict.
Figure 8.2Figure 8.2Figure 8.2Figure 8.2:::: Coverage of the Karamoja Conflict
(Source: Meier and Bond, 2005)
The conflict in Somalia has certainly impacted negatively on the Kenyan side of the border.
A USAID study on the Kenya Somalia Border Conflict published in 2005 identifies the reason
for the conflict as ethnicity, political patronage, land and water resources and easy access to
firearms and other small weapons.
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The above, are two examples of cross border conflicts within the GHA region. Others are:
i. Kenya/ Sudan/ Ethiopia triangle
ii. Sudan-Ethiopia border
iii. Ethiopia-Eritrea border
iv. Ethiopia-Kenya border
v. Ethiopia-Somalia border
vi. Somalia-Djibouti border
vii. Eritrea-Djibouti border
There are several strategies being adopted by the various states of the GHA in trying to
address these conflicts. These include, but not limited to:
i. Expansion of water infrastructure in the affected regions to reduce competition for
water resources
ii. Formation of inter-clan commissions composed of respectable elders and Government
representatives
iii. Expansion of social services infrastructure including education and health systems
iv. Introduction of alternative livelihoods
v. Improvement of governance systems
Stakeholders in Garissa, Kenya felt that the establishment of water points has been a source
of inter-clan conflicts and pointed out the need to plan for their establishment. They also
noted that the establishment of water points is threatening nomadism as a way of life as it
encourages sedentary lifestyle which causes soil and environmental degradation and
furthermore a decline in pastures that also intensify these conflicts16.
8.1.3 8.1.3 8.1.3 8.1.3 Way ForwardWay ForwardWay ForwardWay Forward
The following interventions if implemented would help reduce the number of conflicts
occurring within the GHA region and help define the way forward.
16 Minutes. Focus Group Discussions
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i. Implementation of the IGAD protocol on conflict resolution and management
by all the member states and establishment of the conflict early warning
system (CEWARN)
ii. Investment in pastoral communities through promotion of provision of water
and pasture resources
iii. Investment in social infrastructure
iv. Improvement in the overall infrastructure within the ASALs
8.2 Gender8.2 Gender8.2 Gender8.2 Gender DimenDimenDimenDimensions in ASAL Livelihoodssions in ASAL Livelihoodssions in ASAL Livelihoodssions in ASAL Livelihoods
In sub-Saharan Africa, women contribute between 60-80% of labour for food production,
both for household consumption and for sale17. The participation and contribution of women
and youth in the livestock sector in most GHA member countries is significant. However,
many communities in GHA are in a transition from traditional to contemporary way of life.
This transition has a direct bearing on gender and youth roles. Somali women are by far the
majority of the participants on the meat value chain while in other GHA countries women
and youth are deeply involved in livestock production and marketing. Despite the immense
contribution, there are disparities in ownership, policy development, education and
employment. The role of women and youth18 in the sector makes it imperative that they are
involved in the policy development process.
There are several factors that impact on equitable involvement of women and youth in
livestock production especially amongst the pastoral communities. These are:
8.2.18.2.18.2.18.2.1 Access and Ownership of ResourcesAccess and Ownership of ResourcesAccess and Ownership of ResourcesAccess and Ownership of Resources
Generally, across the GHA, more resources are owned/ accessed by men than by women, e.g.
land, and livestock, water facilities and financial resources. The gender imbalance that exists
needs to be re-examined. It is important to note that policy formulation processes across the
region have recently evolved to ensure equal participation of gender. However, cultural
barriers to property ownership still play a much bigger role when it comes to policy
implementation. Land tenure systems in application in Kenya and Uganda have left women
17 FAO, 1994. What has AIDS to do with Agriculture. FAO. Rome 18 Mid-Term Review of the IGAD Livestock Policy Initiative Final Report – December 2008
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and youths vulnerable. Land ownership structure in Ethiopia and the Sudan show a similar
bias towards male.
8.2.2 8.2.2 8.2.2 8.2.2 Migration and EmploymentMigration and EmploymentMigration and EmploymentMigration and Employment
The current trend is that more men than women seek employment away from home,
thereby heaping more responsibilities on women. Youths are virtually absent in some
communities, having migrated to the nearby towns in search of economic opportunities. In
order to improve the situation, greater economic opportunities for both men and women
should be through human capital development, improvement of natural resource
management and alternative income generating activities.
8.2.3 8.2.3 8.2.3 8.2.3 EducationEducationEducationEducation
The goal of social development must be to provide equitable access to such basic services as
education, health, water, nutrition, transport and communications, energy, security, etc.
The development of human resources, which is fundamental to achieving sustainable
development, depends on improved literacy and education levels. The provision of
education and literacy is a basic need and an essential prerequisite for economic
development. Across the region, more boys than girls are enrolled in formal education.
Problems hindering the girl child education include traditional roles (e.g. helping
overburdened mothers with domestic tasks); high school dropout rates due to early
marriage/pregnancy; household heads’ (father/male) attitude towards the education of
daughters and women and low economic and employment opportunities for women.
Capacity building and awareness creation need to be promoted in order to improve the
enrolment and education of girls and women in the livestock development, especially where
traditional norms and attitudes discourage their education
8.3 8.3 8.3 8.3 HIV/AIDSHIV/AIDSHIV/AIDSHIV/AIDS in GHA Pastoral Communitiesin GHA Pastoral Communitiesin GHA Pastoral Communitiesin GHA Pastoral Communities
8.3.1 Manifestation of the HIV/AID8.3.1 Manifestation of the HIV/AID8.3.1 Manifestation of the HIV/AID8.3.1 Manifestation of the HIV/AIDSSSS Problem Problem Problem Problem
Pastoral communities across GHA are continuously getting exposed to the virus due to their
mobile lifestyle. In addition, certain sexual and behavioural practices amongst pastoralist
groups, e.g. polygamy, wife inheritance, unsafe circumcision practices and births (including
other accepted traditional behaviours) and ‘truck’ routes through ASAL areas, pose major
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risks of contracting the pandemic into areas with otherwise very low infection rates. This
situation is even bound to worsen with improved infrastructure and increased movement of
people within and between districts.
8.3.2 Awareness Levels8.3.2 Awareness Levels8.3.2 Awareness Levels8.3.2 Awareness Levels
There are still low levels of awareness among farmers on the pandemic and the rural –urban
migration of men from the rural into towns to market livestock and in search of wage
employment is a major avenue of infection when they return to the rural areas. The
knowledge gap poses a serious challenge to the sector and will need to be addressed through
focused and strategic interventions. In Khartoum, for example, UNICEF reports that “Only
about a third of all young people between the ages of 18 and 25 know how HIV is caused.
Many of them think, for example, that HIV is caused by a mosquito bite19. There is therefore
a need to address this pandemic in context to improving livestock production in the region.
8888.3.3 Prevalence Rates.3.3 Prevalence Rates.3.3 Prevalence Rates.3.3 Prevalence Rates
HIV/AIDS remains a serious problem to development activities within the GHA. Table 8.2
shows the prevalence rates of HIV/AIDS in the region.
Table Table Table Table 8.28.28.28.2:::: HIV/AIDS prevalence in GHA
CountryCountryCountryCountry HIV/AIDS prevalence (2007), %HIV/AIDS prevalence (2007), %HIV/AIDS prevalence (2007), %HIV/AIDS prevalence (2007), %
Djibouti 3.1
Ethiopia 1.4
Kenya 6.1
Somalia 0.5
Sudan 1.6 (North) – 2.6 (South)
Uganda 6.7
Livestock production has partly been affected by reduced human manpower due to
HIV/AIDs pandemic. It is in recognition of this that IGAD recently established the IGAD
HIV/AIDS Partnership Program targeting the pastoral communities in the region.
A recent study on the impact of HIV/AIDS on livestock production in Eastern and Southern
Africa identified that there is still a wide information gap in understanding the effects of
HIV/AIDS on crops/livestock, pastoral and peri-urban production systems (FAO, 2005). The
study proposed that impact studies be carried out to better assess the impact across the
19 http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/sudan_30478.html
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livestock sector as a whole - from the household level to regional level. The proposed impact
assessment study should capture the following:
i. Assess the impact of HIV/AIDS on overall management , productivity and health of
cattle, sheep and goats
ii. Measure the extent of which slaughter or sales of livestock and the transfer of animals
through inheritance by afflicted households in impacting animal populations, herd
structures and breeding stocks at the local, regional and national levels
iii. Identify specific methodologies and data requirements for future monitoring of the
epidemic on the livestock sector
8.4 Climate Change8.4 Climate Change8.4 Climate Change8.4 Climate Change
8.4.1 Climate8.4.1 Climate8.4.1 Climate8.4.1 Climate Change PhenomenonChange PhenomenonChange PhenomenonChange Phenomenon
The projected climatic changes include changing precipitation patterns and amounts and
rising temperatures. The literature suggests that this will be associated with increasing
magnitude and frequency of extreme events (e.g. IPCC, 2000 & Kasperson and Dow, 2005).
Overall, we would judge the results of climate change impacts identified here to be very
conservative, and so these results should be seen as indicative only
However, it must be noted that the positive effects of the likely increase in rainfall amounts
will be offset to a certain extent by increasing temperatures. The downscaled climate
projections were discussed with pastoralists and representatives of pastoralists’ organisations.
Their reactions confirmed that the trends revealed were already being seen in the areas
analysed. Further analysis of the projections provided some information on the areas of
concern to the pastoralists in terms of the changes to the initiation and cessation of rains,
their intensity during the wet seasons, the variation between years in terms of rainfall, and
the likely increases in extreme weather events. Climate will seriously aggravate the impacts
of current challenges in the drylands. Of all the natural resource-based land uses in the
drylands, pastoralism functions better within the context of wide rainfall variability and
unpredictability. It therefore presents a more logical adaptation route than livelihood
activities and land uses which do not have the advantage of mobility (Nori and Davies, 2006).
The effects of climate change on the drylands of the Horn of Africa poses particular and
difficult policy challenges. The arid nature of the climate together with the poverty levels
faced by those people living in the drylands mean that the increasing temperatures, the
intensifying rains and the increased frequency of extreme weather events that climate
science projects for the region can only exacerbate the problems of development. However,
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as discussed here, the drylands have under-exploited development potential and the
dominant land use system – pastoralism – has unique adaptive characteristics that, together
with the right enabling policies, mean that climate change can be adapted to and the
development of the region and the people achieved.
8.4.2 Pastoralism and Climate Change8.4.2 Pastoralism and Climate Change8.4.2 Pastoralism and Climate Change8.4.2 Pastoralism and Climate Change
Drylands are a large part of the Horn and East Africa. Their main defining characteristic is
extreme climatic variability. Despite this variability, the drylands make significant
contributions to national economies and support millions of people. They are also areas of
great untapped potential, and can play an important role in supplying an increasing demand
for livestock, fuels, wild products and sequestering carbon. Despite these opportunities the
drylands in the region receive little investment and continue to be marred by poverty, food
insecurity and conflict. Many lucrative land uses co-exist in the drylands, but some are more
resilient against climatic variability and change than others.
Pastoralism is the most resilient among them, yet it is the form of land use least recognized
and supported. For many years pastoralism has flourished in the drylands because it is a
rational, adaptable, tried and tested production system uniquely suited to them. The climate
of the Horn and East Africa is becoming more variable and less predictable, and trends
towards future changes are emerging. Global climate models predict changes over the longer
term – increased temperature, shifts in rainy seasons, intense rains over much of East Africa
– which will result in a mosaic of changing climate conditions with serious implications for
land use and production systems. In order to appropriately inform policy, it is imperative to
better understand what the ranges of likely effects are going to be in different locations. A
brief review of the National Adaptation Plans of Action prepared over the last three to four
years by the least developed countries in the region – Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda and Tanzania
– show that, although there is a general consensus on the climate vulnerability of drylands
and pastoralists, the planned policy responses differ as to the importance of enabling
pastoralist climate adaptation.
8.4.3 8.4.3 8.4.3 8.4.3 Pastoral AdaptationPastoral AdaptationPastoral AdaptationPastoral Adaptation
Direct ImpactsDirect ImpactsDirect ImpactsDirect Impacts
Abnormal rise in temperatures will have a direct impact on the productivity of the animals.
The ideal temperature for cattle, for example, will be further exceeded. Growth, production
and reproduction will be hampered. Also the magnitude and frequency of droughts and
floods is expected to go up. This will undoubtedly result in higher mortality rates and shorter
recovery periods, possibly too short for the herds to recover naturally to sustainable sizes.
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Indirect ImpactsIndirect ImpactsIndirect ImpactsIndirect Impacts
For all the scenarios, increase rainfall figures have been evident. However, the temperatures
are predicted to rise too, and through increased evapotranspiration and possible long-term
adaptations of plant and animal species
Water and Pasture SituationWater and Pasture SituationWater and Pasture SituationWater and Pasture Situation
Continued showers across most parts of the ASAL areas, improved water availability while at
the same time supported regeneration of pasture and browse.Although pasture availability
and accessibility varied, availability and accessibility was generally good and expected to
improve further as the rains continues. Continued rains led to increased number of water
sources as most water pans and catchments pools are filled with water reducing trekking
distances most noticeably in ASAL areas.
Arable FarmingArable FarmingArable FarmingArable Farming
Many parts of sub- Saharan Africa are likely to experience a decrease in the length of
growing period, and in some areas, the decreases may be severe. To put it another way,
projected increases in temperature and projected changes in rainfall patterns and amount
(increases in rainfall amounts are projected in many areas) combine to suggest that growing
periods will decrease in many places.
Pastoralists employ various coping strategies to deal with climate and non-climate stress.
However, they are increasingly less able to do so, and more pastoralists are losing their
livestock assets and their livelihoods. Wealth and social differentiation also affect the ability
of people to adapt to climate and non-climate stress, with the poor at a distinct disadvantage.
It is important, therefore, to build pastoral capacities to adapt. Evidence suggests it would be
more effective – including cost-effective – to enable and strengthen the inherent adaptive
capacity of pastoralists, and find ways to encourage their autonomous adaptation, than to
provide adaptation strategies for them. It is also recognized that pastoralism is a system
influx, with some pastoralists making a living only from livestock and livestock products,
others practicing supplementary livelihoods alongside pastoralism, and yet others who, for
various reasons, no longer keep livestock at all (for more on this, see the accompanying
report ‘Getting it right: understanding livelihoods to reduce the vulnerability of pastoral
communities’). Enabling autonomous adaptation accommodates this fluidity in the system,
leaving people free to choose the best options to suit their needs. This paper maintains that,
with the right policies, investment and support, pastoralism is a viable and sustainable
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livelihood that will support many, but at the same time recognises that viable and sustainable
alternative or supplementary livelihood activities also need to be accessible.
Improvements in governance, access to markets (infrastructure, providing appropriate credit
facilities, livestock insurance and cash and asset-based assistance rather than food aid), and
provision of basic services like education, which recognize the value and contributions that
pastoralists bring, will help increase the drylands’ resilience against climate change, facilitate
ecosystem management, and allow states to derive benefits from servicing the increasing
global rise in demand for livestock products.
.
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9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION9 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
9.1 Summary9.1 Summary9.1 Summary9.1 Summary
ASALs constitute at least 76% of the GHA land area of 5.2 million square kilometers. The
population of GHA countries, estimated at 205 million people in 2009 and growing rapidly at
3.2% per annum, is also one of the poorest on the continent. The GHA is also beset with
civil strife on a scale larger than any other conflicts on the continent. Livelihoods in ASAL
area revolve around livestock. The main drivers in the livelihood systems are water and
pasture as the key determinants of pastoral livestock systems and hence livelihoods.
The GHA region suffers from the severe effects of climate change. The recurring and severe
droughts and other natural disasters have caused widespread famine, ecological degradation,
poverty and economic hardships in the region. The impacts of climate change have been
more severe because of inadequate water management facilities and practices, inefficient
water harvesting facilities, erratic and unpredictable rainfall patterns, and high ambient
temperatures. Their consequences include shortage in water and food for both animals and
humans, resulting in high incidence of famine and losses in both human and animal lives in
the region. In order to overcome this shortfall in food supply, the countries of the region
have resorted to food aid, receiving the highest per capita quantity of food aid in the
continent. Such a level of food aid dependency is not sustainable and makes the region a
humanitarian tragedy which threatens not only peace but also affects conservation of unique
environments and biodiversity and the ability of the region to play its own role in an
increasingly global environment.
Water and pastures are critical for pastoral livelihoods. Pastoral lifestyles are characterized
by frequent movements in search of water and feed during the long periods of scarcity.
Water availability, coupled with its quality, is also important for human consumption. The
problem of scarce natural resources, especially water and pasture has led to violent conflicts
in the Horn of Africa and has thus contributed to the problems of cattle rustling, food
insecurity and poverty. These problems have affected women disproportionately.
Interventions in the water and pasture sector would go a long way in improving the
livelihoods of populations in the ASALs. Such interventions will need to be well targeted and
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will need to put into consideration the environmental, socio-economic and cultural
variations within the ASALs.
9.2 Conclusion9.2 Conclusion9.2 Conclusion9.2 Conclusion
Pastoral livelihoods are not static. In recent decades most pastoralists have significantly
diversified both food and income sources. Whereas in the past milk often made the greatest
contribution to the diet, in all the pastoral examples purchase of cereals now make up the
bulk of diets. In order to finance these purchases, pastoralists exchange livestock and
livestock products for grain. Furthermore, trading, sale of wood and charcoal as well as non-
timber forest products (leaf products or gums and resins) and, in many cases, daily labor have
all become important income sources.
Water is the common thread in the change process in the ASAL areas. But there is strong
competition for water among multiple users: domestic, industrial, agricultural (including
livestock), and the need for a residual for the environment. Pastoral areas will continue to be
marginalized because they do not have voice in any of the countries of the GHA. The main
thrust of development programmes are to feed domestic, industrial and domestic needs with
pastoral needs and the environment being a residual.
The GHA region is dotted with trans boundary water resources. The Nile water system
covers four of the GHA member countries namely Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and Sudan. The
Turkana basin is shared between Kenya and Ethiopia while Ethiopia and Sudan share several
river basins between themselves including the Nile Basin. Djibouti’s surface water resources,
through Awash, come from Ethiopia while Somalia and Ethiopia share the Juba-Shebeli
basin, among others. Ground water aquifers within the region traverses through the various
national boundaries and is recharged from the Fey highlands found in Sudan and the
highlands of Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda.
However, with all the above shared water resources, regional institutional capacity to
manage the shared resources is extremely low. Cooperation between economic blocks
namely the IGAD, EAC and SADC, among others in managing the shared resources is
necessary to ensure capacity enhancement.
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The water sector in most parts of the Greater Horn of Africa has lately been undergoing
reforms. These reforms are however at different stages depending on country. The overall
objectives of the reforms have been:
• To improve the efficiency within which the sector is managed through creation of
well structured institutional arrangement
• Attract investments into the sector
• Promote citizen’s participation in sector activities
The distribution of pastures and forage across the region is determined by climatic
conditions. Rangelands form an immense natural resource and the major source of feed for
livestock herds across the region. The various types of grazing land vary from open
grasslands to seasonal water courses, flood plains, river banks and associated islands,
woodlands, hills and mountain slopes.
National policies across the region continue to give second place to issues of forage
production and rangeland management. It is important that governments are sensitised on
the contribution forage and pasture production can have in improving livelihoods of pastoral
communities and ensuring economic development.
9.3 Recommendation9.3 Recommendation9.3 Recommendation9.3 Recommendation
The physical and human ecology in the ASAL areas of the GHA is similar. There is a need,
therefore, for the harmonization of the water related programmes in the ASAL areas of the
GHA. The critical intervention that will affect pastoral livelihoods is in water. While
surface water utilization is governed by treaties, all the countries of the GHA are
underutilizing the water that is available largely because of an inadequate infrastructure to
harness the water. There has also been inadequate attention to water harvesting technology
that would supplement household level water supplies.
Despite the severe scarcity of water, water use efficiency is low and the culture of
conservation including water recycling has not yet been adopted. A major investment
program in water management will provide a powerful entry point to the development of
ASAL regions in the lifelines of pasture improvement and livestock.
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APPENDICESAPPENDICESAPPENDICESAPPENDICES
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APPENDIX 1: TERMS OF
REFERENCE
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TERMS OF REFERENCETERMS OF REFERENCETERMS OF REFERENCETERMS OF REFERENCE
A Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of
Africa.
Background InformationBackground InformationBackground InformationBackground Information: The Greater Horn of Africa comprises 7 countries, namely,
Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda, all of which are members of
the Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD) whose headquarters is in
Djibouti. The region has a total population of 188 million people and occupies a land area of
about 5.2 million square kilometres, with a highly variable Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of
between USD 0.5 and USD 9.9 billion and per capita income. Over 60% of the land is
classified as arid and has less than 500 mm of rainfall a year on average and a growing period
of less than 90 days. The short growing period and the unpredictable rainfall are major
constraints for the promotion of agriculture on a large and commercial scale in the region.
This is one of the poorest regions in the world with high population growth rates and
chronic food insecurity. With continuing population growth, agriculture, which is the main
core sector of the economy of most of the countries in the region, will have to grow at least
at the same pace to maintain the currently already inadequate food supply situation.
Agriculture as the mainstay of the economy of the IGAD countries contributes a major share
of the overall GDP and varies from 3.7% to 52.3%, while employing over three quarters of
the population of the region. Its performance is, thus, the main determinant of the yearly
variations in poverty levels and food security in these countries. Between 19.8% and 88.2%
of the agriculture sector contribution to the GDP comes from livestock as crop production is
limited by rainfall. Therefore, livestock is the major income earner for most households in
the region. However, the share of livestock in the overall GDP varies between 3.1 % and
23%. Besides, livestock production is the only viable form of land use. In the agro-ecological
zones where crop production is feasible, it is mostly practiced in mixed farming systems with
livestock providing important inputs into the farming system and vice versa. The rural
people of the region depend heavily on incomes from livestock production for staples and
other needs. However, recent studies have shown that the growing demand for all livestock
products in the IGAD countries is mainly the result of population growth rather than
increased per capita consumption.
The huge livestock population in the region is varied and comprises 98 million cattle, 173
million sheep and goats and 151 million birds. They represent not only a major source of
income and therefore a pathway out of poverty but also a source of animal proteins for
meeting the food security needs of the people of the region. The numbers notwithstanding,
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livestock productivity is low - beef: 10.4 kg per animal per year, milk: 395.8 kg per animal
per year, sheep and goat meat: 3.5 kg per animal per year, pig meat 47.1 kg per animal per
year and poultry and eggs: 1.4 and 2.6 kg per bird per year, respectively. The reasons for the
low performance are multiple and varied, ranging from poor quality genetics, inadequate and
poor quality feeds and feeding, scarcity in water for production, to poor husbandry practices,
etc. This has contributed to the low economic growth and wealth creation in most IGAD
member countries. The poverty situation in the region is partly due to the increasingly
deteriorating livelihoods and food insecurity coupled with degraded natural resources
(deforestation, overgrazing, over mining, etc), widespread rural poverty and illiteracy,
limited access to safe water, malnutrition and frequent droughts and floods.
Moreover, the region suffers from the effects of climate change and anthropologic and
natural factors. The recurring and severe droughts and other natural disasters have caused
widespread famine, ecological degradation, poverty and economic hardships in the region.
Some reasons for these harsh conditions include poor drainage with heavy runoffs,
inadequate water management facilities and practices, inefficient water harvesting facilities,
erratic and unpredictable rainfall patterns, high ambient temperatures and poor agricultural
practices. Their consequences include shortage in water and food for both animals and
humans, resulting in high incidence of famine and losses in both human and animal lives in
the region. In order to overcome this shortfall in food supply, the countries of the region
have resorted to food aid, receiving the highest per capita quantity of food aid in the
continent. Such a level of food aid dependency is not sustainable and makes the region a
humanitarian tragedy which threatens not only peace but also affects conservation of unique
environments and biodiversity and the ability of the region to play its own role in an
increasingly globalized environment.
The farmers and pastoralists in the arid and semi-arid zones of the region have to contend
with extreme challenges including limited water access and poor soil fertility, few
technology options, limited infrastructure and links to markets. As a result, the region is
unable to maintain and optimally exploit its rich natural productive assets. Water and
pastures are critical for improved animal production and productivity. Unfortunately, the
region as already indicated above suffers from severe scarcity of both of these ingredients.
Their limited supply is partly responsible for the lifestyles of the pastoral people of the
region. Their lifestyles are characterized by frequent movements in search of water and feed
during the long periods of scarcity. Water availability, coupled with its quality, is also
important for human consumption. The problem of scarce natural resources, especially water
and pasture has led to violent conflicts in the Horn of Africa and has thus contributed to the
problems of cattle rustling, food insecurity and poverty. In fact, women have borne the brunt
of these conflicts.
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The people of the region are, therefore, forced to live in extreme poverty with limited
alternative sources of income and the constant mobility of the pastoralists and agro-
pastoralists in search of water and feed for their livestock and for sustaining their livelihoods.
This lifestyle implies that the halving of poverty and sustaining the environment as depicted
in the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) may not be attained in the
region. Furthermore, the efforts of the Bank Group to contribute to poverty alleviation and,
therefore, to the attainment of the goals of the MDG will be in vain unless drastic measures
are carried out to reverse the trend. Similarly, the goals of the New Partnership for Africa's
Development (NEPAD) and its affiliated Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development
Programme (CAADP), which are to focus investments in four critical pillars in order to
reduce Africa's dependency on food aid, are less likely to be achieved for the region. There is
evidence that considerable information is available throughout the region and beyond on the
different strategies to intervene in such fragile environments in order to improve rural
livelihood, increase food security and enhance natural resource management and that many
partners are supporting various activities aimed at reversing the trend in the region.
However, this information is scattered in both grey and conventional literature.
There is, thus, an urgent need to collect, compile, analyze and synthesize the available
information and data on the different aspects of sustainable livelihoods in the region in order
to generate implementable strategies, policies and programmes that would serve as a
roadmap for future Bank interventions in the region. It is also important for the Bank to have
an inventory of the different interventions in the drylands, which are aimed at addressing
water- and pasture-related issues in the region and elsewhere.
Objectives: Objectives: Objectives: Objectives: The general objective of the study is to collect, compile, analyze and synthesize
available information and data on different aspects of sustainable livelihood strategies in the
Horn of Africa with the view to distilling and filtering out concrete, practical and
implementable strategic interventions for alleviating the major constraints of water, pasture
and livestock development in the region. The specific objectives of the study are to:
a. Identify and analyse the water and pasture needs of the communities as well as
available water and pasture resources in the region;
b. Identify and analyse the availability technologies and markets for water and pasture
development and exploitation in the region and elsewhere;
c. Review and analyse the challenges and opportunities facing the water, pasture and
the livestock sectors of the Horn of Africa;
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d. Review and analyse current interventions by the member countries and its
development partners in water, pasture and livestock development in the region;
e. Identify and analyse existing institutions in terms of strengths and weaknesses
involved in water, pasture and livestock management both at the national and
regional level;
f. Identify and analyse the policy environment (legal, regulatory, institutional) for the
development and exploitation of water, pasture and livestock;
g. Investigate potential linkages between water, pastures and livestock development in
the region; and,
h. Provide full details of the short-, medium-, and long-term strategic interventions,
including costing and identification of social and environmental impacts of the
interventions
The objectives of supporting these activities are consistent with those of the Multi-Donor
Water Partnership Programme which include the development and enhanced utilization of
water for the human consumption and for production.
Scope of Work: Scope of Work: Scope of Work: Scope of Work: The study will cover the seven member countries of the Greater Horn of
Africa, which include Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda and is
expected to propose short-, medium-, and long-term concrete strategic intervention options
for addressing drought in the region and for enabling the countries of the region to enhance
the contribution of livestock to their national economies while supporting the pastoralists
and agro-pastoralists to adopt more sustainable livelihood systems.
The proposed study seeks to document current water, forage patterns and drought
management strategies in the context of livestock development in the region. It will focus
water and pasture needs assessments, water and pasture resources assessments, technology
assessments including market assessment on availability of water and pasture technologies. In
addition, the study will examine the various aspects of water availability and quality,
accessibility to and affordability of water and pastures by both humans and animals, current
appropriate water and pasture technologies available in the region, best practices for
providing water for production and for human consumption, conflicts due to water and
pasture scarcity and traditional approaches to resolving them, amongst others. The study
would in addition review the status of pastures in the region including traditional practices
and possible best practices with modern methods of pasture management. The study would
review government policies in the water and pasture sectors in the Horn. This proposal is
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consistent with the Bank Group Vision of poverty alleviation and its strategic plan of
selective interventions as well as its agriculture and rural development policy. It is also
consistent with the IGAD Food Security Strategy which focuses mostly on dryland and
drought-prone pastoral areas of the region. IGAD has endorsed this proposal and is willing to
be associated with it. The Multi-Donor Water Partnership Programme (MDWPP) is
financing this study.
There are four major activities of the study, which include (a) comprehensive literature
review, (b) all inclusive consultations with experts and stakeholders, (c) validation of concept
note and recommendations, and (d) report writing and wide dissemination of findings of the
study. The comprehensive literature review will include searching and distilling information
from both the grey and conventional literature sources nationally, regionally and globally.
This activity should enable the consultants to collect, collate, analyze and synthesize data
and information on all aspects of water, pasture and livestock, including the policy and
production environment in the Horn of Africa. The study will not limit its search only those
countries of the Horn, it will extend to those countries around the globe with similar
conditions. However, the consultants will undertake visits to only selected IGAD countries
and to the IGAD regional Headquarters as well as the International bodies operating in the
region, like the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), to (i) collect and process
additional information, and (ii) consult with all stakeholders, including experts, farmers,
Government authorities, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), Civil Society
Organizations (CBOs) and Development Partners. These consultations should provide the
opportunity for the consultants to identify and analyze priority constraints and opportunities
for services to better respond to vulnerability shocks and to improve policies and agricultural
production and marketing in the region.
The findings of the literature search and the country visits and the preliminary conclusions
of the consultants shall be put together in the form of concept notes. The concept notes shall
be presented for comments and validation at a stakeholders' workshop, which they shall be
organized in Nairobi, Kenya. The investigations will also address the major crosscutting
issues of gender, environment, climate risk management, population growth, HIV/AIDS and
adaptation to climate change. The investigation will review the impact of climate change on
water and pasture resources as well as on livestock production. It will also examine the
impact of gender policies on water and pasture development and exploitation in the region.
The consultants shall be responsible for inviting key representatives of the IGAD countries
and resource persons from different organizations. The Bank Group shall be represented at
this workshop.
Following the validation process, the consultants shall consolidate and synthesize a final
report (the synthesis report) from the validated concept notes. The synthesis report will also
contain the key recommended strategic interventions. The Bank Group shall have the overall
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responsibility for supervising and monitoring the work of the consultants. Meanwhile, the
consultants shall work intimately with the Directorate of Agriculture of the IGAD
Headquarters in Djibouti.
Results and beneficiaries: Results and beneficiaries: Results and beneficiaries: Results and beneficiaries: The indicators of results and the description of beneficiaries are
shown in Table 1 below.
Table 1.Table 1.Table 1.Table 1. Results and beneficiaries
Indicators of Results Description of results and beneficiaries
Outputs
Synthesis Report opportunities on the constraints and opportunities
Outcomes
Improved knowledge of the constraints and opportunities in the region
Strategic interventions which are ready for financing by Development Partners
to address the major constraints in the region
Impacts
Improved rural livelihoods in the region
Increased food security in the region
Improved sustainable natural resources management in the region
Beneficiaries
Direct beneficiaries: farmers, agro-pastoral and pastoral communities of the
region
Indirect beneficiaries: economies of the region, neighbours, International
Organizations, NGOs, CSOs
Implementation Arrangement:Implementation Arrangement:Implementation Arrangement:Implementation Arrangement: The Agriculture and Agro-Industry Department (OSAN) shall
be responsible for implementing the study in collaboration with the Directorate of
Agriculture of the IGAD in Djibouti and the Ministries of Agriculture/Livestock/Water of
the member countries of IGAD. The implementing unit shall work closely with the
Departments of Water and Sanitation and Education and Health in monitoring the execution
of the study.
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APPENDIX 2: FISHERIES
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FISHERIESFISHERIESFISHERIESFISHERIES
The GHA region produces several different types of fish including crustaceans, marine fishes
and mollusks. In 2007, the region produced an estimated 1,045 thousand tonnes of fish.
Regional trend in fish production is shown in Figure 1.
FigureFigureFigureFigure 1:1:1:1: Regional Trend in Fish Production, Tonnes
Source (FAOSTAT 2009)
There is however, large disparity amongst the various countries as shown earlier in the
trends in Figure 1.
Over the last decade, the fisheries sub-sector in the region has experienced several
challenges. These include: Environmental degradation and use of illegal fishing gears, lack of
modern or effective fishing technology, lack of education and organization, inability to
effectively market products, local fishermen are unable to compete with growing foreign and
international competition, especially national and foreign trawlers and ineffective and
inadequate assistance.
Djibouti.Djibouti.Djibouti.Djibouti.
The contribution of fisheries to the country’s GDP was only 0.1% in 2008.There has
however, been growth in Fisheries industry over the years with 2003 seeing the country
achieve a positive trade balance with a total fish catch of 350 metric tons. The per capita food
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supply and fish products are very low at .2 Kg/person compared to Sub-Saharan Africa of 8
and the world 16kg/person showing the level of underdevelopment.
EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia
Fish industry contribution to the country’ Gross Domestic Product of the country is
marginal. The estimated potential from freshwater sources is between 30,000-40,000 tonnes
with only 10% presently exploited. In 2001, Gross value of fisheries output was estimated at
USD 3.6 million (MAAIF, 2005).
Fish consumption is estimated at 10kg/person but influenced by supply and is projected to
increase with relatively low prices of fish, high prices of alternative/substitutes and
improvement and expansion of the fishing infrastructure as the major fueling factors. The
projections for the industry are 83,483 tonnes, 94,526 tonnes and 117,586 in 2010, 2015 and
2025 respectively (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries department).
Kenya Kenya Kenya Kenya
The fisheries sub-sector contributes an estimated KSh. 8 billion to the economy every year.
Lake Victoria fish contributes about 80% of the total catch. The sub-sector provides
employment and income to over 500,000 Kenyans engaged in fish production and related
enterprises. In terms of contribution to the gross domestic product (GDP), Kenya's fishing
industry has accounted for about 0.3% of GDP. In 2007, the annual fresh water fish landed
was 167,221 tonnes valued at KSh. 8.7 billion20. Of this, fresh water fish was 160,110 tonnes,
marine fish was 6,123 tonnes, crustaceans and molluscan fishes and other marine products
988 tonnes.
The Fisheries Department is the national institution mandated to manage the fisheries sector
and operates under the Ministry of Fisheries Development. Basic fisheries legislation is set
out in six parts and 26 sections of the Fisheries Act 1989 (Act No. 5 of 1989; revised 1991).
The Act applies to both marine and inland fisheries, and broadly empowers the Director of
Fisheries, with the approval of the Minister, to issue regulations to promote the development
of fisheries and aquaculture and to ensure the proper management of specific fisheries,
including the possibility of declaring closed seasons and/or areas, access limitations, and
restrictions on fishing methods, gear, and the characteristics of fish that may be caught.
20 GoK, Statistical Abstracts 2008
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SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia
Somalia has small fishing industry mostly in the Northern part of the country with Marine
fishing being the major source accounting to 95% of the country’s catch. The country’s fresh
water fish account for less than 1% of the total national catch. There was a steady growth
between 1980 and 2003 followed by a decline from then with poaching being blamed as the
major threat to the industry. The major marine fish include Tuna, Shark and other warm
water fish. The country’s potential is estimated at between 180,000 to 200,000 tonnes but
only 1% is exploited. Major export destinations include Italy, France and Saudi Arabia.
SudanSudanSudanSudan
Despite Sudan having expansive waters, with inland area totaling 11,400 square kilometers
and a coastline of 717 kilometers, fisheries still contributes marginally to the country’s
economy. The major Inland sources include White Nile (Gebel Aulia Reservoir), Blue Nile
(Sennar Reservoir), Atban river (Khashum El Girba) and Lake Nile. Inland Fishing
contributes 90% of the country’s estimated potential under artisan and non modernized
methods of fishing. Fisheries accounted for only 0.4% GDP in 1999 with a per capita of
1.64kg/year.
According to Food and Agriculture 2003 the trade balance for Sudan was strong and
indicated potential growth exporting a total of 1,629 tonnes of Fish and products valued at
US$ 533,000 while importing only 157 tonnes at US$ 324,000.
UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda
Uganda is an Agricultural based economy with about 29% of her GDP being attributed
directly to Agriculture .Fisheries industry is very significant with an export value of US$ 142
million, 50% of which is sent to Europe ( Export Performance Analysis 2005 by Uganda
Export promotion Board July 2006). Lake Victoria accounts for approximately 60% of the
total landed catch, other sources though includes Lake Albert, Kyoga, Wamala and others. Of
the total catch, Nile Perch compose the bulk of the export. The industry has shown a positive
growth rate in the past decade with a growth rate of 38%. However, in the past four years,
there has been a decline in the production levels of the fish industry.
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Discussions with the fisheries Department revealed that the main challenges to the sub-
sector include:
i. Decline in volume and value of fisheries captured. The fisheries stock have reduced
by 5000 in recent past from 32,855 tonnes in 2006 to 28,394 in 2007
ii. Environmental degradation of fish habitats. The vegetative cover, especially in the
islands is badly degraded. The LBC projects are attempting to address this
iii. Regional trade in immature fish. Most fish being traded within the regional markets
are immature. Enforcement of regulations is necessary to address this
iv. HIV/AIDS amongst the fishing communities
v. Standards set by the export market. The current ADBs Fisheries Development Project
is trying to address the infrastructure needs of the sub-sector by improving markets.
Project is however closing in October-December 2009
Challenges to the Fishing SubsectorChallenges to the Fishing SubsectorChallenges to the Fishing SubsectorChallenges to the Fishing Subsector
The fish industry in GHA suffers three major challenges: First, lack of adequate data for
planning and management of the fisheries resources and secondly, the shrinking markets for
fish products due to inability of the industry to meet quality standards (Hazard Analysis
Critical Control Point —HACCP) set by the EU in the early 2000. The third challenge is the
shrinking fish resources due to a combination of issues. To solve the above problems, the
industry is in dire need of:
• A comprehensive study to determine the available fish resources in the country, the
potential for the industry and the challenges facing the industry especially due to
pollution of fresh water bodies, reducing water levels due to upstream environmental
degradation and other emerging threats
• Industry policy guidelines and strategy paper to outline best practices for all the
industry players and ensure various standards are met
Investment opportunitiesInvestment opportunitiesInvestment opportunitiesInvestment opportunities
The following investment opportunities are currently available in GHA fisheries industry:
• A large unexploited capture marine resource, which could find market in EU and
elsewhere. Currently, Kenya alone produces about 6,000 metric tonnes of marine fish
annually. It however has the potential to produce up to 260,000 metric tonnes
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• There is a large unexploited potential for aquaculture to supplement the capture
marine resources. This opportunity is mostly in mari-culture that would be a
profitable endeavour e.g. artemia, oysters etc
• Investment in deep sea fishing logistics including technical support
• Development of a fully-fledged fish processing industry and particularly setting up of
Tuna factories.
• Financing of fish processing plants
• Production of suitable packaging materials for packaging fish for export
Fish production trends (Fish production trends (Fish production trends (Fish production trends (tonnestonnestonnestonnes))))
• • FigureFigureFigureFigure 2222:::: Fish Production Trends (Source: FAOSTAT, 2009)
• From the above graph, Uganda is by far the greatest fish producer in the region. She
also recorded the highest growth among the countries in the GHA.
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APPENDIX 3: FORESTRY
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FORESTRYFORESTRYFORESTRYFORESTRY
Forests play an important role in balancing the gaseous fluctuations especially of CO2, CO
and O2 in the environment. They also fulfill the requirement of furniture, building materials,
water and feed for the livestock through their leaves and pods especially for browsing
animals. Forest cover across the GHA region is generally low. Table 8.1 shows the level of
forest cover as a percentage of total land area in the various GHA countries.
Table 1Table 1Table 1Table 1:::: Forest Cover Across the GHA CountryCountryCountryCountry Total land area (kmTotal land area (kmTotal land area (kmTotal land area (km2222)))) Percentage forest coverPercentage forest coverPercentage forest coverPercentage forest cover
Djibouti 23,180 -
Ethiopia 1,000,000 14.2
Kenya 569,140 1.7
Somalia 637,661 11.4
Sudan 2,376,000 28.4
Uganda 197,100 13.0
TotalTotalTotalTotal 4,803,081 19.2
There have been serious incidences of deforestation across the GHA member states. Most of
the deforestation happened within the last decade. Recent worrying revelations from Uganda
indicated that the country risks losing its entire forest cover in 50 years if no efforts are made
to stop the rapid deforestation21. In Kenya, it is predicted that the country risks losing its
entire coffee and tea subsectors within the next decade if deforestation is not controlled.
21 http://allafrica.com/stories/200808190257.html
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APPENDIX 4: APICULTURE
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APICULTUREAPICULTUREAPICULTUREAPICULTURE
Given that most of the GHA is arid and semi arid tropical climate, apiculture is a viable
economic activity. However, apiculture practices within the region has mostly been
rudimentary and underdeveloped. Traditional methods are still wide spread across the region
with bee keepers adopting beehives traditionally constructed from timber, bamboo or woven
from forest climbers.
In Kenya, beekeeping can be successfully carried out in about 80% of the country. Overall
the country’s potential for apiculture development is estimated at over 100,000 tonnes of
honey and 10,000 tonnes of beeswax. Ethiopia on the other hand produces an estimated 42
000 tonnes of honey, which is well below the country’s potential. Uganda estimates a current
production of 800-1,200 tonnes of honey per year due to lack of bee stock.
Beekeeping in Ethiopia is a major economic activity. Figure 2.9 shows the trend in bee hive
numbers in Ethiopia.
Beeswax production trends Beeswax production trends Beeswax production trends Beeswax production trends
FigureFigureFigureFigure. . . . 3:3:3:3: Beeswax Production Trend, Tonnes (Source: FAOSTAT, 2009)
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The graph above shows the trend of bee-keeping products in the GHA. Ethiopia is the
leading bee wax producer follwed by kenya in 2007. The growth in this sector is positive,
however small. There is great potential not yet tapped over the years.
FigureFigureFigureFigure. 4. 4. 4. 4:::: Trend in Beekeeping Development in Ethiopia
((((Source: FaoStat, 2009)
Apiculture contributes to incomes as well as food security through provision of honey,
beeswax and pollen as food and propolis, bees venom and royal jelly in medicine. There has
been little importance given to these alternative bee products yet they are the premium
products with potential for higher incomes.
It is estimated that only about a fifth of the total potential of bee production is currently
being exploited within the GHA. In recognition of that, the bee keepers association of
Uganda has recently launched a programme aimed at equipping bee keepers with the
technical skills to properly manage their hives.
Overall, the industry currently suffers several challenges. These include:
Horticulture:Horticulture:Horticulture:Horticulture: a threat from the fast growing horticulture industry especially in peri urban
areas due to chemical pollution of water and air from the insecticides used in
the flower industry. There is however a potential for coexistence between
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beekeeping and flower farming as in New Zealand where beekeeping
contributes between USD 600 million to USD 1.2 billion to the economy
annually where the interrelationship between bees and floriculture is valued.
California – USA presents another good example of where this
interrelationship has been positively developed.
Technology: Technology: Technology: Technology: there has been low adoption of technologies in the industry. Bee keepers
depend mostly on the traditional methods of comb management. Several
local honey processing firms have recentlybeen incorporated across the
region. These firms, however, concentrate on in the processing of honey and
ignoring other premium bee products.
Market information: Market information: Market information: Market information: Most of the regions where bees are produced have very low access to
infrastructure and therefore to markets. In Kenya, for example, these are
mainly in eastern and Rift Valley provinces. In Ethiopia, beekeeping is
mostly developed in Oromiya, SNNPR, Amhara and Tigray, in that order.
Technical Support: Technical Support: Technical Support: Technical Support: Apiculture remains one of the industries where formal technical support
is still difficult to find within the government systems. Only a few
institutions in the region provide technical expertise in beekeeping. In
Kenya, Baraka Agricultural Institute Colleges train experts in apiculture.
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APPENDIX 5: LIVESTOCK TRADE
AND MARKETING
INFRASTRUCTURE
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LIVESTOCK TRADE AND MARKETING INFRASTRUCTURELIVESTOCK TRADE AND MARKETING INFRASTRUCTURELIVESTOCK TRADE AND MARKETING INFRASTRUCTURELIVESTOCK TRADE AND MARKETING INFRASTRUCTURE
Role of Livestock in Role of Livestock in Role of Livestock in Role of Livestock in GHA EconomyGHA EconomyGHA EconomyGHA Economy
OverallOverallOverallOverall
The economic performance within the GHA has been weak over the last decade. With the
exception of Sudan and Uganda, an average economic growth of 3.8% among the rest of
GHA has barely kept pace with a population growth rate averaged at 2.4%. Kenya and
Djibouti have recorded falling per capita incomes within the last decade aggravating an
already bad situation given that per capita incomes within the GHA are some of the lowest in
the world.
As already described, agriculture is the mainstay of the economy of the GHA countries
contributing from 3.7% to 52.3% of GDP while employing over three quarters of the
population across the region. However, between 19.8% and 88.2% of the agriculture sector
contribution to the GDP comes from livestock, averaged at about 57%. Therefore, the
contribution of the livestock sector to the GHA economies cannot be ignored. Table 2.2
shows the contribution of livestock to the overall agricultural GDP and the overall country
GDP across the GHA
4444....2222 MarketingMarketingMarketingMarketing
The significance of marketing in the development of sustainable livestock sector cannot be
overstated as effective marketing is a key driver of any sustainable production process. An
analysis of the sector showed that the GHA region suffers from dilapidated livestock
marketing infrastructure (quarantine stations, veterinary checkpoints, stock routes, holding
grounds) and poorly organized livestock market information systems which constitute major
constraints for livestock producers. This lack of market infrastructure has hampered access to
market information by livestock farmers. Improvement of this infrastructure coupled with a
modern market information system has the potential of improving market access and
profitability of the livestock enterprises.
Livestock market within the region may be looked at from three perspectives namely, the
external market characterised by stringent OIE rules and bilateral agreements, the regional
market within which countries can negotiate and agree on various standards and internal
markets within the individual countries.
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4.24.24.24.2.1.1.1.1 External marketExternal marketExternal marketExternal market
Case study of the Regional Quarantine Facility, DjiboutiCase study of the Regional Quarantine Facility, DjiboutiCase study of the Regional Quarantine Facility, DjiboutiCase study of the Regional Quarantine Facility, Djibouti
The livestock quarantine facility in Djibouti is one of the facilities within the region linking
the GHA livestock sector to the market, mostly in the Middle East. The facility facilitates the
export of live animals from Ethiopia, Somalia and Djibouti. Table 7.1 shows the percentage of
various types of livestock received by the facility for the period May 2007 to April 2009.
Table Table Table Table 2222:::: Country contributions to livestock exports at the Djibouti quarantine station
Type of livestockType of livestockType of livestockType of livestock Country of originCountry of originCountry of originCountry of origin Mean weightsMean weightsMean weightsMean weights
Somalia Ethiopia
Sheep and goats 92 8 25-40 kg
Cattle 32 68 Ethiopia: 300-450kg
Somalia: 150-300 kg
Camels 61 39 Ethiopia: ≥ 400 kg
Somalia: ≤ 300 kg
Figure 7.1 shows the number of live animals exported from the facility between March 2007
and April 2008. In terms of numbers, sheep and goats composed 92% of all live animals
exported from the facility during the period.
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FigureFigureFigureFigure. 5. 5. 5. 5: Live animals exported from the regional quarantine centre, Djibouti: Live animals exported from the regional quarantine centre, Djibouti: Live animals exported from the regional quarantine centre, Djibouti: Live animals exported from the regional quarantine centre, Djibouti ((((Source: Source: Source: Source:
Regional livestock quarantine centre, Djibouti)Regional livestock quarantine centre, Djibouti)Regional livestock quarantine centre, Djibouti)Regional livestock quarantine centre, Djibouti)
Assessment of the marketing modelAssessment of the marketing modelAssessment of the marketing modelAssessment of the marketing model
The livestock marketing model adopted by the quarantine facility in Djibouti is presented in
Figure 7.2. The facility acts as a linkage between the livestock producers and the market.
Transport of livestock, facilities and services form an important part of the model. The model
is dependent, to a greater extent, on the legal and regulatory framework posed by the host
country and by several other international players. It is further dependent on the
infrastructure on the ground for its transport system.
FigureFigureFigureFigure. 6. 6. 6. 6: : : : Regional quarantine Station Marketing Model
LessLessLessLessons from the Regional Quarantine Facility ons from the Regional Quarantine Facility ons from the Regional Quarantine Facility ons from the Regional Quarantine Facility
i.i.i.i. Public Private Partnerships in Livestock DevelopmentPublic Private Partnerships in Livestock DevelopmentPublic Private Partnerships in Livestock DevelopmentPublic Private Partnerships in Livestock Development
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It is possible to develop a working public-private sector partnership in the livestock sector.
Such a partnership can be at the level of production, value addition or marketing. The public
sector however, must do more to create a conducive policy, legal and regulatory framework
to facilitate such partnerships.
ii.ii.ii.ii. CrossCrossCrossCross----Border Livestock TradeBorder Livestock TradeBorder Livestock TradeBorder Livestock Trade
The regional livestock quarantine facility obtains livestock for export from Ethiopia and
Somalia. These transactions are properly documented and the necessary revenues paid to the
host country. This is an important lesson that can help curb informal cross-border trade
through which governments lose substantial revenues.
iii.iii.iii.iii. DeaDeaDeaDealing with Punitive Terms of Tradeling with Punitive Terms of Tradeling with Punitive Terms of Tradeling with Punitive Terms of Trade
Certain trading conditions posed by Western countries have serious negative impacts on
livestock production across the region. Adoption of the model above may reduce a country’s
vulnerability to the general bans that are sometimes imposed by the western markets on
local livestock and livestock products.
Importation of Livestock Products Importation of Livestock Products Importation of Livestock Products Importation of Livestock Products
Table Table Table Table 2:2:2:2: main Livestock Products Imported by GHA Countries (2007) Source: FAOSTAT 2009
CountryCountryCountryCountry Livestock product within top 20 Livestock product within top 20 Livestock product within top 20 Livestock product within top 20
imports imports imports imports into country in 2007into country in 2007into country in 2007into country in 2007
Quantity (Quantity (Quantity (Quantity (tonnestonnestonnestonnes)))) Value (‘000 Value (‘000 Value (‘000 Value (‘000
USD)USD)USD)USD)
Djibouti • Milk
• Cattle meat
• Chicken meat
4,996
7,830
5,786
12,171
13,388
5,348
Eritrea • Milk
• Cattle meat
• Chicken meat
N/A
N/A
94
N/A
N/A
137
Ethiopia No livestock product import ranked
amongst country’s top 20 imports
N/A N/A
Kenya No livestock product import ranked
amongst country’s top 20 imports
N/A N/A
Sudan • Whole Milk
• Skim milk
23,266
3,368
153,577
14,423
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Uganda No livestock product import ranked
amongst country’s top 20 imports
N/A N/A
4444....2222.2.2.2.2 Regional marketRegional marketRegional marketRegional market
Cross border livestock trade represents one of the most significant growth areas of regional
trade in Eastern Africa. The trade is now being considered as one of the few success stories in
the regional livestock sector. The overall cross-border trade in the region is estimated to be
in excess of USD 60 million annually with the GHA countries contributing to over 70% of
this trade. Figure 7 shows the growth in cross border trade between Somalia/Kenya,
Ethiopia/Kenya and Ethiopia/Sudan between 1991 and 2007.
FigureFigureFigureFigure.... 7: 7: 7: 7: Cross Border Livestock Trade in the GHA (Source: COMESA, 2009)
Despite its immense capacity to contribute to national economies and poverty alleviation,
regional cross-border trade within the GHA is poorly understood even by policy makers and
as such remains poorly developed. This has ensured that the trade remains largely informal.
Some of the challenges facing regional cross-border trade in livestock are:
i.i.i.i. Lack of Marketing Infrastructure within Pastoral Communities Lack of Marketing Infrastructure within Pastoral Communities Lack of Marketing Infrastructure within Pastoral Communities Lack of Marketing Infrastructure within Pastoral Communities along the Bordersalong the Bordersalong the Bordersalong the Borders
The GHA member countries share long stretches of borderline that is usually poorly manned
and lack basic livestock marketing infrastructure. The borderlines lack livestock holding
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grounds, security, customs posts, among other vital facilities. In most cases, basic facilities
like customs posts are situated up to 200 km apart.
ii.ii.ii.ii. Market InformationMarket InformationMarket InformationMarket Information
Small scale traders and patoralists often find themselves vulnerable to brokers at the
borderlines due to lack of market information. This makes them lose to the more informed
traders who exploit their ignorance. However, the use of cellular phone technology is rapidly
sealing this information gap.
iii.iii.iii.iii. Animal HealthAnimal HealthAnimal HealthAnimal Health
It is difficult to for pastoralists to effectively participate in the collection of vital livestock
health data and participate in vaccination programs unless they are adequately empowered
through sensitization and effective coordination within the pastoral regions. TADs therefore
remain a challenge throughout the region due to the capacity lapse at the borders.
iv.iv.iv.iv. Centralized Decision MakingCentralized Decision MakingCentralized Decision MakingCentralized Decision Making
In most instances, decision making, even at official border points is slow as local
organizations and institutions are entirely dependent on the central government for
decisions related to trade. This encourages local pastoralists to seek alternative and quicker
methods of trading on their livestock.
v.v.v.v. Conflicts and InsecurityConflicts and InsecurityConflicts and InsecurityConflicts and Insecurity
Cross-border conflicts within the GHA have for a long time negatively impacted on trade. It
is reported22 that:
i. CBT between Somalia and Kenya has been halted several times in recent years due
to conflict and by Kenya’s concerns about insecurity in Somalia;
ii. CBT between Ethiopia and Eritrea has been virtually nil since the war between
the countries halted the trade in the late 1990s;
22 Little, P. D. 2007. Unofficial cross border trade in eastern Africa. Presented at the FAO
workshop on “Staple Food Trade and Market Policy Options for Promoting Development in
Eastern and Southern Africa,” March 1-2, 2007, FAO Headquarters, Rome, Italy
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iii. CBT between Uganda/Kenya and southern Sudan was stopped several times in
recent years because of conflict and insecurity.
iv. CBT between Ethiopia and Somalia/Somaliland has been slowed numerous times
in recent years due to conflict, as well as increased confiscations of trade goods by
government officials.
4444....2.32.32.32.3 Internal MarketsInternal MarketsInternal MarketsInternal Markets
Over the years, local demand for livestock products has exceeded supply. The GHA region
therefore remains a net importer of most livestock products. Net trade in livestock products
has largely been negative with imports exceeding exports as shown in Figures 8a-d
FigureFigureFigureFigure 8888a: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Djiboutia: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Djiboutia: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Djiboutia: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Djibouti
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FigureFigureFigureFigure 8888b: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Kenyab: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Kenyab: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Kenyab: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Kenya
FigureFigureFigureFigure 8888c: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Sudanc: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Sudanc: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Sudanc: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Sudan
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FigFigFigFigureureureure 8888d: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Ugandad: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Ugandad: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Ugandad: Net Trade in Livestock Products in Uganda
In Somalia, livestock marketing is mainly a private sector affair through dealers and local
markets. Livestock are used to supply local markets, shipped to various countries in the
Arabian Peninsula, and trekked or transported to markets in Kenya and Ethiopia. Livestock
also enter Somalia through the borders with Ethiopia and Kenya.
4.34.34.34.3 InfrastructureInfrastructureInfrastructureInfrastructure
A well developed physical infrastructure is necessary for the development of sustainable
livestock sector. Physical infrastructure across the GHA region and more specifically in
pastoral regions is poorly developed. This has retarded the production and marketing efforts
in the livestock sector leading to widespread poverty.
Road and Rail Road and Rail Road and Rail Road and Rail transport network within the GHA is generally underdeveloped. There is
generally absence of road and rail network in the pastoral regions and where they exist, they
are generally in poor conditions. There are, however, efforts to improve especially the road
network. Some of these efforts include the ongoing efforts to complete the Addis-Nairobi
highway linking Kenya and Ethiopia. Over long distances though, like in the case of the
Sudan, it is more efficient and cost-effective to transport live animals by rail other than by
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road. The need for further enhanced investments in road and rail within the region can
however, not be overemphasized.
EnergyEnergyEnergyEnergy, especially electricity is an important factor in supporting production and marketing
activities in the livestock sector. The energy sector within the GHA is quite underdeveloped.
In Ethiopia, for example, 13% of the population is estimated to have access to electricity grid
compared to about 8% in Kenya. Uganda has only about 6% of the population covered. These
figures compare miserably to those found elsewhere. In Western Europe for example about
98% of the population is covered while in Africa, Ghana for example, has 35% access to
electric power and South Africa enjoys over 80% access to electricity. Egypt enjoys about 9%
connectivity. There is therefore, need to invest heavily in the sector to enhance its
productivity.
Efficient telecommunicationstelecommunicationstelecommunicationstelecommunications system is a useful tool in bridging the information gap between
producers and markets. It is also useful in ensuring the sharing of data necessary for decision
making by the producers. The livestock sector requires an effective telecommunication
system to support its activities. GHA countries are currently implementing aggressive
telecommunications policies. The cellular phone has gone a long way in ensuring populations
is linked to the national telecommunications grid. In Kenya, over 50% of the populations
now have access to cellular phone. Access to the service in Djibouti is still beyond the reach
of most pastoral livestock farmers. The wireless telephone system provides a tremendous
opportunity to expeditiously and effectively provide 100% access to livestock producers. This
system should be pursued for both voice and data communication in the sector.
On internet infrastructure,internet infrastructure,internet infrastructure,internet infrastructure, GHA countries are making considerable efforts in ensuring
internet services accessible to majority of their citizens. Access to internet infrastructure
would support production activities in the livestock sector. An international consortium is
currently installing undersea fibre optic cable under The East African Marine Systems
(TEAMS) project that is meant to enhance access to internet services in the region. The
countries of Djibouti and Ethiopia are also in the process of installing their own fibre optic
cable under the SEA ME WE 5 project. The mobile GSM system provides an opportunity for
100% access to the internet by producers in the sector.
In general, livestock marketing Infrastructure Improvement Programme (LMIIP) in the
region should focus on the following:
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i. A special livestock improvement fund, a credit scheme for livestock farmers
ii. Physical infrastructure development project, targeting pastoral areas
iii. Marketing infrastructure improvement project
Market access:Market access:Market access:Market access: Existing markets for most of the livestock and livestock products are usually
located in the major towns and cities. However, in most instances, there exists localized
market centres within the ASAL regions (Delloitte, 2006). Livestock have to be trekked long
distances, sometimes hundreds of kilometers to access markets. There is need for the
establishment of bulking sites as temporary holding grounds for livestock before
transportation to the major markets.
Information: Information: Information: Information: Lack of market information makes livestock farmers in the ASALs vulnerable to
abuse by the few middlemen who are their only source of price information. Expanded
extension services, investments in infrastructure and mass media can play an important role
in ensuring market information reaches the livestock farmers.
4.44.44.44.4 Value AddiValue AddiValue AddiValue Additiontiontiontion
Value addition in the livestock sector is crucial to enhanced incomes to producers and the
growth of the sector. Value addition consists of animal control and housing, slaughter,
packaging, conditioned transport, production of cheese, butter, yoghurt and other products.
Production of leather products, dried milk, buttons, dressed poultry, glue, cooking fat, gun
powder are also important to the value addition chain.
It is necessary that infrastructure for primary and secondary value addition be in place in
order to maximize returns from the livestock sector. This infrastructure includes holding
pens, cattle dips, animal housing, abattoirs, tanneries, dairies, cooling plants and other
relevant facilities.
In Kenya, there are private and public sector infrastructure for value addition in the livestock
sector. These include the Government-owned Kenya Meat Commission which slaughters
and processes products from cattle, sheep and goats. Farmers Choice is a private sector firm
which processes products from pigs, cattle and poultry. The firm produces sausages, bacon,
ham, pork and other products for both local and external markets. Kenchick Limited
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processes eggs and broilers for the local and export markets. In Uganda, Ugachick Limited
processes eggs and broilers for the local and export market.
Milk is produced from various animal sources in GHA. These include cows, goats, sheep and
camels. The most developed infrastructure for milk processing exists in Kenya. These include
the state-owned Kenya Cooperative Creameries and private and cooperative sector firms
such as Brookside Dairies Limited, Spinknit Limited, Limuru Dairies, Kwale Dairies, among
others. In Uganda, Sameer Agriculture and Livestock is one of the largest milk processing
firms. Others include Alpha Dairy Products (U) Limited, Jesa Firm dairy and GBK Dairy
Products (U) Limited, among others. Sudan and Ethiopia also have several private milk
processors.
A Delloite/USAID study carried out in 2006, in its analysis of the hides and skins sub-sector,
noted that Kenya has a great potential for value addition. The sub-sector however
experiences the following problems:
v. Low local demand for hides and skins especially for camel hides
vi. Small domestic market due to the closure of tanneries and suppressed market for
domestic leather products sue to uncontrolled importation of second hand products
vii. Poor quality of hides and skins due to poor flaying and curing methods
viii. High investment costs requirements and stringent standards for environmental
management
The value addition products from the dairy sector include fresh milk, whole milk, fermented
milk, flavoured milk, skim milk, condensed milk, dried milk powder, butter, ghee, cheese
and yorghut, among others. There is tremendous scope for increase in milk production and
amount of processed products. For example, in Kenya, 80% of the milk is marketed and
consumed in the raw form thus reducing the potential for earning higher incomes. Needless
to say, consumption of raw milk also poses health risks. Per capita consumption of milk
within the GHA region is way below the world average at just about 10%. There is therefore,
a large potential for investment in value addition capacity in the region for increased
incomes and improved livelihoods.
Quality StandardsQuality StandardsQuality StandardsQuality Standards
In a 2007 study on the Competitive Commercial Agriculture in Sub–Saharan Africa (CCAA) commissioned by the World Bank and the FAO, Sub-Saharan Africa’s inability to meet the
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increasing international demands for animal certification and traceability was cited as one of
the major hindrances to the development of the sector. GHA countries have suffered a lot in
having trade bans imposed on their livestock exports from time to time. The region
continues to put in place measures targeted at helping clear this barrier. Some of these efforts
include:
i. The plans to put up DFZs in Kenya, Uganda and Sudan
ii. Establishment of regional quarantine facilities in Djibouti and Sudan
iii. Continuous bilateral negotiations
iv. Capacity building through participation in Pan-SPSO and other initiatives
v. Construction of new and improvement of existing abattoirs across the region
vi. Efforts to have an integrated livestock information management system for planning
and traceability, among other efforts
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APPENDIX 6: STRENGTHS AND
WEAKNESSES OF SECTOR
INSTITUTIONS
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SUMMARY OF STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN LIVESTOCK, WATER AND SUMMARY OF STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN LIVESTOCK, WATER AND SUMMARY OF STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN LIVESTOCK, WATER AND SUMMARY OF STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN LIVESTOCK, WATER AND
PASTURE DEVELOPMENTPASTURE DEVELOPMENTPASTURE DEVELOPMENTPASTURE DEVELOPMENT
InstitutionsInstitutionsInstitutionsInstitutions StrengthsStrengthsStrengthsStrengths WeaknessesWeaknessesWeaknessesWeaknesses
Policy level • Flexible macroeconomic policies
• Specific ministries to facilitate policy
formulation
• Policies that support innovation
• Policy revisions indicate adaptability
and progression
• Lack of strong regional policies to enhance cross border
cooperation of various aspects of livestock production
• Lack of strong livestock policy think tanks to influence policy
decisions
• Ministries in charge of livestock, pastures and water resources
are normally separate creating problems of synchronization and
coordination of activities
• Challenges in translating policy statements into workable
strategies for the livestock sector
• Lack of strong national and regional policies to support genetic
resources preservation and improvement
Production and
marketing organizations
(Animal Production
Societies, Dairy Unions,
Chambers of
Commerce, Exporters
Associations, etc)
• Government systems across the region
promote the formation and
sustainability of production and
marketing organizations
• Enthusiastic public interested in
exploring external markets
• Varying synergies across the region with some member
countries having developed fairly strong production and
marketing organizations while others lag behind
• No legal backing to production and marketing organizations to
enforce standards
• Membership to these organizations are largely voluntary
Research institutions
(Universities, ILRI,
NARO, ARC, EIAR)
• Strong technical capacity at ILRI
• Strong regional cooperation in
research between some member
countries (Kenya/Uganda)
• Universities keen on livestock
• Crop research has been promoted at the expense of livestock
research
• Research on forage virtually missing out
• Low collaborative work between institutions in the region
• Low funding
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InstitutionsInstitutionsInstitutionsInstitutions StrengthsStrengthsStrengthsStrengths WeaknessesWeaknessesWeaknessesWeaknesses
research
• Strong FAO presence in the region to
facilitate information exchange
• Low dissemination of research information
Extension services
(Ministries, NAADS,
FTCs, ATVET colleges )
• Government in charge of most
extension work
• Ongoing efforts to promote linkages
between research and extension
services in Ethiopia through the
Research Extension Advisory Council
(REAC). These efforts however,
require institutional strengthening
• Non-uniformity in approaches to extension service delivery
• Understaffing
• Poor physical infrastructure affecting accessibility
• Underfunding of agriculture and livestock extension services
Professional associations
(Veterinary
Associations,
Institutions of
Engineers, etc)
• Several associations exist for the
entire spectrum of livestock
production
• There is increasing regional linkages
among individual associations
• Low level coordination between the associations and policy
arms of Government
• Lack of legal backing for their activities
• Pasture development has increasingly been neglected
• Regional policy to enhance free interaction still missing
Veterinary service
delivery (Ministries,
Veterinary Boards,
Pharmacy Boards)
• Strong veterinary support especially
in Ethiopia, Kenya and Sudan
• Adequate expertise within the region
in most of the specialties
•
• Vastness of pastoral regions hamper accessibility to veterinary
services
• Vast borders affect cross-border surveillance of TADs
• Uneven distribution of veterinary officers with pastoral areas
suffering most
Projects and
Programmes (Donors,
NGOs, Governments)
• High enthusiasm among donor
community in support of livestock,
water and pasture development
• Large number of complimentary
projects and programmes are
• Lack of effective Government mechanism to coordinate
projects and programmes in pastoral regions leading to
duplication and sometimes neglect in some regions
• Conflicts within pastoral areas sometimes negate achievements
already made
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InstitutionsInstitutionsInstitutionsInstitutions StrengthsStrengthsStrengthsStrengths WeaknessesWeaknessesWeaknessesWeaknesses
underway among pastoral
communities and regions
Finance (Public sector,
Commercial Banks,
Microfinance
Institutions)
• Strong banking sector exists within
the region supported by a strong
regulatory environment
• Emerging microfinance institutions
able to penetrate to the remote
pastoral areas
• Overburdened exchequer
• Commercial banks do not seem to appreciate the specific needs
of the livestock farmers especially pastoralists
• Interest rates that prohibit borrowing
Institutions for water
infrastructure
improvement
(Government ministries
or their agents, private
sector)
• Supportive policy environment is
opening sector to private participation
across the region
• Governments still maintain some
reserve capacity to develop
infrastructure
• Community involvement in water
sector to ensure sustainability of
sector activities
• Low enthusiasm for private sector players due to low-level
incentives
• Inadequate government reserve capacity to implement large
projects
• Communities lack technical and managerial skills to sustainably
manage and maintain water supply infrastructure
• Low water table in pastoral areas
• Poor water quality
Institutions for pasture
development (Research
institutions, produces
associations,
Governments)
• High demand for pasture
• Large rangelands with potential for
pasture development
• Availability of large pasture varieties
• Availability of expertise within the
region
• Water scarcity due to harsh climatic conditions
• Underdeveloped irrigation systems
• Lack of dedicate research institutions to support pasture
research
• Low institutional capacity for pasture seed reproduction
• Low adoption rates even where research and extension services
are available
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Table Table Table Table 3333:::: Contribution of Livestock to Regional GDP
CountryCountryCountryCountry YearYearYearYear GDP GDP GDP GDP
(Billion (Billion (Billion (Billion
USD)USD)USD)USD)
Share of Share of Share of Share of
agricultural GDP agricultural GDP agricultural GDP agricultural GDP
in overall GDPin overall GDPin overall GDPin overall GDP
Share of livestock Share of livestock Share of livestock Share of livestock
GDGDGDGDP in P in P in P in
agricultural GDPagricultural GDPagricultural GDPagricultural GDP
Share of livestock Share of livestock Share of livestock Share of livestock
GDP in overall GDPGDP in overall GDPGDP in overall GDPGDP in overall GDP
DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti 1980 - - 86.3 -
1990 0.5 3.3 89.5 3.0
2000 0.5 3.7 84.7 3.1
2004 0.5 - 82.2 -
EritreaEritreaEritreaEritrea 1980 - - - -
1990 - - - -
2000 0.6 17.1 56.5 9.7
2004 - - - -
EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia 1980 - 56.1 36.8 20.6
1990 5.1 49.3 39.1 19.3
2000 7.5 52.3 32.5 17.0
2004
KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya 1980 5.6 32.6 49.4 16.1
1990 8.4 29.1 53.3 15.5
2000 9.9 19.9 52.4 10.4
2004 10.1 25.7 47.0 12.1
SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia 1980 - 68.4 88.0 60.2
1990 - 65.5 82.5 54.0
2000 - - 88.2 -
2004 2.1 60.0 - 40.0
SudanSudanSudanSudan 1980 4.3 32.9 54.1 17.8
1990 4.8 32.8 65.5 21.5
2000 9.9 37.2 61.8 23.0
2004 10.8 - 55.0 -
UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda 1980 - 72.0 24.2 17.4
1990 4.1 56.6 20.9 11.8
2000 7.7 42.5 19.8 8.1
2004 8.8 38.8 14.4 5.6
Source: Adapted from FAO, 2004
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APPENDIX 7: PROSOPIS
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PROSOPISPROSOPISPROSOPISPROSOPIS
The problem of Prosopis trees (sometimes referred to as ‘Mathenge’ species) as invasive
weeds is a widespread issue in many ASAL regions. This brief is of interest to many
individuals and organizations, especially those making decisions concerning land use
directly or the use of resources from the land.
ASALs in the GHoA is not alone in having invasive Prosopis weeds, and a global consensus
of opinion is now emerging on how to deal with this problem. In some countries, Prosopis
has often been called the ‘tree of the poor’, but it could, with a little help, become the tree
which helps lift the poor to a better and sustainable life.
The Prosopis weed problem has had a dramatic impact on the environment and livelihoods
of pastoral communities, and borders on being considered a national disaster. Pastoralists
inhabit most of the areas where Prosopis occurs.
The impenetrable thickets that characterise most Prosopis infestations have mostly out-
competed grass and related rangeland forage – making its threats far outweigh any current
benefits.
Management of ProsopisManagement of ProsopisManagement of ProsopisManagement of Prosopis
Experiences from the Americas, Asia and Australia have shown that eradication of Prosopis
has proven to be very difficult or sometimes considered impossible. This is largely because
the trees re-grow from vegetative buds and from massive underground seed banks, with
seed production in dense stands estimated at 60 million per hectare per year (GISP, 2004).
Seeds usually lie dormant in the soil for up to 10 years. Mass germination is stimulated
when the surrounding vegetation is removed or the soil is disturbed. Prosopis management
and control programmes therefore need to be sustained for long periods to gain total
control of the spread, and are very costly. As part of the effort to identify solutions for
poverty alleviation, utilisation is a crucial strategic option. This will minimise the negative
impacts of the species as a necessary step to make the best of the situation that is hardly
reversible, particularly in the current poor state of knowledge on its management.
Intervention measuresIntervention measuresIntervention measuresIntervention measures
Many people are benefiting from Prosopis tree, by using or selling the fuelwood or pods. In
a number of areas in Kenya, a bushel of firewood sells for Ksh 54 (US$ 0.74) and a 90 kg
bag of pods for Ksh 100 (US$ 1.4) (Choge et al., 2002). By collecting pods and clearing
weedy trees for fuel wood, the spread of prosopis is reduced and jobs are created. This is
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still only scratching the surface, but two problems, what to do with Prosopis and how to
boost the rural economy, are addressed simultaneously.
The value of ProsopisThe value of ProsopisThe value of ProsopisThe value of Prosopis
During a preliminary survey, the Kenya Forestry Research Institute and the Forest
Department found the value of Prosopis-based income in 2002 to be Ksh 154,882 (US$
2,122) per household per year (Choge et al., 2002). This trade developed spontaneously
even without permits needed for transporting charcoal and with no access to invaded
government and communal land. Overcoming these barriers could see a large increase in
revenues earned and land cleared, just for fuel and fodder.
FigureFigureFigureFigure 9999: Prosopis encroaching into homesteads and gathering Prosopis for firewood
Businesses and small industries can develop, as they have in other countries, and with such
a common and ‘free’ resource may need no prompting if some restrictions are lifted or
other help is offered.
Adding valueAdding valueAdding valueAdding value
Prosopis posts and poles, sawn timber, charcoal, gums, honey and human food are also
produced and sold in other countries. All make more money than just firewood and animal
feed. Wood and pods can be turned into a range of products through home-scale and
factory processing and where they are utilized as such; they are managed and are rarely
invasive.
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APPENDIX 8: PAYMENT FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES
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PAYMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICESPAYMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICESPAYMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICESPAYMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES
Pastoralists render important contributions to environmental conservation that in most
cases is grossly undervalued. Deriving from the above, there has lately been some interest
globally on the PES as a method of sharing environmental conservation costs and benefits
amongst stakeholders. Such payments could be made in consideration of:
• Carbon sequestration in rangeland soils, for climate change mitigation
• Biodiversity, of plants, wild fauna and livestock
• Wind erosion reduction
• Improved water productivity
There are currently very few examples of PES actually being implemented in extensive
livestock production systems, let alone pastoral ones. DFID reports on the GEF-funded
Regional Integrated Silvopastoral Approaches to Ecosystem Management on degraded
pasture land in Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Colombia. Projects which involve benefit-
sharing of wildlife-tourism revenues, most notably the GEF-funded ILRI/African Wildlife
Foundation project and the Novel Forms of Livestock and Wildlife Integration Adjacent to
Protected Areas in Tanzania,23 are also mentioned in this context.
PES in pastoral or rangeland contexts raises immediate questions of to whom payments can
be paid when land is owned and managed collectively, often with overlapping and fuzzy
claims. Payments specifically for carbon sequestration raise a further technical question of
the low carbon sequestration capacity of semi-arid soils, and the subsequent need to
operate at very large scales to realise significant climate mitigation benefits. But PES for
pastoralists and on rangelands appears to be an important topic for research and policy
debates.
4.54.54.54.5 Compliance with Environmental Laws and RegulationsCompliance with Environmental Laws and RegulationsCompliance with Environmental Laws and RegulationsCompliance with Environmental Laws and Regulations
Most countries in GHA have put in place laws and institutions necessary for ensuring that
environmental management standards are adhered to when planning and implementing
development projects. In Kenya, the Environmental Management and Coordination Act,
1999 (EMCA, 1999) and Regulations 2003 is the national law that governs all issues of
environmental management with respect to any proposed projects. NEMA Uganda under
the Ministry of Water and Environment is the statutory body empowered by the
Government of Uganda to enforce environmental laws and regulations. The Ethiopian
Environmental Protection Authority was established under the Environment Policy in an
23 http://www.ilri.org/research/Content.asp?SID=130&CCID=41. 23 August 2009
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effort to harmonise laws governing environmental conservation. The EPA is fully
operational and adequately capacitated to enforce environmental regulations. In Sudan, the
Ministry of Environment and Tourism, through the National Environmental Action Plan
(NEAP) is responsible for enforcing environmental standards.
Given the cross-cutting nature of environmental issues, several other laws and institutions
across the region work together with the Environmental Authorities on specific subjects
such as water, land and health.
AfDB Policy on Environment: AfDB Policy on Environment: AfDB Policy on Environment: AfDB Policy on Environment: AfDB has Environment Policy document for use by the
bank in evaluating its interventions. It outlines AfDB’s internal mechanisms for ensuring
compliance and mainstreaming environmental considerations. The policy also references
AfDB’s Environmental and Social Assessment Procedures and public consultation
requirements. Compliance with these requirements is mandatory for all Bank supported
projects.
World Bank Environmental and Social Safeguards: World Bank Environmental and Social Safeguards: World Bank Environmental and Social Safeguards: World Bank Environmental and Social Safeguards: The World Bank has ten (10)
environmental and social safeguard policies used in the Bank to examine the potential
environmental and social risks and benefits associated with Bank lending operation.
Compliance of all the ten environmental and social safeguards would be mandatory for any
WB financed activity.
European Union Environmental Policy: European Union Environmental Policy: European Union Environmental Policy: European Union Environmental Policy: The overall direction of EU environment policy is
laid out in the organization’s latest action program—“Environment 2010: Our Future, Our
Choice.” It concentrates on four priority areas: climate change; nature and biodiversity;
environment and health; and natural resources and waste. Also, an Environment and
Health Action Plan for 2004-2010 promotes a close relationship between health,
environment and research policy.
Others:Others:Others:Others: It is noted that various financing institutions have their policies that would have to
be complied with. Project implementers would therefore, have to be conscious of the same.
4.5.14.5.14.5.14.5.1 Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP)Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP)Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP)Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP)
The ESMP outlines the environmental impacts identified, the mitigation measures
proposed, timeframe necessary for undertaking the mitigation measures, the cost and the
person(s) responsible for effecting the measures. For each proposed interventions (see
concept notes), a comprehensive ESMP will need to be developed as part of the project
preparation documents.
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4.5.24.5.24.5.24.5.2 Resettlement Resettlement Resettlement Resettlement
It is unlikely that any of the measures envisaged in this report would lead to displacement
of persons or disruption of livelihoods. However, it is recognized that in certain cases, it
may be difficult to completely avoid displacement of persons. Every effort shall be made to
avoid displacement of persons. Where this happens, the project implementers would have
to make reference to the relevant policy guidelines on the same. Some of these guidelines
are outlined below:
AfDB Policy on Involuntary Resettlement: AfDB Policy on Involuntary Resettlement: AfDB Policy on Involuntary Resettlement: AfDB Policy on Involuntary Resettlement: The Involuntary Resettlement Policy outlines
the responsibilities of the AfDB and the borrower regarding the forced relocation of people
for AfDB projects. The policy’s goal is to ensure that resettled people receive assistance and
share in the benefits of the project so that their livelihoods are improved. Requirements for
the preparation of a resettlement plan are included in the policy document.
World Bank Policy on Involuntary Resettlement:World Bank Policy on Involuntary Resettlement:World Bank Policy on Involuntary Resettlement:World Bank Policy on Involuntary Resettlement: The World Bank involuntary
resettlement policy states that project planning must avoid and minimize involuntary
resettlement, and that if people lose their homes or livelihoods as a result of Bank-financed
projects, they should have their standard of living improved, or at least restored.
Adherence to the strict requirements of the policy is mandatory for Bank supported
interventions.
Local Legislations:Local Legislations:Local Legislations:Local Legislations: legislation regarding involuntary resettlement in IGAD member states
are scattered in the various statutes. However, the fundamental requirement of
compensation and restoration advocated for the WB and most development partners apply
in all instances.
International Conventions and Treaties:International Conventions and Treaties:International Conventions and Treaties:International Conventions and Treaties: IGAD member states are signatories to several
international conventions on environmental conservation. It is therefore important that
implementation of any projects do not conflict with the region’s global commitments.
Some of these conventions are:
• Convention on Biodiversity
• Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
• United Nations Convention to Combat desertification
• Important Bird Areas
• International Waters
• Nile treaties
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APPENDIX 9: EFFECTS OF
DROUGHT AND FLOODS TO
PASTORALISTS
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EFFECTS OF DROUGHT AND FLOODS TO PASTORALISTSEFFECTS OF DROUGHT AND FLOODS TO PASTORALISTSEFFECTS OF DROUGHT AND FLOODS TO PASTORALISTSEFFECTS OF DROUGHT AND FLOODS TO PASTORALISTS
DroughtsDroughtsDroughtsDroughts
In a study carried out for the IWMI between 2002 and 2003 in Isiolo district of Kenya,
Mati et al (2005) determined that the total water demand for humans and livestock in the rural areas of Isiolo District was about 6,018 m3 per day, which was equivalent to 2.2
million cubic metres per year. Developed water sources were however, poorly distributed,
amounting to 123 sources/points, of which only 44 (36%) were operational during the dry
season. There was no piped/tap water in the rural areas and the district relied mostly on
boreholes, accounting for 58 percent of all developed water facilities which was an over-
reliance on ground water in a region where only 20% had good groundwater potential.
Supply and demand for water in the ASALs vary widely by season, with critical scarcity
during the dry season. The Isiolo study cited above found that about 93 percent of the
district area lacked water sources for domestic supplies within 5 km distance, affecting 73%
of the villages. At the same time, livestock lacked access to water within 15 km distance in
about 63 percent of the area, affecting 38% of the villages. Within these areas, some
residents were located 50-75 km from the nearest water point. Other constraints include
siltation of water pans, recurrent droughts, lack of fuel to run boreholes where they exist,
poor infrastructure, overgrazing and degradation of areas around water points, high
poverty prevalence and lack of community water management institutions. The above
situation is replicated in al pastoral systems across the GHA.
FigureFigureFigureFigure 10:10:10:10: Impacts of droughts to the pastoral communities
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FloodsFloodsFloodsFloods
During the rainy season, the ASALs suffer from serious flooding. It should be noted that
most pastoral livestock areas have as much problem with rainfall distribution as they do
with its quantity. Floods have been a recurrent incident in these systems.
Livestock losses due to floods have in certain instances surpassed those due to droughts,
especially among the small stock. Table 3.9 shows the estimated livestock losses during the
drought of 1996-97 and the el nino rains of 1997-98 in Marsabit district of northern Kenya
as reported by Little et al (2000).
FigureFigureFigureFigure 11: Flood Impacts in the ASAL Region11: Flood Impacts in the ASAL Region11: Flood Impacts in the ASAL Region11: Flood Impacts in the ASAL Region
Table Table Table Table 4: 4: 4: 4: Livestock Losses during Droughts and Floods
Division/type of cattleDivision/type of cattleDivision/type of cattleDivision/type of cattle % mortality due to drought % mortality due to drought % mortality due to drought % mortality due to drought
(1996(1996(1996(1996----1997)1997)1997)1997)
% mortality due to % mortality due to % mortality due to % mortality due to elninoelninoelninoelnino, 199, 199, 199, 1997777----
1998199819981998
CentralCentralCentralCentral
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Camels
25
1
3
0
1
66.7
66.7
0
LaisamisLaisamisLaisamisLaisamis
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Camels
20
25
15
2
6.1
77.0
77.0
28.9
LoiyangulaniLoiyangulaniLoiyangulaniLoiyangulani
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Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Camels
20
25
05
01
9.7
68.3
68.3
16.7
MaikonaMaikonaMaikonaMaikona
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Camels
15
35
30
01
1
22.8
22.8
18.0
North HorrNorth HorrNorth HorrNorth Horr
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Camels
10
35
30
2
12.8
48.6
48.6
20.0
Source: Little et al 2000
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APPENDIX 10: CROSS BORDER
ISSUES
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CROSS BORDER ISSUESCROSS BORDER ISSUESCROSS BORDER ISSUESCROSS BORDER ISSUES
There exist several cross-border conflicts between states and communities living within
the GHA region. The UNDP Human Development Report 2005 titled Kenya and Uganda
Pastoral Conflict Case Study outlines some of the inherent problems facing the communities of Karamoja in Uganda and their Pokot and Marakwet neighbours in Kenya.
This type of conflict, commonly known as cattle rustling is a classical example of the
postoralists’ struggle for scarce resources.
The conflict in Somalia has certainly impacted negatively on the Kenyan side of the
border. A USAID study on the Kenya Somalia Border Conflict published in 2005 identifies
the reason for the conflict as ethnicity, political patronage, land and water resources and
easy access to firearms and other small weapons.
The above, are two examples of cross border conflicts within the GHA region. Others are:
i. Kenya/ Sudan/ Ethiopia triangle
ii. Sudan-Ethiopia border
iii. Ethiopia-Eritrea border
iv. Ethiopia-Kenya border
v. Ethiopia-Somalia border
vi. Somalia-Djibouti border
vii. Eritrea-Djibouti border
There are several strategies being adopted by the various states of the GHA in trying to
address these conflicts. These include, but not limited to:
i. Expansion of water infrastructure in the affected regions to reduce competition for
water resources
ii. Formation of inter-clan commissions composed of respectable elders and
Government representatives
iii. Expansion of social services infrastructure including education and health systems
iv. Introduction of alternative livelihoods
v. Improvement of governance systems
9.19.19.19.1 Implications of ConflictsImplications of ConflictsImplications of ConflictsImplications of Conflicts
The implications of conflicts on the livestock sector are adverse and if not mitigated may
lead to collapse of the sector. Some examples are:
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i. During the Uganda civil war of the late 1970s and the early 1980s, the soldiers
invaded livestock ranches and pastoral communities and left away with all the
livestock which they ended up consuming totally destroying the sector
ii. The Samburu (Kenya)-Pokot (Kenya), intrastate and the Pokot (Kenya) –Karamoja
(Uganda), interstate has been persistent hindering the development of the sector
and resulting into loss of human lives and generally retarding development
iii. In Sudan, the conflict in Darfur has substantially destroyed the livestock sector
iv. The case of Somalia, a complex and tragic situation obtains as a result of the
prolonged civil war and collapse of the state. This has resulted in underperformance
of the sector characterized by uncoordinated livestock husbandry, disease control
and marketing infrastructure
9.29.29.29.2 Programme RationaleProgramme RationaleProgramme RationaleProgramme Rationale
It is impossible to carry out any development activity in the absence of peace and
tranquility. As already discussed, the GHA region is covered by several conflict spots.
These conflicts are complex and multidimensional. However, the basic defining
characteristic of most of the conflicts is the fight for scarce resources. An integrated
approach that addresses the socio-economic and governance aspects of these conflicts is
therefore desirable.
The following proposed interventions therefore, try to exploit the interrelationship
between the socio-economic and political aspects of livelihoods as a foundation for
successful entry into these communities.
9.39.39.39.3 InterventionsInterventionsInterventionsInterventions
There are currently several ongoing initiatives within the GHA and the various member
countries aimed at addressing the above conflicts. These include (i) IGAD efforts in South
Sudan and Somalia (ii) Various cross-border commissions and inter-clan committees (iii)
Livestock identity and registrations through individual Governments’ efforts to reduce
cattle rustling and ease recovery of stolen livestock, among others.
Further, drawing upon the field data on pastoral conflict behaviour collected by the
Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanism (CEWARN) of the IGAD, Meier and
Bond, 2005 established a relationship between pastoral conflicts and the environment
focusing on two environmental factors, precipitation and forage. Wassara, 2007 also
identified several other causes of conflict amongst pastoral communities. These included,
but not limited to; grazing pastures, water resources, land and family disputes.
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It is possible to build from the above initiatives and findings when developing future
programmes for the sector. A close assessment points strongly to the fact that successful
interventions in resolving conflicts must focus on the environments, source and the actors
as well as be diversified enough in approach to capture the various interrelationships that
exist in these conflicts.
i. Interstate conflicts
ii. Intrastate conflicts
iii. Potential transboundary conflicts
iv. Communal conflicts
Proposed interventions have the following aspects:
Table Table Table Table 5555: : : : Proposed Programme Interventions
Component Component Component Component ActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivities PartnershipsPartnershipsPartnershipsPartnerships
Conflict Resolution 1. Establishing peace building forums
2. Strengthening regional conflict early
warning system
Governments, IGAD, AU,
UN, NGOs, etc
Social amenities
improvement
1. Rehabilitating and constructing of
schools, health centres and other social
amenities
2. Capacity building
Member Governments
Livelihood improvement 5 Improving water supply
6 Supporting livestock health and
identification programmes
7 Upgrade and upscale infrastructure for
enhanced security and livestock
management and marketing
8 Mainstreaming women and youth
9 HIV/AIDS awareness programmes
Member Governments
(Other)
9.49.49.49.4 Programme Implementation FrameworkProgramme Implementation FrameworkProgramme Implementation FrameworkProgramme Implementation Framework
9.4.19.4.19.4.19.4.1 PartnershipsPartnershipsPartnershipsPartnerships
In implementing the proposed programme, the major stkeholders will have to collaborate
with, among others, UN, AU, Governments, the private sector players in the region, NGOs
and local communities
9.4.29.4.29.4.29.4.2 Institutional RequirementsInstitutional RequirementsInstitutional RequirementsInstitutional Requirements
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The GHA countries will have the overall coordination role of the programme, in close
liason with AfDB and other stakeholders. Special offices formed in each of the GHA
countries shall house a desk in charge of the programme.
At national levels, the relevant Ministries will house a special desk fully capacitated with a
National Programme Coordinator and the relevant staff coordinating the relevant
Ministries in charge of Security, Livestock, Arid and Semi Arid Lands, Education, Health,
Water Infrastructure.
9.4.39.4.39.4.39.4.3 Programme PhasingProgramme PhasingProgramme PhasingProgramme Phasing
The proposed programme should be a long-term programme targeting communities most
affected by conflicts in the region. At its onset, the first phase presented here should run
for a seven-year period with lessons learnt being the foundation for the subsequent phases.
9.69.69.69.6 Programme FinancingProgramme FinancingProgramme FinancingProgramme Financing
The financing of the above programme would be from three main sources; the African
Development Bank, other development partners and various member Governments Bank
contributions shall be through loan agreement with the particular member governments. It
will be for financing of the specific activities identified in the Programme Appraisal
Document (PAD). The various governments shall not levy any taxes on all programme
finances.
9.69.69.69.6 Programme Cost EstimatesProgramme Cost EstimatesProgramme Cost EstimatesProgramme Cost Estimates
Table 6 shows some tentative costs associated with the first phase of the programme.
Table Table Table Table 6666:::: Cost Estimates for the First 7-Year Phase of the Programme (USD’000)
ComponentComponentComponentComponent DjiboutiDjiboutiDjiboutiDjibouti EthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopiaEthiopia KenyaKenyaKenyaKenya SomaliaSomaliaSomaliaSomalia SudanSudanSudanSudan UgandaUgandaUgandaUganda TotalTotalTotalTotal
Conflict
resolution
20,000 50,000 50,000 300,000 400,000 50,000 870,000870,000870,000870,000
Social
amenities
improvement
30,000 250,000 190,000 400,000 150,000 100,000 1,120,0001,120,0001,120,0001,120,000
Livelihood
improvement
40,000 280,000 270,000 200,000 270,000 140,000 1,200,0001,200,0001,200,0001,200,000
TotalTotalTotalTotal 90,00090,00090,00090,000 580,000580,000580,000580,000 510,000510,000510,000510,000 900,000900,000900,000900,000 820,000820,000820,000820,000 290,000290,000290,000290,000 3,190,0003,190,0003,190,0003,190,000
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HIV/AIDS PREVALENCE (2007)HIV/AIDS PREVALENCE (2007)HIV/AIDS PREVALENCE (2007)HIV/AIDS PREVALENCE (2007)
Country Percentage
Djibouti 3.1
Eritrea …
Ethiopia 1.4
Kenya 6.1
Somalia 0.5
Sudan 1.8
Uganda 6.7
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9.79.79.79.7 Summary of Risk Assessment and Mitigation StrategiesSummary of Risk Assessment and Mitigation StrategiesSummary of Risk Assessment and Mitigation StrategiesSummary of Risk Assessment and Mitigation Strategies
Risk Risk Risk Risk
categorizationcategorizationcategorizationcategorization
DescriptionDescriptionDescriptionDescription Risk Risk Risk Risk
ratingratingratingrating
Risk mitiRisk mitiRisk mitiRisk mitigation measures to be gation measures to be gation measures to be gation measures to be
incorporated into projectincorporated into projectincorporated into projectincorporated into project
RemarksRemarksRemarksRemarks
Inherent risks
Country level S Continued support to IGAD
initiatives on conflict
management and resolution
Institutional capacity building
to be part of project scope
Risk arises from weak institutional
capacity to manage various aspects of the
project. Country generally has low
human resources capacity and a weak
private sector
Government currently working to
strengthen revenue leakages and
establish institutions in all other sectors
Instability in Southern and Western
Sudan and inherent insecurity in Somalia
is a hindrance.
Donor level S Recruitment and /or transfer of
various cadres of staff under
the project
Government currently thinly spread
across the ASALs and staff availability to
effectively implement program expected
to be a challenge
Project level S Strategies that involve the
pastoralists in project
implementation without
putting too much premium on
their financial contribution
Poverty amongst the nomadic
communities is expected to hinder
effective community participation in
project implementation.
Control risks M
These risks include
budgeting, accounting,
internal controls,
funds flow, financial
reporting and auditing
M Development of various
operational manuals at various
levels
Training of project staff and
key stakeholders to be effected
under the project
Project to rely majorly on existing
Government procedures and processes
and as such expected to benefit from
Government controls. It is however
recognized that these procedures and
processes have their own in-built
setbacks
Other risks Regional cooperation
and integration
M Support to parallel strategies to
strengthen regional
cooperation shall be
encouraged
Strength of regional institutions to
handle cross border water issues would
depend on ‘strength’ of the integration
process
Development partners M Other development partners
would need to be continually
drawn on board to lend
support to the programme or
to related initiatives
ASALs within the GHA region are vast
regions with extremely high resource
requirements for water infrastructure
development
Social risks. Such risks
include security
concerns, low social
infrastructure such as
education, judicial
systems, among others
S Programmes to have capacity
building components at
institutional and community
levels
It is hoped that current efforts across the
IGAD such as the CEWARN will succeed
in encouraging an integrated approach to
conflict resolution and social
development within the ASALs
H- High, S-Substantial, M-Moderate, L-Low
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APPENDIX 11:AFDB SUPPORTED
PROJECTS ACROSS THE REGION
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AfDB SUPPORTED PROJECTS ACROSS THE REGIONAfDB SUPPORTED PROJECTS ACROSS THE REGIONAfDB SUPPORTED PROJECTS ACROSS THE REGIONAfDB SUPPORTED PROJECTS ACROSS THE REGION
KENYAKENYAKENYAKENYA
Project Location Target Section Estimated Cost
(KShs)
Closing date
ALLPRO Arid and Semi-arid
Lands (ASALs) of
Kenya (55 districts)
Agriculture 2.8 billion
PATTEC Lake Victoria basin,
Lake Bogoria (North
Rift) and the
Meru/Mwea in the
east of the country.
Livestock 680 million
Nairobi Addis
Highway
Isiolo-Moyale Public Utility 10 billion
ETHIOPIAETHIOPIAETHIOPIAETHIOPIA ProjectProjectProjectProject LocatioLocatioLocatioLocationnnn Target Target Target Target
SectionSectionSectionSection
Estimated Estimated Estimated Estimated
CostCostCostCost
Closing dateClosing dateClosing dateClosing date
National Livestock
Development Project
National Agriculture 27 million 30 June 07
Koga Irrigation and Watershed
Management Project
Agriculture 32.5901
million
30 June 08
Rural Finance Intermediation
Support Project
Agriculture 27.17 million 31 Dec 09
Agriculture Sector Support
Project
National Agriculture 21.24million 31 Dec 10
Butajir –Hossaina–Sodo – Road
Upgrading
Transport 41.310
million
31 Dec 09
Wacha-Maji Road Upgrading Southern Nations,
Nationalities and
People Regional
State in Bench
Transport 22.710
million
31 March 10
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ProjectProjectProjectProject LocatioLocatioLocatioLocationnnn Target Target Target Target
SectionSectionSectionSection
Estimated Estimated Estimated Estimated
CostCostCostCost
Closing dateClosing dateClosing dateClosing date
Zone in the South
West of Ethiopia
Jimma-Mizan Road Upgrading Oromiya regional
state, SNNP
regional state of
Ethiopia
Transport 65 million 31 Dec 12
Rural Electrification I Project Lot 1: Northern
Area; - Lot 2:
Eastern and
Central; and - Lot 3:
Western and South.
Public
Utility
37.670
million
31 Dec 08
Rural Electrification II Project Nekemte-Gida
Ayana and Aksta-
Alem Ketema
substations
Public
Utility
87.2 million 31 Dec 13
Harar Water Supply and
Sanitation Project
Harar Public
Utility
19.89 million 30 Sep 10
Ethiopia-Djibouti Power
Transmission Project
Public
Utility
20.88 million 31 Dec 10
Ethio-Dji Power
Interconnection Project
Public
Utility
5.2 million 31 Dec 10
Primary Health Care Project National Social 29.72 million 31 Dec 10
Education III Project National Social 32 million 31 Dec 08
UGANDAUGANDAUGANDAUGANDA Project Location Target Section Estimated Cost
(million USD)
Closing Date
North West
Smallholder
North West of Agriculture 17.6 30 June 2009
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Agricultural Project Uganda
Area based
Agriculture
Modernization Project
South Western
Uganda
Agriculture 9.67 31 March 2009
Fisheries
Development Project
Fisheries 22.0 31 Jan 2010
National Livestock
Productivity
Improvement Project
National Livestock 26.1 31 Dec 2009
Farm income
enhancement and
Forest conservation
Project
National Agricultural
Marketing and
Forestry
41.4 31 Dec 2012
Community
Agricultural
Infrastructure
Improvement
Programme
Agricultural
Marketing
30.0 31 Dec 2013
Tse tse Project South Eastern
Uganda
Livestock 6.8 31 Dec 2011
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Other Projects Other Projects Other Projects Other Projects acrossacrossacrossacross the Regionthe Regionthe Regionthe Region
SUDANSUDANSUDANSUDAN ProjectProjectProjectProject LocationLocationLocationLocation Target SectorTarget SectorTarget SectorTarget Sector Estimated Cost (US Estimated Cost (US Estimated Cost (US Estimated Cost (US
million)million)million)million)
Rural development,
rural roads (European
Development Fund)
Water affected states Transport 97
Integrated food
security information
system for policy
support
National Agriculture 11
Recovery of productive
capacities in Sudan
SPCRP
Nile, Red sea, South
Kordofan, Blue Nile
states
Agriculture 22
Livestock Survey
(LESP)
National Livestock 7
Recovery of productive
capacities crop and
pasture project for
improvement of
livelihood in South
Kordofan
South Kordofan Agriculture and Livestock 6.5
Recovery of Blue Nile State Fisheries and Livestock 6.5
Rehabilitation of Red sea Agriculture 6.5
Development of
Livestock systems
National Livestock 20
Development of Gum
Arabic Belt
Gum Arabic Belt Agriculture 7
Development of
agricultural extension
services
National Agriculture 51
ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA ProjectProjectProjectProject LocationLocationLocationLocation Target SectorTarget SectorTarget SectorTarget Sector Estimated Cost Estimated Cost Estimated Cost Estimated Cost
(US million)(US million)(US million)(US million)
Closing DateClosing DateClosing DateClosing Date
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ProjectProjectProjectProject LocationLocationLocationLocation Target SectorTarget SectorTarget SectorTarget Sector Estimated Cost Estimated Cost Estimated Cost Estimated Cost
(US million)(US million)(US million)(US million)
Closing DateClosing DateClosing DateClosing Date
Koga Irrigation and
Watershed
Management
Agriculture 1.33 30 June 08
Ganale-Dawa Basin
Master plan study
Agriculture 3.93 31 Dec 09
Rural Finance Support
Project
National Agriculture 8.0 31 Dec 09
Awash River Flood
Control and
Watershed
Management study
West of Addis
Ababa in Ethiopia
and along the Rift
Valley into the
Afar triangle
Agriculture 1.83 31 Dec 08
Livestock
Development Master
Plan Study
Livestock 2.34 31 Dec 08
Agriculture Sector
Support Project
Agriculture 17.761 31 Dec 10
Fisheries Resources
Development Plan
study
Agriculture 0.92 31 Dec 08
Institutional Support
Project to the Ministry
of Women’s Affairs
National Agriculture 1.06 31 Dec 08
Creation of Sustainable
Tse tse and
Trypanosomiasis-free
areas in East and West
Africa
Livestock 0.24 31 Dec 11
Wacha-Maji road –
ERA- Technical
Assistance
Southern Nations,
Nationalities and
People Regional
State in Bench
Zone in the South
West of Ethiopia
Transport 0.99 31 March 10
Addis Ababa-Nairobi-
Mombasa Road
Corridor Dev Study
Transport 1.35 31 Dec 10
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ProjectProjectProjectProject LocationLocationLocationLocation Target SectorTarget SectorTarget SectorTarget Sector Estimated Cost Estimated Cost Estimated Cost Estimated Cost
(US million)(US million)(US million)(US million)
Closing DateClosing DateClosing DateClosing Date
Privatization Technical
Assistance Project
Industry 3 30 June 09
Harar Water Supply
and Sanitation Project
Harar Public Utility 1.12 30 Sep 10
Rural Water Supply
and Sanitation Project
National Public Utility 43.610 31 Dec 10
Education III Project National Social 0.3 31 Dec 08
Capacity Building of
MoFED
National Multi Sector 0.52 30 Jun 09
Protection of Basic
Services II (PBS II)
National Multi Sector 110 31 Dec 11
Power Trade Program
Study
Eastern Nile Multi-National
Operations
2.63 31 Dec 09
Irrigation and drainage
Study
Eastern Nile Multi-National
Operations
1.75 31 Dec 09
Creation of Sustainable
Tse tse and
Trypanosomiasis-free
areas in East and West
Africa
East and West
Ethiopia
Multi-National
Operations
1.5 31 Dec 11
KENYAKENYAKENYAKENYA Project Project Project Project LocationLocationLocationLocation Target SectionTarget SectionTarget SectionTarget Section Estimated Cost (KShs)Estimated Cost (KShs)Estimated Cost (KShs)Estimated Cost (KShs)
SNCDP Six Districts of
Southern Nyanza
Integrated 1.4 billion
NALEP National Agriculture and Livestock
MKEPP/CKDAP Eastern side of
Mount Kenya Region
Integrated US 25.7 million
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APPENDIX 12:LIST OF PERSONS
CONSULTED
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LIST OF PERSONS CONSULTEDLIST OF PERSONS CONSULTEDLIST OF PERSONS CONSULTEDLIST OF PERSONS CONSULTED
A.A.A.A. DJIBOUTI DJIBOUTI DJIBOUTI DJIBOUTI
Key informant interviews.Key informant interviews.Key informant interviews.Key informant interviews.
NAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTS ORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONS POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION
1.1.1.1. Djama Mahamoud Djama Mahamoud Djama Mahamoud Djama Mahamoud
DonalehDonalehDonalehDonaleh
Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Resources and water
Secretary General
2.2.2.2. Mr. Noursa IbrahimMr. Noursa IbrahimMr. Noursa IbrahimMr. Noursa Ibrahim Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Resources and water
Director
3.3.3.3. Mr. Abdallah BasketMr. Abdallah BasketMr. Abdallah BasketMr. Abdallah Basket Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Resources and water
Assistant director
4.4.4.4. Mr. Yonis NahamatMr. Yonis NahamatMr. Yonis NahamatMr. Yonis Nahamat Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Resources and water
Chief Production
Officer
5.5.5.5. Ali Del WaisAli Del WaisAli Del WaisAli Del Wais Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Resources and water
Manager, Project
Office
6.6.6.6. Prof. Babiker AbbasProf. Babiker AbbasProf. Babiker AbbasProf. Babiker Abbas Djibouti Regional Livestock
Quarantine
Technical Manager
7.7.7.7. Mr. Tabarak MohammedMr. Tabarak MohammedMr. Tabarak MohammedMr. Tabarak Mohammed Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Resources and water
Head Communication
B.B.B.B. ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA
Key InformantsKey InformantsKey InformantsKey Informants
NAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTS ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/
INSTITUTIONSINSTITUTIONSINSTITUTIONSINSTITUTIONS
POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION
1. H.E. Dr. Abera Ministry of Agriculture and
Rural Development
State Minister
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2. Mulugeta Gelaw Ministry of Federal Affairs Minister
3. Hailemariam Hailemeskel African Development Bank,
Ethiopian Field Office
Agriculture and Rural
development Specialist
4. BaissaMosissa National Livestock
development project
National Project
Coordinator
5. Hablamu Teka Oromiya Pastoral
Commission
Commissioner
6. Dr. Tasfaye Bekele Oromiya pastoral Commission Senior veterinary
Officer
7. Tegegu Gudeta Oromiya pastoral Commission Social Development
Officer
8. Belayhun Hailu Pastoral Communities
Development Project (PCDP)
National Project
Coordinator
9. Tesfaselassie Mezgebe Ministry of Federal Affairs Senior Conflict
management Officer
FGD 1FGD 1FGD 1FGD 1
NAME OF NAME OF NAME OF NAME OF
PARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTS
ORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONS POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION
1. Testaye Cherinet Ministry of African and Rural
Development
Aide to state
Minister
2. Berhe Gebreegziabler Ministry of African and Rural
Development
Director,
A.P.H.R.D
3. Dagnachew Beyere Ministry of African and Rural
Development
Head, N.A.I.C.
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 251
4. Keberu Belayneh Ministry of African and Rural
Development
Expert
5. Wondimagegrehu
Shibru
MOFA Advisor
6. Alemayeku Almariam ALEMA FARMS General Manager
7. Mulngeta Hiluf Ministry of African and Rural
Development
Senior Expert
8. Esayas Kebede Ministry of African and Rural
Development
Director, A.I.S.
9. Girma Balcha I.B.C Director General
10. Seyoum Bedeye E.I.A.R Livestock
Research Director
11. Getu Zegiye MOWR
12. Ermi8as Haili E.P.A Senior Expert
FGD 2FGD 2FGD 2FGD 2
NAMES OF NAMES OF NAMES OF NAMES OF
PARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTS
ORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONS POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION
1.1.1.1. Tarekegi TsegieTarekegi TsegieTarekegi TsegieTarekegi Tsegie Ministry of African and Rural
Development
Head, Public Relation
Department
2.2.2.2. Estaye DrerinetEstaye DrerinetEstaye DrerinetEstaye Drerinet Ministry of African and RuraMinistry of African and RuraMinistry of African and RuraMinistry of African and Rural l l l
DevelopmentDevelopmentDevelopmentDevelopment
Aide to State minister
3.3.3.3. Befikodu AlemayekuBefikodu AlemayekuBefikodu AlemayekuBefikodu Alemayeku C.R.D.A. R.D.F.C.
4.4.4.4. Theowdros MengistuTheowdros MengistuTheowdros MengistuTheowdros Mengistu Ethiopia Livestock Traders Association General Service
5.5.5.5. Gezahesna TadesseGezahesna TadesseGezahesna TadesseGezahesna Tadesse Ethiopian Beekeepers Association President
6.6.6.6. Yirdawuel Semayat Yirdawuel Semayat Yirdawuel Semayat Yirdawuel Semayat E.A.F.I.A. Executive Director
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 252
7.7.7.7. Thomas CherenetThomas CherenetThomas CherenetThomas Cherenet Ethiopian Vetinary Association President
8.8.8.8. Tamnat EjiguTamnat EjiguTamnat EjiguTamnat Ejigu Ethiopian Meat Producers and Exporters
Association
Secretary General
9.9.9.9. Wondwosen AsfawWondwosen AsfawWondwosen AsfawWondwosen Asfaw S.P.S.-L.M.M. SPS- Coordinator
FGD 3FGD 3FGD 3FGD 3
1. Mahammad Adam
2. Dance Tamitiet
3. Tregaw Chechle
4. Berekadu Solomon
5. Selabu Bena
6. Hiluf Mengistu
7. Berhu Belilu
8. Testaye Ibrahimu
9. Tegegu Gudeta
10. Dilu Mohammed Sajei
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 253
KENYAKENYAKENYAKENYA
Key InformantsKey InformantsKey InformantsKey Informants
NAMENAMENAMENAME ORGANIZATIONORGANIZATIONORGANIZATIONORGANIZATION POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION
1.1.1.1. James OpioJames OpioJames OpioJames Opio----OmodingOmodingOmodingOmoding AfDB – Nairobi
Office
Principal
Country
Programme
Officer
2.2.2.2. Mr. Kizito SabalaMr. Kizito SabalaMr. Kizito SabalaMr. Kizito Sabala IGAD Liaison
Office- Nairobi
Political Officer
3.3.3.3. Alexander K. CheropAlexander K. CheropAlexander K. CheropAlexander K. Cherop Ministry of
livestock
development
Deputy secretary
4.4.4.4. Eng. R. K. GaitaEng. R. K. GaitaEng. R. K. GaitaEng. R. K. Gaita Ministry of water
and irrigation
Director of
irrigation,
drainage & water
storage
5.5.5.5. Philiph N. GichukiPhiliph N. GichukiPhiliph N. GichukiPhiliph N. Gichuki Ministry of
cooperative &
marketing
Deputy
commissioner for
cooperative
development
6.6.6.6. Abbas Sheik MohamedAbbas Sheik MohamedAbbas Sheik MohamedAbbas Sheik Mohamed Kenya livestock
marketing council
Chief executive
officer
7.7.7.7. Charles N. Ng’ang’aCharles N. Ng’ang’aCharles N. Ng’ang’aCharles N. Ng’ang’a Kenya livestock
producers
association
Secretary
8.8.8.8. Dr. Bengat KigenDr. Bengat KigenDr. Bengat KigenDr. Bengat Kigen KLPIA member
9.9.9.9. Mary W. Gaithuma Mary W. Gaithuma Mary W. Gaithuma Mary W. Gaithuma Ministry of
livestock
development
Deputy
provincial
director of
livestock
production
10.10.10.10. Patric Kuria WaidhimaPatric Kuria WaidhimaPatric Kuria WaidhimaPatric Kuria Waidhima KENFAP District
coordinator
11.11.11.11. Dr. Isaac Sanga KosgeiDr. Isaac Sanga KosgeiDr. Isaac Sanga KosgeiDr. Isaac Sanga Kosgei Egerton University Dean faculty of
agriculture,
Livestock
researcher
12.12.12.12. Dr. H. K. KirigiaDr. H. K. KirigiaDr. H. K. KirigiaDr. H. K. Kirigia Kenya veterinary Chief executive
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 254
board (KVB) officer KVB
13.13.13.13. Dr. H. S. N. KiniiyaDr. H. S. N. KiniiyaDr. H. S. N. KiniiyaDr. H. S. N. Kiniiya
Kenya veterinary
association
privatization
scheme (KVAPS)
General manager
14.14.14.14. Prof. Reuben O. MosiProf. Reuben O. MosiProf. Reuben O. MosiProf. Reuben O. Mosi
University of
Nairobi
Professor
department of
animal
production,
Researcher
15.15.15.15. Dr. Amos Dr. Amos Dr. Amos Dr. Amos OmoreOmoreOmoreOmore
International
livestock research
institute (ILRI)
Livestock
epidemiology,
economics &
production
16.16.16.16. Dr. George Keya Dr. George Keya Dr. George Keya Dr. George Keya
Kenya agricultural
research institute
(KARI)
Asst. Director
Range research
17.17.17.17. Dr. Nicholas OgugeDr. Nicholas OgugeDr. Nicholas OgugeDr. Nicholas Oguge
Samburu
conservation
research initiative
Centre director,
18.18.18.18. Josiah CheruyotJosiah CheruyotJosiah CheruyotJosiah Cheruyot
Ministry of
livestock
development
Chief of project
planning,
monitoring and
evaluation
19.19.19.19. Dr. Christopher WangaDr. Christopher WangaDr. Christopher WangaDr. Christopher Wanga Kenya veterinary
association (KVA)
chairman
20.20.20.20. Dr. Jalang’oDr. Jalang’oDr. Jalang’oDr. Jalang’o Veterinary public
health
Deputy director
21.21.21.21. Dr. IdDr. IdDr. IdDr. Idhondeka hondeka hondeka hondeka Veterinary services Director
22.22.22.22. Dr. Philiph K. CheronoDr. Philiph K. CheronoDr. Philiph K. CheronoDr. Philiph K. Cherono Kenya Dairy Board Technical
services manager
23.23.23.23. Ann NjugunaAnn NjugunaAnn NjugunaAnn Njuguna Care Kenya Lipfund Manager
24.24.24.24. Bakari MasoudBakari MasoudBakari MasoudBakari Masoud IFAD-funded
SNCDP
Project
Monitoring and
Evaluation
Officer
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 255
FGD 1FGD 1FGD 1FGD 1
1) Dedan otiato
2) W. O. Ogara
3) Ali Adan Ali
4) N. O. Ayore
5) Florence Mutua
6) Vincent Makonjio
7) Vitalis Too
8) Reuben O. Mosi
9) Dave Anyona
10) Bedan Kigotho
11) John Nyongesa
12) Lawrence Gumbe
FGD 2FGD 2FGD 2FGD 2
1. Dr. Muthui S .k
2. Dr. Isaac Kosgei
3. Lorna Mbatia
4. Geoffrey Muttai
5. Michael Gota
6. Stanley Bii
7. Patrick kuria-
8. Dr. Bengat
9. Mary Gaithuma
10. Charles Ng’ang’a
FGD 3FGD 3FGD 3FGD 3
1. Hashim sheikh
2. Mohamed Aboi
3. Gedi mohamud
4. Hussein Abdi Abdullah
5. Moulid Hassan Abdi
6. Madobe Hassan
7. Mohamed shable
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 256
8. Aden ismail
9. Kadhija Abdi Rage
10. Abdullah Abdi
11. Idriss Sahal kolon
12. Mark Odhiambo
13. Joseph Mukiira
14. Rashid Mohamed
15. Dubat Amey
16. H. M Khalif
17. Mohamed Kaji
18. Mohamud Abdi
19. Bernard Muti
SUDANSUDANSUDANSUDAN
Key InformantsKey InformantsKey InformantsKey Informants
NAMES OF NAMES OF NAMES OF NAMES OF
PARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTS
ORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONS POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION
Prof. Dr. A. Aziz Prof. Dr. A. Aziz Prof. Dr. A. Aziz Prof. Dr. A. Aziz
MakhawiMakhawiMakhawiMakhawi
Sudan University College of
Agriculture Ex Dean Dept of
Animal Science
Mohamed AbdelazizMohamed AbdelazizMohamed AbdelazizMohamed Abdelaziz Financial Investment Bank Director Marketing
and Business Dev
Hana Elhakim El Hana Elhakim El Hana Elhakim El Hana Elhakim El
AmnineAmnineAmnineAmnine
Pastoral Env. Network in the Horn of
Africa Volunteer
Dr. Ali AlRaziq Ali Dr. Ali AlRaziq Ali Dr. Ali AlRaziq Ali Dr. Ali AlRaziq Ali
LutfiLutfiLutfiLutfi
Ministry of Animal Resources Manager, Dept. of
Animal Production &
Development
Dr. Elrasheed A. AliDr. Elrasheed A. AliDr. Elrasheed A. AliDr. Elrasheed A. Ali University of Khartoum Asst. Prof. Food
Hygiene
Prof. Ahmed Ali IsmailProf. Ahmed Ali IsmailProf. Ahmed Ali IsmailProf. Ahmed Ali Ismail Sudan University of Science and Tech.,
Vet. Medicine
Professor of
Parasitology
Ms. Chaha FatihaMs. Chaha FatihaMs. Chaha FatihaMs. Chaha Fatiha Agence Science Presse, Canada Journaliste
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 257
UGANDAUGANDAUGANDAUGANDA
Key InformantsKey InformantsKey InformantsKey Informants
NAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTS ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/
INSTITUTIONSINSTITUTIONSINSTITUTIONSINSTITUTIONS
POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION
1. Asaph Nuwagira ADB’s Agriculture and Rural
Development
Specialist
2. Mr. D. M. Maholo Ministry of Agriculture,
Animal Industry and Fisheries
3. Francis Odokrah Oxfam, Karamoja Region/
Pastoralist
Programme Officer
4. Joseph Wangolo Oxfam, Pastrolist-Karamojo
Region
Programme manager
5. James Wamahe Oxfam
6. Mr. Augustine Mwendya Agribusiness Development,
Uganda National Farmers
Federation.
Director
7. Mr. Denis Maholo SPA, MAAIF
8. Mamerto Mugerwa Kiira Town Council Mayor,
9. Sebadduka Authman Kiira Town Council Principal Town Clerk
10. Betty Nalwyima Kiira Town Council Speaker
Mohamed EltMohamed EltMohamed EltMohamed Eltayel ayel ayel ayel
AbdelazizAbdelazizAbdelazizAbdelaziz
Privare Sector Dairy Farmer
Dr, Khitma Hasan Dr, Khitma Hasan Dr, Khitma Hasan Dr, Khitma Hasan
ElMalikElMalikElMalikElMalik
University of Khartoum/Vet Council Vice President Sudan
Veterinary Council
Dr. MohamedDr. MohamedDr. MohamedDr. Mohamed Ministry of Animal Resources and
Fisheries
Under Secretary,
Prof. Seif Eldawla Prof. Seif Eldawla Prof. Seif Eldawla Prof. Seif Eldawla
BarakatBarakatBarakatBarakat
Sudan University of Science and Tech.,
Vet. Medicine Lecturer
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 258
11. George Iyaba Kiira Town Council Extension worker
12. Paul Segawa Kiira Town Council Extension worker
13. Eng. Richard Cong Directorate of Water
Development
Commissione
14. Eng. Bob Ahindisiwe Ministry of Water and
Environment
15. Dr. Cyprian Ebong NARO Director, Quality
Assurance
16. Dr. Kajuri Stephen Ministry of Agriculture,
Animal Industry and Fisheries
National Project
Coordinator (Principal
Veterinary Officer in
charge of Dairy Meal,
FGD 1FGD 1FGD 1FGD 1
NAMES OF NAMES OF NAMES OF NAMES OF
PARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTS
ORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONS POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION
1.1.1.1. Dr. C.S. RutebarikaDr. C.S. RutebarikaDr. C.S. RutebarikaDr. C.S. Rutebarika Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries
Acting Commissioner,
Disease control
2.2.2.2. Dr. J.T. OdimimDr. J.T. OdimimDr. J.T. OdimimDr. J.T. Odimim Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries
Senior Vetinary Officer
3.3.3.3. Dr. Denis AndroaDr. Denis AndroaDr. Denis AndroaDr. Denis Androa Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries
Senior Vetinary Officer
4.4.4.4. Mr. D.M. MaholoMr. D.M. MaholoMr. D.M. MaholoMr. D.M. Maholo Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries
S.P.A.
5.5.5.5. Dr. Kiconco DorisDr. Kiconco DorisDr. Kiconco DorisDr. Kiconco Doris Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries
Senior Vetinary Officer
6.6.6.6. Mr Jackson WadanyaMr Jackson WadanyaMr Jackson WadanyaMr Jackson Wadanya Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries
Assistant Commissioner
of Fisheries
7.7.7.7. Dr. ByekwasoDr. ByekwasoDr. ByekwasoDr. Byekwaso National Agricultural Advisory
Services
Director of Planning
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 259
8.8.8.8. Dr. Aggrey Dr. Aggrey Dr. Aggrey Dr. Aggrey
KyobugusiiKyobugusiiKyobugusiiKyobugusii
National Agricultural Advisory
Services
Director of Vetinary
Extension Services
9.9.9.9. Dr. Sarah MubiruDr. Sarah MubiruDr. Sarah MubiruDr. Sarah Mubiru National Agricultural Research
Organisation
Forage Agronomist
10.10.10.10. Rose OmariaRose OmariaRose OmariaRose Omaria National Agricultural Research
Organisation
Research Officer,
Animal Nutrition
11.11.11.11. Dr. Martin KasiryeDr. Martin KasiryeDr. Martin KasiryeDr. Martin Kasirye Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries
Deputy Project
Coordinator, NLPP.
12.12.12.12. Mr. Jackson BwireMr. Jackson BwireMr. Jackson BwireMr. Jackson Bwire Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries
Project Accountant,
NLPP
FGD 2.FGD 2.FGD 2.FGD 2.
NAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTS ORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONS
1.1.1.1. Francis OdokrahFrancis OdokrahFrancis OdokrahFrancis Odokrah Oxfarm
2.2.2.2. Joseph WangiloJoseph WangiloJoseph WangiloJoseph Wangilo Oxfarm
3.3.3.3. Dr. Frank MucherezaDr. Frank MucherezaDr. Frank MucherezaDr. Frank Muchereza Centre for Basic Research
4.4.4.4. Tonny KinsambuTonny KinsambuTonny KinsambuTonny Kinsambu IGAD, Liason Officer
5.5.5.5. AuAuAuAugustine Mwendwagustine Mwendwagustine Mwendwagustine Mwendwa Uganda National Farmers Federation
6.6.6.6. Cllr MuchiviCllr MuchiviCllr MuchiviCllr Muchivi Political Leader
7.7.7.7. Dr. Peterson MugoyaDr. Peterson MugoyaDr. Peterson MugoyaDr. Peterson Mugoya Vetinary Extension Officer
8.8.8.8. Mohammed GathuMohammed GathuMohammed GathuMohammed Gathu Livestock Farmer
9.9.9.9. Ayesibe BenonAyesibe BenonAyesibe BenonAyesibe Benon Farmer
10.10.10.10. Nambi BennaNambi BennaNambi BennaNambi Benna Indigenous Farmer
11.11.11.11. Betty NanchaBetty NanchaBetty NanchaBetty Nancha Indigenous Cattle and Pig Farmer
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 260
12.12.12.12. Ssembagye CharlesSsembagye CharlesSsembagye CharlesSsembagye Charles Indigenous Cattle/Goats Farmer
13.13.13.13. Mike SsembogoMike SsembogoMike SsembogoMike Ssembogo Indigenous Cattle/Goats Farmer
14.14.14.14. Agnes NabawaggaAgnes NabawaggaAgnes NabawaggaAgnes Nabawagga Indigenous Cattle/Goats Farmer
15.15.15.15. Mrs. Gatunde SebunyaMrs. Gatunde SebunyaMrs. Gatunde SebunyaMrs. Gatunde Sebunya Pig Farmer
FGD 3FGD 3FGD 3FGD 3
1. George Mwanje
2. John Kiakogabo
3. Joweria Kizito
4. Walibega Luganda
5. Kyeyune Saidda
6. Eriyosi Kaggwa
7. Tuwinawusuko Mubiru
8. Hellen Kyagabba
9. Hajat Hadyal Nabwauke
10. Ismail Kasimya Kudra
11. Tyaba George
12. Miriam Namutebi
13. Segawa Paul
14. Hadija Navawanuka
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 261
C.C.C.C. DJIBOUTI DJIBOUTI DJIBOUTI DJIBOUTI
Key Informant InterviewsKey Informant InterviewsKey Informant InterviewsKey Informant Interviews
NAMES OF NAMES OF NAMES OF NAMES OF
PARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTS
ORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONS PPPPOSITIONOSITIONOSITIONOSITION
8.8.8.8. Djama Mahamoud Djama Mahamoud Djama Mahamoud Djama Mahamoud
DonalehDonalehDonalehDonaleh
Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Resources and water
Secretary General
9.9.9.9. Mr. Noursa IbrahimMr. Noursa IbrahimMr. Noursa IbrahimMr. Noursa Ibrahim Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Resources and water
Director
10.10.10.10. Mr. Abdallah BasketMr. Abdallah BasketMr. Abdallah BasketMr. Abdallah Basket Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Resources and water
Assistant director
11.11.11.11. Mr. Yonis NahamatMr. Yonis NahamatMr. Yonis NahamatMr. Yonis Nahamat Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Resources and water
Chief Production
Officer
12.12.12.12. Ali Del WaisAli Del WaisAli Del WaisAli Del Wais Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Resources and water
Manager, Project
Office
13.13.13.13. Prof. Babiker AbbasProf. Babiker AbbasProf. Babiker AbbasProf. Babiker Abbas Djibouti Regional Livestock
Quarantine
Technical Manager
14.14.14.14. Mr. Tabarak MohammedMr. Tabarak MohammedMr. Tabarak MohammedMr. Tabarak Mohammed Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Resources and water
Head Communication
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 262
ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA ETHIOPIA
Key InformantsKey InformantsKey InformantsKey Informants
NAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTS
ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/
INSTITUTIONSINSTITUTIONSINSTITUTIONSINSTITUTIONS
POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION
v. H.E. Dr. Abera Ministry of Agriculture and
Rural Development
State Minister
vi. Mulugeta Gelaw Ministry of Federal Affairs Minister
vii. Hailemariam Hailemeskel African Development Bank,
Ethiopian Field Office
Agriculture and Rural
development Specialist
viii. BaissaMosissa National Livestock
development project
National Project
Coordinator
ix. Hablamu Teka Oromiya Pastoral
Commission
Commissioner
x. Dr. Tasfaye Bekele Oromiya pastoral Commission Senior veterinary
Officer
xi. Tegegu Gudeta Oromiya pastoral Commission Social Development
Officer
xii. Belayhun Hailu Pastoral Communities
Development Project (PCDP)
National Project
Coordinator
xiii. Tesfaselassie Mezgebe Ministry of Federal Affairs Senior Conflict
management Officer
FGD 1FGD 1FGD 1FGD 1
NAME OF NAME OF NAME OF NAME OF
PARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTS
ORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONS POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION
13. Testaye Cherinet Ministry of African and Rural
Development
Aide to state
Minister
14. Berhe Gebreegziabler Ministry of African and Rural Director,
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 263
Development A.P.H.R.D
15. Dagnachew Beyere Ministry of African and Rural
Development
Head, N.A.I.C.
16. Keberu Belayneh Ministry of African and Rural
Development
Expert
17. Wondimagegrehu
Shibru
MOFA Advisor
18. Alemayeku Almariam ALEMA FARMS General Manager
19. Mulngeta Hiluf Ministry of African and Rural
Development
Senior Expert
20. Esayas Kebede Ministry of African and Rural
Development
Director, A.I.S.
21. Girma Balcha I.B.C Director General
22. Seyoum Bedeye E.I.A.R Livestock
Research Director
23. Getu Zegiye MOWR
24. Ermi8as Haili E.P.A Senior Expert
FGD 2FGD 2FGD 2FGD 2
NAMES OF NAMES OF NAMES OF NAMES OF
PARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTS
ORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONS POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION
10.10.10.10. Tarekegi TsegieTarekegi TsegieTarekegi TsegieTarekegi Tsegie Ministry of African and Rural
Development
Head, Public Relation
Department
11.11.11.11. Estaye DrerinetEstaye DrerinetEstaye DrerinetEstaye Drerinet Ministry of African and Rural
Development
Aide to State minister
12.12.12.12. Befikodu AlemayekuBefikodu AlemayekuBefikodu AlemayekuBefikodu Alemayeku C.R.D.A. R.D.F.C.
13.13.13.13. Theowdros MengistuTheowdros MengistuTheowdros MengistuTheowdros Mengistu Ethiopia Livestock Traders Association General Service
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 264
14.14.14.14. Gezahesna TadesseGezahesna TadesseGezahesna TadesseGezahesna Tadesse Ethiopian Beekeepers Association President
15.15.15.15. Yirdawuel Semayat Yirdawuel Semayat Yirdawuel Semayat Yirdawuel Semayat E.A.F.I.A. Executive Director
16.16.16.16. Thomas CherenetThomas CherenetThomas CherenetThomas Cherenet Ethiopian Vetinary Association President
17.17.17.17. Tamnat EjiguTamnat EjiguTamnat EjiguTamnat Ejigu Ethiopian Meat Producers and Exporters
Association
Secretary General
18.18.18.18. Wondwosen AsfawWondwosen AsfawWondwosen AsfawWondwosen Asfaw S.P.S.-L.M.M. SPS- Coordinator
FGD 3FGD 3FGD 3FGD 3
11. Mahammad Adam
12. Dance Tamitiet
13. Tregaw Chechle
14. Berekadu Solomon
15. Selabu Bena
16. Hiluf Mengistu
17. Berhu Belilu
18. Testaye Ibrahimu
19. Tegegu Gudeta
20. Dilu Mohammed Sajei
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 265
KENYAKENYAKENYAKENYA
Key InformantsKey InformantsKey InformantsKey Informants
NAMENAMENAMENAME ORGANIZATIONORGANIZATIONORGANIZATIONORGANIZATION POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION
25.25.25.25. James OpioJames OpioJames OpioJames Opio----OmodingOmodingOmodingOmoding AfDB – Nairobi
Office
Principal
Country
Programme
Officer
26.26.26.26. Mr. Kizito SabalaMr. Kizito SabalaMr. Kizito SabalaMr. Kizito Sabala IGAD Liaison
Office- Nairobi
Political Officer
27.27.27.27. Alexander K. CheropAlexander K. CheropAlexander K. CheropAlexander K. Cherop Ministry of
livestock
development
Deputy secretary
28.28.28.28. Eng. R. K. GaitaEng. R. K. GaitaEng. R. K. GaitaEng. R. K. Gaita Ministry of water
and irrigation
Director of
irrigation,
drainage & water
storage
29.29.29.29. Philiph N. GichukiPhiliph N. GichukiPhiliph N. GichukiPhiliph N. Gichuki Ministry of
cooperative &
marketing
Deputy
commissioner for
cooperative
development
30.30.30.30. Abbas Sheik MohamedAbbas Sheik MohamedAbbas Sheik MohamedAbbas Sheik Mohamed Kenya livestock
marketing council
Chief executive
officer
31.31.31.31. Charles N. Ng’ang’aCharles N. Ng’ang’aCharles N. Ng’ang’aCharles N. Ng’ang’a Kenya livestock
producers
association
Secretary
32.32.32.32. Dr. Bengat KigenDr. Bengat KigenDr. Bengat KigenDr. Bengat Kigen KLPIA member
33.33.33.33. Mary W. Gaithuma Mary W. Gaithuma Mary W. Gaithuma Mary W. Gaithuma Ministry of
livestock
development
Deputy
provincial
director of
livestock
production
34.34.34.34. Patric Kuria WaidhimaPatric Kuria WaidhimaPatric Kuria WaidhimaPatric Kuria Waidhima KENFAP District
coordinator
35.35.35.35. Dr. Isaac Sanga KosgeiDr. Isaac Sanga KosgeiDr. Isaac Sanga KosgeiDr. Isaac Sanga Kosgei Egerton University Dean faculty of
agriculture,
Livestock
researcher
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 266
36.36.36.36. Dr. H. K. KirigiaDr. H. K. KirigiaDr. H. K. KirigiaDr. H. K. Kirigia
Kenya veterinary
board (KVB)
Chief executive
officer KVB
37.37.37.37. Dr. H. S. N. KiniiyaDr. H. S. N. KiniiyaDr. H. S. N. KiniiyaDr. H. S. N. Kiniiya
Kenya veterinary
association
privatization
scheme (KVAPS)
General manager
38.38.38.38. Prof. Reuben O. MosiProf. Reuben O. MosiProf. Reuben O. MosiProf. Reuben O. Mosi
University of
Nairobi
Professor
department of
animal
production,
Researcher
39.39.39.39. Dr. Amos OmoreDr. Amos OmoreDr. Amos OmoreDr. Amos Omore
International
livestock research
institute (ILRI)
Livestock
epidemiology,
economics &
production
40.40.40.40. Dr. George Keya Dr. George Keya Dr. George Keya Dr. George Keya
Kenya agricultural
research institute
(KARI)
Asst. Director
Range research
41.41.41.41. Dr. Nicholas OgugeDr. Nicholas OgugeDr. Nicholas OgugeDr. Nicholas Oguge
Samburu
conservation
research initiative
Centre director,
42.42.42.42. Josiah CheruyotJosiah CheruyotJosiah CheruyotJosiah Cheruyot
Ministry of
livestock
development
Chief of project
planning,
monitoring and
evaluation
43.43.43.43. Dr. Christopher WangaDr. Christopher WangaDr. Christopher WangaDr. Christopher Wanga Kenya veterinary
association (KVA)
chairman
44.44.44.44. Dr. Jalang’oDr. Jalang’oDr. Jalang’oDr. Jalang’o Veterinary public
health
Deputy director
45.45.45.45. Dr. Idhondeka Dr. Idhondeka Dr. Idhondeka Dr. Idhondeka Veterinary services Director
46.46.46.46. Dr. Philiph K. CheronoDr. Philiph K. CheronoDr. Philiph K. CheronoDr. Philiph K. Cherono Kenya Dairy Board Technical
services manager
47.47.47.47. Ann NjugunaAnn NjugunaAnn NjugunaAnn Njuguna Care Kenya Lipfund Manager
48.48.48.48. Bakari MasoudBakari MasoudBakari MasoudBakari Masoud IFAD-funded
SNCDP
Project
Monitoring and
Evaluation
Officer
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 267
FGD 1FGD 1FGD 1FGD 1
13) Dedan otiato
14) W. O. Ogara
15) Ali Adan Ali
16) N. O. Ayore
17) Florence Mutua
18) Vincent Makonjio
19) Vitalis Too
20) Reuben O. Mosi
21) Dave Anyona
22) Bedan Kigotho
23) John Nyongesa
24) Lawrence Gumbe
FGD 2FGD 2FGD 2FGD 2
11. Dr. Muthui S .k
12. Dr. Isaac Kosgei
13. Lorna Mbatia
14. Geoffrey Muttai
15. Michael Gota
16. Stanley Bii
17. Patrick kuria-
18. Dr. Bengat
19. Mary Gaithuma
20. Charles Ng’ang’a
FGD 3FGD 3FGD 3FGD 3
20. Hashim sheikh
21. Mohamed Aboi
22. Gedi mohamud
23. Hussein Abdi Abdullah
24. Moulid Hassan Abdi
25. Madobe Hassan
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 268
26. Mohamed shable
27. Aden ismail
28. Kadhija Abdi Rage
29. Abdullah Abdi
30. Idriss Sahal kolon
31. Mark Odhiambo
32. Joseph Mukiira
33. Rashid Mohamed
34. Dubat Amey
35. H. M Khalif
36. Mohamed Kaji
37. Mohamud Abdi
38. Bernard Muti
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 269
SUDANSUDANSUDANSUDAN
Key InformantsKey InformantsKey InformantsKey Informants
UGANDAUGANDAUGANDAUGANDA
NAMES OF NAMES OF NAMES OF NAMES OF
PARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTS
ORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONS POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION
Prof. Prof. Prof. Prof. Dr. A. Aziz Dr. A. Aziz Dr. A. Aziz Dr. A. Aziz
MakhawiMakhawiMakhawiMakhawi
Sudan University College of
Agriculture Ex Dean Dept of
Animal Science
Mohamed AbdelazizMohamed AbdelazizMohamed AbdelazizMohamed Abdelaziz Financial Investment Bank Director Marketing
and Business Dev
Hana Elhakim El Hana Elhakim El Hana Elhakim El Hana Elhakim El
AmnineAmnineAmnineAmnine
Pastoral Env. Network in the Horn of
Africa Volunteer
Dr. ADr. ADr. ADr. Ali AlRaziq Ali li AlRaziq Ali li AlRaziq Ali li AlRaziq Ali
LutfiLutfiLutfiLutfi
Ministry of Animal Resources Manager, Dept. of
Animal Production &
Development
Dr. Elrasheed A. AliDr. Elrasheed A. AliDr. Elrasheed A. AliDr. Elrasheed A. Ali University of Khartoum Asst. Prof. Food
Hygiene
Prof. Ahmed Ali IsmailProf. Ahmed Ali IsmailProf. Ahmed Ali IsmailProf. Ahmed Ali Ismail Sudan University of Science and Tech.,
Vet. Medicine
Professor of
Parasitology
Ms. Chaha FatihaMs. Chaha FatihaMs. Chaha FatihaMs. Chaha Fatiha Agence Science Presse, Canada Journaliste
Mohamed Eltayel Mohamed Eltayel Mohamed Eltayel Mohamed Eltayel
AbdelazizAbdelazizAbdelazizAbdelaziz
Privare Sector Dairy Farmer
Dr, Khitma Hasan Dr, Khitma Hasan Dr, Khitma Hasan Dr, Khitma Hasan
ElMalikElMalikElMalikElMalik
University of Khartoum/Vet Council Vice President Sudan
Veterinary Council
Dr. MohamedDr. MohamedDr. MohamedDr. Mohamed Ministry of Animal Resources and
Fisheries
Under Secretary,
Prof. Seif Eldawla Prof. Seif Eldawla Prof. Seif Eldawla Prof. Seif Eldawla
BarakatBarakatBarakatBarakat
Sudan University of Science and Tech.,
Vet. Medicine Lecturer
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 270
Key InformantsKey InformantsKey InformantsKey Informants
NAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTS ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/ ORGANIZATIONS/
INSTITUTIONSINSTITUTIONSINSTITUTIONSINSTITUTIONS
POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION
17. Asaph Nuwagira ADB’s Agriculture and Rural
Development
Specialist
18. Mr. D. M. Maholo Ministry of Agriculture,
Animal Industry and Fisheries
19. Francis Odokrah Oxfam, Karamoja Region/
Pastoralist
Programme Officer
20. Joseph Wangolo Oxfam, Pastrolist-Karamojo
Region
Programme manager
21. James Wamahe Oxfam
22. Mr. Augustine Mwendya Agribusiness Development,
Uganda National Farmers
Federation.
Director
23. Mr. Denis Maholo SPA, MAAIF
24. Mamerto Mugerwa Kiira Town Council Mayor,
25. Sebadduka Authman Kiira Town Council Principal Town Clerk
26. Betty Nalwyima Kiira Town Council Speaker
27. George Iyaba Kiira Town Council Extension worker
28. Paul Segawa Kiira Town Council Extension worker
29. Eng. Richard Cong Directorate of Water
Development
Commissione
30. Eng. Bob Ahindisiwe Ministry of Water and
Environment
31. Dr. Cyprian Ebong NARO Director, Quality
Assurance
32. Dr. Kajuri Stephen Ministry of Agriculture,
Animal Industry and Fisheries
National Project
Coordinator (Principal
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 271
Veterinary Officer in
charge of Dairy Meal,
FGD 1FGD 1FGD 1FGD 1
NAMES OF NAMES OF NAMES OF NAMES OF
PARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTSPARTICIPANTS
ORGANIZATIONORGANIZATIONORGANIZATIONORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSS/INSTITUTIONSS/INSTITUTIONSS/INSTITUTIONS POSITIONPOSITIONPOSITIONPOSITION
13.13.13.13. Dr. C.S. RutebarikaDr. C.S. RutebarikaDr. C.S. RutebarikaDr. C.S. Rutebarika Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries
Acting Commissioner,
Disease control
14.14.14.14. Dr. J.T. OdimimDr. J.T. OdimimDr. J.T. OdimimDr. J.T. Odimim Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries
Senior Vetinary Officer
15.15.15.15. Dr. Denis AndroaDr. Denis AndroaDr. Denis AndroaDr. Denis Androa Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries
Senior Vetinary Officer
16.16.16.16. Mr. D.M. MaholoMr. D.M. MaholoMr. D.M. MaholoMr. D.M. Maholo Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries
S.P.A.
17.17.17.17. Dr. Kiconco DorisDr. Kiconco DorisDr. Kiconco DorisDr. Kiconco Doris Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries
Senior Vetinary Officer
18.18.18.18. Mr JMr JMr JMr Jackson Wadanyaackson Wadanyaackson Wadanyaackson Wadanya Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries
Assistant Commissioner
of Fisheries
19.19.19.19. Dr. ByekwasoDr. ByekwasoDr. ByekwasoDr. Byekwaso National Agricultural Advisory
Services
Director of Planning
20.20.20.20. Dr. Aggrey Dr. Aggrey Dr. Aggrey Dr. Aggrey
KyobugusiiKyobugusiiKyobugusiiKyobugusii
National Agricultural Advisory
Services
Director of Vetinary
Extension Services
21.21.21.21. Dr. Sarah MubiruDr. Sarah MubiruDr. Sarah MubiruDr. Sarah Mubiru National Agricultural Research
Organisation
Forage Agronomist
22.22.22.22. Rose OmariaRose OmariaRose OmariaRose Omaria National Agricultural Research
Organisation
Research Officer,
Animal Nutrition
23.23.23.23. Dr. Martin KasiryeDr. Martin KasiryeDr. Martin KasiryeDr. Martin Kasirye Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries
Deputy Project
Coordinator, NLPP.
24.24.24.24. Mr. Jackson BwireMr. Jackson BwireMr. Jackson BwireMr. Jackson Bwire Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Project Accountant,
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 272
Industry and Fisheries NLPP
FGD 2FGD 2FGD 2FGD 2
NAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTSNAMES OF PARTICIPANTS ORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONSORGANIZATIONS/INSTITUTIONS
16.16.16.16. Francis OdokrahFrancis OdokrahFrancis OdokrahFrancis Odokrah Oxfarm
17.17.17.17. Joseph WangiloJoseph WangiloJoseph WangiloJoseph Wangilo Oxfarm
18.18.18.18. Dr. Frank MucherezaDr. Frank MucherezaDr. Frank MucherezaDr. Frank Muchereza Centre for Basic Research
19.19.19.19. Tonny KinsambuTonny KinsambuTonny KinsambuTonny Kinsambu IGAD, Liason Officer
20.20.20.20. Augustine MwendwaAugustine MwendwaAugustine MwendwaAugustine Mwendwa Uganda National Farmers Federation
21.21.21.21. Cllr MuchiviCllr MuchiviCllr MuchiviCllr Muchivi Political Leader
22.22.22.22. Dr. Peterson MugoyaDr. Peterson MugoyaDr. Peterson MugoyaDr. Peterson Mugoya Vetinary Extension Officer
23.23.23.23. Mohammed GathuMohammed GathuMohammed GathuMohammed Gathu Livestock Farmer
24.24.24.24. AyeAyeAyeAyesibe Benonsibe Benonsibe Benonsibe Benon Farmer
25.25.25.25. Nambi BennaNambi BennaNambi BennaNambi Benna Indigenous Farmer
26.26.26.26. Betty NanchaBetty NanchaBetty NanchaBetty Nancha Indigenous Cattle and Pig Farmer
27.27.27.27. Ssembagye CharlesSsembagye CharlesSsembagye CharlesSsembagye Charles Indigenous Cattle/Goats Farmer
28.28.28.28. Mike SsembogoMike SsembogoMike SsembogoMike Ssembogo Indigenous Cattle/Goats Farmer
29.29.29.29. Agnes NabawaggaAgnes NabawaggaAgnes NabawaggaAgnes Nabawagga Indigenous Cattle/Goats Farmer
30.30.30.30. Mrs. Gatunde SMrs. Gatunde SMrs. Gatunde SMrs. Gatunde Sebunyaebunyaebunyaebunya Pig Farmer
FGD 3FGD 3FGD 3FGD 3
15. George Mwanje
16. John Kiakogabo
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 273
17. Joweria Kizito
18. Walibega Luganda
19. Kyeyune Saidda
20. Eriyosi Kaggwa
21. Tuwinawusuko Mubiru
22. Hellen Kyagabba
23. Hajat Hadyal Nabwauke
24. Ismail Kasimya Kudra
25. Tyaba George
26. Miriam Namutebi
27. Segawa Paul
28. Hadija Navawanuka
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 274
APPENDIX 13:LIST OF KEY
REFERENCES
Regional Study on the Sustainable Livestock Development in the Greater Horn of Africa January 2010
P.O. Box 10677 - 00100, Nairobi 275
REFERENCESREFERENCESREFERENCESREFERENCES
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