William E. Gavin, Gary Banowetz
USDA ARS, National Forage Seed Production Research Center,
Corvallis, Oregon 97331
Glenn C. Fisher, Amy Dreves, George Hoffmann
Department of Crop and Soil Science,
Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331
Regulation, Biology, and Control of the
Gray Field Slug in Western Oregon
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Introduction
Glenn Fisher
Registration of Metaldehyde
- Eligibility Decision
- Overview
- Sites, Crops, and Uses
- Cancellations
- IR-4 Program
- Use Patterns Allowed by EPA
- Significance of EPA Decision
Metaldehyde
• 1934 Molluscidal properties noted
• 1967 Lonza registered sole tech grade material in US
• End-use prod formulators
– OR_CAL,
– Corry’s
– Amvac
• Liquids, granules,
baits
• 50,000lbs ai/yr
• 11,000 on citrus
• 7,000 on artichokes
• 90% of use in OR,
WA, CA & HI
Metaldehyde Re-registration
Eligibility Decision (RED)
• 1996 FFDCA amended by FQPA
• EPA reassess all tolerances prior to ’96
– Exposure via non-work routes
– Women & Children
– Cumulative effects of same class pesticides
• RED completed, ‘07
• Metaldehyde products are currently labeled for many uses which are not being supported by the technical registrant.
• Crops/uses supported by Lonza
• turf/dichondra, ornamentals, citrus, lettuce, cole crops and other leafy greens, tomato, strawberry, berries (including blackberry, blueberry, currant, elderberry, gooseberry, raspberries), artichoke and grass grown for seed,
Crops & Uses that will be eliminated
from ’08 labels
Uses and crops
• Cereals
• Vegetable seed crops
• Sugar beet seed crop
• Legumes and seed
legumes
• Fallow land
• Possible action
• IR-4
• SLN
• SLN
• IR-4, SLN seed crop
• Label wording?
New Metaldehyde labels, ’08
Grass grown for seed*
• 0.8 lb ai/A (20 lbs 4% bait)
• 4 applications allowed per season
• 21 day interval between applications
• PHI
• * Residue profile, Tolerance establishment & Use
Pattern = IR-4 Program, Joe DeFrancesco
Significance of RED
• Slug problems will likely increase in those crops where metaldehyde use is eliminated.
• Identify cultural controls that may work in rotational crops
– Sheeping patterns in clover and grasses
• Greater reliance on one chemical produced by one supplier Iron Phosphate = Sluggo® by Neudorff for slug control
• Develop labels for cereals and clover hay crops- residue profile, tolerance & use pattern IR-4, Registrant, commodity group
• Submit SLNs (24c’s) in crops where feeding restriction can suffice
– Veg seed crops
– Sugar beet seed
– Clover seed
– Post-harvest, fallow land application
• Baits Crop or Site
• Grass Sd Clover Cereal fallow Application
• S F
• OR-CAL, meta 3.25% Y N N N N G
• OR_CAL, Slugfest new seed Y Y Y N G
• Liq before canopy
• closes
• WE 4 Bait Plus Y Y N Y N A or G
• AmVac
• Deadline MP’s Y Y Y Y Y A or G
• Or Bullets
• Durham 3.5 &
• 7.5 % Granules *** Y Y Y Y N G
• Do not mix w/ seeds
• Meta-rex Y Y Y Y Y A or G
• WFS
• Sluggo Y N N Y N A or G or Sluggo shorts
• Baits Crop or Site
• Grass Sd Clover Cereal fallow Application
• S F
• OR-CAL, meta 3.25% Y
• OR_CAL, Slugfest new seed
• Liq before canopy
• closes
• WE 4 Bait Plus Y
• AmVac
• Deadline MP’s Y
• Or Bullets
• Durham 3.5 &
• 7.5 % Granules *** Y
• Do not mix w/ seeds
• Meta-rex Y
• WFS Sluggo Y N N Y N A or G or Sluggo shorts
Why Do We Have The Highest
Populations Of Slugs In The World ?
Bill Gavin
1”
Variable in Color, Size, and Name!
Most Grass Damage Caused
by the Gray Field Slug
-Increased Earthworm Populations
-Increased Surface Residue
-Increased Soil Fertility
-Reduction in Harmful Chemicals
-Increased ARG Volunteer Seeded Acreage
-Shallower Depth in Tillage
-Field Burning Phase-Out
-Improved Field Drainage
-Increased Legume and Cereal Acreage
-Increased No-Till Acreage
-Increase in Grazing
-Bait Improvements
-Habitat Improvements for Predators
Positive For Slugs Negative For Slugs
Changes Have Benefited Slug Populations
Tillage Effects
Slug activity data based on four nights catch per month for the years 1992-2002, at sites in
Benton, Linn, and Marion counties ( Gavin, W.E., and J.J. Steiner, 1992-2002, unpublished data )
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
num
ber
of
slugs
minimal tillage no-tillage
**
**
** **
**
** months with significant data
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Number of Egg Clutches
Average eggs per clutch 16.6 Average eggs per clutch 3.3
16
40
24
26
2423
12
32
8 8
4
8
4
8
0 0
Residue Effects
Fast and accurate method for estimating slug densities, W.E. Gavin, G.M. Banowetz, J.J. Steiner, S.M. Griffith, and
G.W. Mueller-Warrant, In: Seed Production Research, OSU, Ext/CrS 125, 4/06, pp 32-35.
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
August September October November December January February M arch April M ay June July
No
. of
Slu
gs
Tiled Field Un-Tiled Field
( Gavin, W.E., and J.J. Steiner, unpublished, 2005, from: 1992-2002 Cropping System Database)
Effects of Field Drainage on Slugs
Three Factors Affecting Control
- Weather
- Bait Performance
- Earthworm Activity
Eugene, Oregon
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
air
tem
per
ature
°F
0
50
100
150
200
250
rain
fall
mm
Three Factors Affecting Slug Biology
- Weather
- Tillage Practice
- Residue Management
- Field History
Eugene, Oregon
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
air
tem
per
ature
°F
0
50
100
150
200
250
rain
fall
mm
Eugene, Oregon
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
air
tem
per
ature
°F
0
50
100
150
200
250
rain
fall
mm
Weather
* *
*
*
* * *
* *
* *
*
*
*
* * *
Weather and Slugs: Oregon Perspective
London, England UK
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Jan
Feb
Mar
Ap
r
May Jun
Jul
Au
g
Sep
Oct
No
v
Dec
air
tem
per
ature
°F
0
50
100
150
200
250
rain
fall
mm
mean airT mean rainfall
Frankfurt, Germany
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90ai
r te
mper
ature
°F
0
50
100
150
200
250
rain
fall
mm
Paris, France
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
air
tem
per
atu
re °
F
0
50
100
150
200
250
rain
fall
mm
Dublin, Ireland
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
air
tem
per
atu
re °
F
0
50
100
150
200
250
rain
fall
mm
Istanbul, Turkey
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
air
tem
per
atu
re °
F
0
50
100
150
200
250
rain
fall
mm
mean airT mean rainfall
Bismarck, North Dakota
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
air
tem
per
atu
re °
F
0
50
100
150
200
250
rain
fall
mm
Albany, New York
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Jan
Feb
Mar
Ap
r
May Jun
Jul
Au
g
Sep
Oct
No
v
Dec
air
tem
per
atu
re °
F0
50
100
150
200
250
rain
fall
mm
mean airT mean rainfall
Baltimore, Maryland
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
air
tem
per
ature
°F
0
50
100
150
200
250
rain
fall
mm
Eugene, Oregon
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
air
tem
per
ature
°F
0
50
100
150
200
250
rain
fall
mm
Canberra, Australia
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90ai
r te
mper
atu
re °
F
0
50
100
150
200
250
rain
fall
mm
Christchurch, New Zealand
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
air
tem
per
ature
°F
0
50
100
150
200
250
rain
fall
mm
Wooster, Ohio
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
air
tem
per
atu
re °
F
0
50
100
150
200
250
rain
fall
mm
Climatological information is based on WMO Climatological Normals(CLINO) for the 30 -year period 1961 - 1990 , Weather Information Service, NOAA
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar April
% S
oil
Mo
istu
re0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Slu
g P
rese
nce
At
Dep
th (
inch
es)
soil moisture slugs
Greatest Number of
Slugs Available for
Poisoning
Unpublished data from a Woodburn soil-type, Hyslop Research Farm, 1996-1999. Location of average number of slugs found during excavation.
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November 30
Av
erage W
ater Tab
le Ht.
Av
erage W
ater Tab
le Ht.
October 30 December 30
Fewer Slugs Available During Early Baiting
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350 Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Rai
nfa
ll (
mm
)
40.0
45.0
50.0
55.0
60.0
65.0
70.0
75.0
80.0
So
il T
emp
erat
ure
(°F
)
0 -
4”
rainfall slugs soil T
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Slug Activity Period Stimulated
By Falling Temperatures
Onset of Fall
Mating and
Egg Laying
Onset of Late
Winter Mating and
Egg Laying
Fall and Late Winter Eggs
Begin Hatching
Egg Laying Ends Slugs Become Less
Surface-Active
As Soil Temperatures
Rise and Soil Moisture Falls
Slug Activity 1992-2002 In Perennial Grasses:
Linn, Benton, and Marion Counties
Soil temperatures are average of max and min at 0-4 inches.
Earthworm Activity Period
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Data from 2006-2007.
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
11/1 11/7 11/14 11/29 12/1 12/7 12/14 12/28 1/1 1/7 1/14 1/28 2/1 2/7 2/14 2/28 3/1 3/7 3/14 3/28
Nu
mb
er o
f S
lug
s per
Wee
k
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Nu
mb
er o
f E
gg
Clu
tch
es
slugs eggs
Fall and Winter Eggs
Begin Hatching
Biology of the Gray Field Slug
in White Clover: Linn County 2006-07
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100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Slu
g W
eig
ht
(mg
)
class 1 class 2
Oct 15 Nov 1 Nov 15 Dec 1 Dec 15 Jan 1 Jan 15 Feb 1
Low Weight Gain During Winter:
Gray Field Slug In White Clover 2006
Juvenile Slugs (non-reproductive)
Adult Slugs (reproductive)
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0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
slug w
eight
mg
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
nu
mb
er o
f eg
gs
per
slu
g
slug wt eggs per slug
Slug Size and Egg Laying
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Bait Performance
Bait Poisoning Difficult During Cool, Wet Weather
e. Less likely to consume same bait type
d. 30%-50% recovery after poisoning a. Deterioration begins on first day
b. Competes with other food sources
c. Adequate dosage must be consumed f. Competes for baits with earthworms
70°, 60°, 50°, 40°F
Day length adjusted
Dayton Soil
Pre-Conditioned 3wks
Food Present
Gray Field Slug
Food: Lettuce
70° 60° 50° 40° 0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
% S
lug
Dea
th
Sluggo Deadline MP Durham 7.5 Control
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Control Problematic During
Cooler Temperatures
50°F
8hrL:16hrD
Dayton Soil
Pre-Conditioned 3wks
Recovery Time 3 weeks
Food Present
Gray Field Slug
Food: Lettuce
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Sluggo
22lbs/a
DMP
20lbs/a
Durham 7.5
15lbs/a 10 lbs/a
Mesurol
10lbs/a
Durham 7.5
7.5lbs/a
Durham 7.5
5lbs/a
MetaRex
12lbs/a
Control
% S
lug
Mo
rtal
ity
Durham 7.5
Bait Efficacy at 50°F
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
DMP 8 lbs / A DMP 12 lbs / A DMP 16 lbs / A DMP 16-0 lbs / A
depleting
Seedling Survival Slug Death Egg Reduction
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
MetaRex 5 lbs / A MetaRex 7 lbs / A MetaRex 9 lbs / A MetaRex 9-0 lbs / A
depleting
Seedling Survival Slug Death Egg Reduction
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Sluggo 11 lbs / A Sluggo 16 lbs / A Sluggo 22 lbs / A Sluggo 22-0 lbs / A
depleting
Seedling Survival Slug Death Egg Reduction
Growth Chamber Studies
Demonstrating
Bait Efficacy at 50°F
% R
educt
ion f
rom
the
Contr
ol
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
SlugFest AWF 1.0 pts / A SlugFest AWF 2.0 pts / A SlugFest AWF 3.0 pts / A
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Durham 7.5 10 lbs / A Durham 7.5 20 lbs / A Durham 7.5 30 lbs / A
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
46-0-0 80
lbs/A uN
16-20-0-14 40
lbs/A uN
33-0-0-12.2S
80 lbs/A uN
Bordeaux
Mixture
Hot Pepper
Wax
Liquid Copper
Seedling Survival Slug Death Egg Reduction
Growth Chamber Studies
Demonstrating
Non-Bait Efficacy at 50°F
% R
educt
ion f
rom
the
Contr
ol
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Delayed Emergence After Freezing Temperatures
30.0
35.0
40.0
45.0
50.0
days of month
2"
soil
T °
F
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
slugs
per
nig
ht
soil T slugs
14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 1
Feb Mar
Treatment Ineffective During Freeze-Thaw Cycle
Freeze Slug “Thaw”
Data based on ten freeze-thaw cycles over two years. Freeze is interpreted as ground hard freeze at 2” depth.
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Earthworm Activity
Effect of Bait Type and Application Rate
0 1 2 3 4
Days
Days
Deadline MP
0
20
40
60
80
100%
bai
t re
moval 10 lbs/A 20 lbs/A 30 lbs/A
MetaRex
0
20
40
60
80
100
% b
ait
rem
ov
al 10 lbs/A 20 lbs/A 30 lbs/A
Sluggo
0
20
40
60
80
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
% b
ait
rem
ov
al
10 lbs/A 20 lbs/A 30 lbs/A
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Slug Activity 1992-2002 In Perennial Grasses:
Linn, Benton, and Marion Counties
Soil temperatures are average of max and min at 0-4 inches.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350 Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Rai
nfa
ll (
mm
)
40.0
45.0
50.0
55.0
60.0
65.0
70.0
75.0
80.0
So
il T
emp
erat
ure
(°F
)
0 -
4”
rainfall slugs soil T
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Slug Activity Period Stimulated
By Falling Temperatures
Onset of Fall
Mating and
Egg Laying
Onset of Late
Winter Mating and
Egg Laying
Fall and Late Winter Eggs
Begin Hatching
Egg Laying Ends Slugs Become Less
Surface-Active
As Soil Temperatures
Rise and Soil Moisture Falls
Earthworm Activity Period
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Late Winter Damage Impacts
Reproductive Tiller Production
Tiller Damage
Photo of tiller nursery here
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Slugs per Caged PRG Plants
Num
ber
of
Rep
roduct
ive
Til
lers
Control 2 4 6 8 10
*
27%
14% 13% 11% 5%
Percent Reduction
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Slug Density Per Caged Plant
Slugs Impact on Reproductive Tillers
Summary
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Slug Populations Are Influenced By:
Farming Practices
Tillage
Drainage
Residue
Weather
Movement
Location in the soil profile
Egg laying
Metabolism
Poison uptake and recovery
Earthworm Activity
Bait or Non-Bait Performance
Slug Management in No-Till Systems Glenn Fisher
Amy Dreves
- Overview
- Effects of Timing
- Effects of Bait and Non-Bait Types
- Monitoring for Slugs
- Interpreting Slug Population Numbers
Quantifying Slug Populations
Population Size/ Unit Area
• Absolute
• Allows Total Numbers of all
stages per sample unit
• specify depth sampled
• You have to count all stages
present!
• example: slugs/sq ft,
slugs/crown,
• slugs/6”core, depth of 4 inches
Absolute Population Measurement Slugs per 3, 6” Cores in Upper 4” of Soil
Feb 7, Feb 12
• Treatment PRE- GGS/3 cores 5 DAT
• 1) Durham 3.5% 14 12.3
• 2) Carbaryl 2F (Sevin) +Phor-ti-phy 4F 11.7 13.7
• 3) Slugfest 25% liquid Metadehyde 12.3 13
• 4) Slugfest + Carbaryl 2F (Sevin) 13.3 10.3
• 5)Metarex 4 (standard) 10.7 14.7
• 6)Untreated (Water only) 14 14
Quantifying Slug Populations
Population Size/ unit area
. . .
• slugs recorded @ an overnight bait station “slugs/station”
– often > 20/station PRG
• Number of slugs recorded under a shelter board or blanket
• Can provide quick & usually accurate way to compare effects of practices or controls.
Bait Stations
• Open Station:
– scrape to bare soil
– select a bait & an amount
– 3 pellets per bait station
• Set up in late afternoon – count all slug visitors before 8AM
the next day
– map & record numbers
– 3 to 5 slugs/bait station can mean problems to new seedings
• Pick your night carefully – avoid wind, extreme cold, driving
rain
. . .
Bait Stations Will Underestimate Slug Populations
During Cold or Windy Weather
Tall Fescue (Lexus) Lebanon, OR 1995
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
# o
f S
lug
s
19-Oct
26-Oct
3-Nov 17-Nov
Bale & Vacuum
Straight BladedFlail (2x)
Conventional Flail& Partial Rake
*
Effects of Annual Ryegrass Cropping
System On Slug Populations (Shedd, OR, 1996-1997)
_______________________________________________________
Cropping system Total
slugs/Bt Station
Plow + conv. seeding 2.9
Full Straw 0.7
Min-till, drill + sprout spray 22.4
Full straw 27.1
Volunteer crop……. 50.5
Full straw 56.2
__________________________________________
_____________
Evaluation of Weathered Baits November 2006
• 6 formulations, weathered
from 0 to 7 days,
• 144 bait stations
• Nov 15, 16, 17
• GGS collected each day
• Held for 6 days
Evaluation of Weathered Baits November 2006
Results
• 1.42 inches of rain
• 45.6°F daily mean
temp
• 34.8 to 56.5°F dmt
range
• mean wind of 5.1 mph
(ranging from 1.79 to
9.8mph).
• 6 days plot inspection,
T slugs ranged from 0
to 14/ plot !
• averaging ~6 slugs per
plot
• only 33% of slugs
collected in the arena
died
July Product Tests in White Clover (dew present at application)
Treatment
Trial 1
Mean No. of Mature Gray Garden Slugs per
2 blankets/plot*1
4D pre 2h post 1 DAT 2 DAT 3 DAT 9 DAT 10 DAT
7/6/07 7/10/07 7/11/07 7/12/07 7/13/07 7/19/07 7/20/07
Slugfest 32.7a 18.7a 2.0a 4.0a
1.7a
1.7a 3.0 a
Sluggo 18.0a 23.0a 33.0b 26.0 b 3.0 a 7.3ab 4.7 a
UTC 22.0a 30.7a 47.7 b 36.7 b 21.7 b 14.7 b 25.3 b
Meta-rex 26.7 a 26.7 a 40.0 b 44.7 b 24.7 b 10.0 b 12.0 ab
*1 Means (±SE) separated by Fishers LSD. Means with same letter are not significantly different.
• Avg GGS/3 bait St
• Treatment Rate PRE Tr 7 DAT
• Deadline MPs 8lb 19.3 4.0
• Deadline MPs 5.3 13.8 3.0
• Metarex 2.5 5.3 17.3 4.0
• Metarex 2.5 4.5 20.0 3.5
• Metarex 2.5 3.0 15.8 3.3
• Metarex 2.2 5.3 14.8 5.3ab
• Metarex 2.2 3.0 18.3 4.3ab
• UTC 13.5* 24.5 b
Control of the Gray Garden Slug
In Annual Ryegrass (March 2005)
• Avg GGS/3 bait St
• Treatment Rate 21 DAT 29 DAT
• Deadline MPs 8lb 3 5 a
• Deadline MPs 5.3 2 6.5a
• Metarex 2.5 5.3 2.8 7 ab
• Metarex 2.5 4.5 3.8 8.3ab
• Metarex 2.5 3.0 7 7.5ab
• Metarex 2.2 5.3 6.5 6.8ab
• Metarex 2.2 3.0 6.3 9.3ab
• UTC 23.3* 14.5 b
Control of the Gray Garden Slug
In Annual Ryegrass (March 2005)
Summary for Control of Slugs
in No-Till Systems
• Multiple applications needed
• Success is variable
• Weather, Bait Performance, and Earthworms
• Timing Critical
– September thru Early November
– March thru May
Insect Damage To Crops
Sometimes Attributed To Slugs
Glenn Fisher
Amy Dreves
• Overview
• Effects of Insects, Mites, Wireworms,
and Symphyllans on Grass Crops
• No-Till Systems
• Identifying the Damage
• Timing and Type of Control
Black Cutworm
Glassy cutworm
Black Cutworm
• Fall seedings
• Previous crop
– Sugar beet seed
– Pasture, grass
– Clover
– Vegetable seed
• Seedlings are missing,
clipped & wilted
• Larvae are under
clods, clumps at
moisture line in soil by
day
• Feed @ Night
Control is with broadcast spray of Lorsban, Baythroid or Mustang MAX.
Because they feed above ground at night, rain is not necessary,
but does boost control
Wireworms
Wireworms
• Present in soil at planting
• Clumped
• Larger seedlings turn yellow then white
• Look for wilting and off-color seedlings
• Screen soil, can be deep
• Control: no products are labeled
Garden Symphylan
• Missing seedlings, stunted
seedlings next to normal
• Rootlets are stubbed off.
• Screen moist soil early in
AM potato baits
• Control in rotational crop
w/ soil active product
Cranefly
Cranefly
• Early fall damage to new seedings thru Apr
• Screen soil
• Larvae feed above ground at night
• Kill seedlings, may feed on foliage from top
down as well as along side
• Easily controlled with low rates of Lorsban
Frit Fly
Frit fly
Frit Fly
• Fall and Spring damage to seedlings
• 2-6 leaf seedlings most susceptible
• Flies emerge and lay eggs after fall rains
• Another 1 or 2 gen in late winter, spring
• Turf, golf course pests
• Dimethoate or Lorsban when adults are
active in fall after rains
Seasonal Control Strategies
- Overview
- Developing an IPM Program for Slugs
- “Soft Model Concept”
Glenn Fisher
Amy Dreves
Bill Gavin
Glenn Fisher
Amy Dreves
Bill Gavin
George Hoffmann
Are We Asking The Right Questions:
Research for 2007-2009
National Forage Seed Production Research Center, USDA ARS
Gary Banowetz, Rick Caskey, Scott Culver, Steve Griffith, George Mueller-Warrant, and Sheila Seguin
Department of Crop and Soil Science, Oregon State University
Russ Karow, Mark Mellbye
Growers
Mike Berger, Nick Bowers, Mike Coon, Brian Glaser, Dennis Glaser, Kim and Kerwin Koos, Mark Macpherson,
Garth Mulkey, Dave Goracke, Don Worth, Harry Stalford, Telly Worth, George Pugh, Cody Younger
Western Farm Service, Tangent, Oregon
Bob Spinney, Bob Schroeder, Curt Dannen
OrCal Inc.
Tom Peterson
Wilbur-Ellis
Lance Kirk, Steve Silbernagle
Amvac
Rennie Kubick
Neudorff
Cam Wilson
Liphatec
Scott McCalley
Acknowledgements
Oregon
State
University
Agricultural
Research
Service
