Relative Clauses Part 1

Anna HefleyGhadah AlthunayyanHyunMi Lee

Chapter 18

Complex sentences consist of

MAIN/ INDEPENDENT CLAUSE

E.g. My father is a man

SUBORDINATE/ DEPENDENT CLAUSE

who lifts weights.

Relative Clauses One kind of

dependent clauses. Modify noun phrases. Introduced by

relative pronouns: that, which, who,whom, whose Add information to

the head nouns of noun phrases (NP).

I like people who have a good sense of humor.

Warm-up Exercise

Please, describe yourself using this format of the sentence:

I am a person who …

E.g. I am a person who likes reading poetry.

Relative Clauses vs. Adjectives

Relative clauses have the same functions as adjectives, called also adjective clauses.

adjectives + head nouns (i.e. prenominal modifiers)

Art Adj Adj Head Nouna difficult and perplexing problem

head nouns + relative clause (i.e. postnominal modifiers)

Art Head Noun Relative Clausea problem that is difficult and perplexing.

Modified NP

NP modified can have any grammatical function in the sentence; it can be a subject, object, indirect object, or object of a preposition.

A problem that is difficult and perplexing can take time to solve.

The relative clause modifies a NP that is a subject of the main clause.

We gave him a problem that is difficult and perplexing. The relative clause modifies a NP that is a object of the main clause.

Restrictive vs. Nonrestrictive Relative Clauses

RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE

My sister who lives in Canada is a biologist.

The restrictive relative clause who lives in Canada restricts my sister by specifying the sister in Canada.

The sentence implies that the speaker has more than one sister, but only one in Canada is a biologist. The information added by the relative clause identifies the sister.

NONRESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE

My sister, who lives in Canada, is a biologist.

The nonrestrictive clause who lives in Canada does not restricts my sister. It only adds information about the noun modified.

There is no implication that the speaker has other sisters.

Comas in nonrestrictive relativesThe commas around nonrestrictive relatives reflect the pauses in speech and falling intonation pattern at the end of the clause. There is no pause at the beginning or end of a restrictive relative clause, and falling intonation occurs only at the end of the sentence.

These two criteria - punctuation in written sentences and intonation in spoken sentences - are traditionally applied to distinguish restrictive from nonrestrictive relative clauses.

Forming Relative Clauses

The formation of relative clauses can be described by means of a rule wh- movement, which moves the NP in the relative clause that corresponds to the NP in the main clause to the front of the relative clause, leaving a “gap” at the place from which it was moved. The NP fronted by wh-movement is replaced by a relative pronoun. The NP functions as an object NP.

NP as subject of relative clause

When the NP is the subject of relative clause, wh- movement does not apply, but the subject NP is replaced by a relative pronoun.

The car [the car crashed into the streetlight] was destroyed. that

Relative pronounsIf the NP being replaced is human (or, for example, a pet), that or who (and whom, if the NP is an object) can be used. This is despite the prescriptivist rule that only who should be used for human NPs. Who occurs more frequently in writing, but that is used almost as frequently as who in spoken English. With other NPs, that or which can be used. Whose, which expresses possession, is used for all NPs but is preferred for those that are human. With the exception of that, all the relative pronouns can be used in restrictive or nonrestrictive relative clauses; that can only be used in restrictive relative clauses.

Types of Restrictive Relative Clauses

Classification based on the grammatical function of their relative pronouns.

① Subject (S)② Direct Object (O)③ Indirect object (IO)④ Object of the preposition (OP)⑤ Possessive (POS)⑥ Object of comparison (OC)

Subject (S) Relative Clauses

Relative pronoun replaces the subject of the clause. Does not require wh-movement Relative pronouns who and that replace human NPs

The guy [who hired Robert] was a manager of the store.The guy [that hired Robert] was a manager of the store.

The relative pronouns which and that replace inanimate NPs

The tornado [that/which struck the town] destroyed several homes.

That seems to be preferred, at least for American English (AE).

Object (O) Relative Clauses

The relative pronoun replaces the object of the verb. The relative pronouns who, whom, and that

introduce O relative clauses that modify human nouns.

At the party there were many people [who he did not know].

At the party there were many people [that he did not know].

In spoken English, the relative pronoun used is generally, who or that.

Object (O) Relative Clauses cont.

As early as 1928, the Oxford English Dictionary observed that whom was “no longer in natural colloquial speech” as relative pronoun introducing O relatives. Today, whom, tends to be used mostly in written English.

At the party there were many people [whom he did not know].

Indirect Object (IO) Relative Clauses

Relative pronoun comes from the indirect position following the preposition to or for.

As with Object Relative clauses, which, who and whom are all used. However, 2 patterns are possible.

Indirect Object (IO) Relative Clauses cont.

In the first pattern, when wh-movement occurs, the preposition to or for remains behind. Whom is seldom used in this pattern.

In the other pattern, the preposition, too, is moved to the front of the clause. Only whom and which can occur in this pattern; who and that are not possible.

Indirect Object (IO) Relative Clauses cont.

Relative clauses with to whom / for whom sound formal to NSs; hence they tend to be confined to written English.

Instead, in spoken English speakers use the relative clause pattern with clause-final prepositions.

The store for which she bakes her cakes is located nearby.

Object of the Preposition (OP) Relative Clauses

They have the same two patterns as Indirect Object (IO) relatives.

The difference: Indirect Object (IO) relatives are limited to two prepositions, to and for, in as much as the indirect object is always a goal or beneficiary, whereas with Object of the Preposition relatives many prepositions can occur.

Object of the Preposition (OP) Relative Clauses cont.

As with Indirect Object (IO) relative clauses, the first OP pattern, has the preposition stranded at the end of the clause. This is more typical of spoken English.

The mattress [which/that he slept on] had several broken springs.The people [who/that he aimed his weapon at] were frightened.

The second pattern is found more often in written English.

The mattress [on which he slept] had several broken springs.The people [at whom he aimed his weapon] were frightened.

Object of the Preposition (OP) Relative Clauses cont.

When way or manner is the object of the preposition in, the preposition must be moved and cannot be stranded.

The manner in which he spoke was shocking.*The manner which he spoke in was shocking.

Most phrasal prepositional verbs do not permit the elements following the verb to be moved.

A preposition is an abomination which we will not put up with.

*A preposition is an abomination up with which we will not put.

Possessive (POS) Relative Clauses

The relative pronoun replaces an element that expresses possession.

The relative pronoun may be whose or which preceded by of.

Possessive (POS) Relative Clauses introduced by WHOSE The relative pronoun whose is

typically used when the head noun is human or animate.

Last week I met a girl [whose brother works in your law firm].

Or is collective noun such as a club, agency, corporation, or society.

He bought sock in a company [whose profits had increased last quarter].

Possessive (POS) Relative Clauses introduced by WHOSE cont.

The relative pronoun whose can be also used with inanimate head nouns.

A crystal is a piece of matter [whose boundaries are naturally formed plane surfaces].

Let ABC be a triangle [whose sides are of equal length].

Possessive (POS) Relative Clauses introduced by WHOSE cont.

Possessive relative pronouns are part of a NP. Whose functions as a possessive determiner, such as my, your, our, and so on.

If the relevant NP is in subject position, whose replaces its determiner.

I just met that girl [[ that girl’s brother] is a chef].I just met that girl [[ whose brother] is a chef].

If the NP is elsewhere in the clause, wh-movement is needed to produce a sentence.

The author [whose last three books Peter reviewed] won a Pulitzer Prize.

Possessive (POS) Relative Clauses introduced by WHOSE cont.

The constituents before the noun may include not only the words that are replaced by whose but also, for example, a quantifier, such as several + the preposition of, and these too, are moved to the front of the clause.

The author several of whose books Peter reviewed won a Pulitzer.

Possessive (POS) Relative Clauses introduced by WHOSE cont.

In these types of sentences:

The author several of whose books Peter reviewed won a Pulitzer.

The author [whose last three books Peter reviewed] won a Pulitzer Prize.

there is a strong tendency to add pauses around the center –embedded relative clause and give it the falling intonation typical of a nonrestrictive relative clause. It may be difficult to determine whether the speaker had a restrictive or nonrestrictive relative clause in mind.

Possessive (POS) Relative Clauses introduced by WHICH

As we remember, there are two ways to indicate possession with nouns:

the reports’ size – is a source of the relative pronoun whosethe size of the reports – is the source of which

The reports [whose size the government prescribes] are boring.

The reports [the size of which the government prescribes] are boring.

Following wh-movement, three other combinations are correct as well.

The reports [which the government prescribes the size of] are boring.

The reports of which the government prescribes the size] are boring.

Object of Comparison (OC) Relative Clauses

The relative pronouns used are who, whom, and that for NPs referring to humans.

The girl [who/that Susan was faster than] won the race.

The relative pronouns used are which and that for NPs referring to inanimate things.

The sports car [which/that the Alfa Romeo was faster than] was a Porsche.

The conjunction than cannot move to the front of the clause!

Additional Facts 1 Restrictive Relative Clauses

What as a Relative Pronoun in Nonstandard English, is an alternative to which and that. What is more common in BE than AE, and it is used in both subject (S) and object (O) relative clauses.

In spoken English: And you see that truck what just went by.

That geezer what we met down at the bar is me old Dad.

Additional Facts 2 Resumptive Pronouns

In spoken English NSs sometimes produce relative clauses that contain a resumptive pronoun.

e.g. (36)*Usually they give you a thing …, you know, a thing that you don’t want it.

Additional Facts 3Resumptive Pronouns

Object (O) Relative Clauses

QUESTION

WORKSHEET # 1

Object (O) Relative Clauses

ANSWERS

WORKSHEET # 1

Relative Clauses Part 2

Anna HefleyGhadah AlthunayyanHyunMi Lee

Chapter 18

Position and Reduction of Restrictive Relative Clauses

ETRAPOSED RELATIVE CLAUSES Sometimes it appears directly after the head

noun they modify. Occasionally, a writer or a speaker may place them further away.

a. A man who has red hair just came in.b. A man _____________ just came in who has

red hair. Relative clauses that have been moved away

from the head nouns they modify, are called extraposed relatives.

Extraposed Relative Clauses

Often, the relative clause is separated from its NP by a single word, for example, by an adverb such as yesterday as in (1), or a main verb such as happened as in (2).

(1) a. I saw someone who I hadn't seen for years yesterday. b. I saw someone yesterday who I hadn't seen for years. 

(2) a. Something that I can't really talk about happened. b. Something happened that I can't really talk about.

Extraposed Relative Clauses

However, the separation can be longer. The relative clause can be moved away from the subject noun around a verb phrase, containing not only a verb but also a prepositional phrase.

a. A girl who has an IQ of 200 is studying with me.

b. A girl is studying with me who has an IQ of 200.

Extraposed Relative Clauses

There is one restriction that cannot be violated: a relative clause cannot be moved into a position in which it could have originated, that is, following another noun. This restriction exists because such a move could change the meaning of the original sentence.

a. A pole that must have been nine feet tall fell on a workman.b. A pole fell on a workman that must have been nine feet tall.

StackingRelative clauses are frequently strung together, on clause after the other. It occurs more frequently in conversation than in writing.

a. The people [who take the course] [who Dana likes] usually come from local high schools.

b. The book [that I like] [which everyone else in the class hates] was written by Joan.

Notice that stacking relative clauses modifies the same noun, people in (a) and book in (b). There is no limit to the number of relative clauses that could be linked in this way. In general native speakers do not stack more than two relatives.

Omission of Nonsubject Relative Pronouns

In all types of clauses, except S relative clauses, it is possible to delete the relative pronoun, with the relative clause thus beginning with the subject NP. Such clauses are sometimes said to have a "zero relative pronoun.”Deletion of the relative pronoun is possible in Object (O) relative clause:(1) a. We just met that woman [who/whom/that Alan likes so much].

b. We just met that woman [Alan likes so much].

(2) a. We just met that woman [who/that likes Alan so much]. b. *We just met that woman [likes Alan so much].

Omission of Nonsubject Relative Pronouns cont.

Deletion is also possible in Object of Comparison (OC) relative clause:

a. The sports car which/that the Alfa Romeo was faster than won the Le Mans 24-hours race.

b. The sports car the Alfa Romeo was faster than won the Le Mans 24-hours race.

Omission of Nonsubject Relative Pronouns cont.

In Indirect Object (IO) and Object of the Proposition (OP) relatives, reduction can occur only in the patterns that have the proposition standard at the end of the clause. (1) and (2) are IO relatives.

(1) a. The student who the dean sent a message to is out of town. b. The student the dean sent a message to is out of town.

(2) a. The student to whom the dean send a message is out of town.

b. * The student to the dean send a message to is out of town.

Omission of Nonsubject Relative Pronouns cont.

Similarly, of which Possessive (POS) relatives with stranded preposition can be reduced.

a. The reports which the government prescribes the size of are boring.

b. The reports the government prescribes the size of are boring.

However, POS relatives introduced by whose cannot be reduced :

c. Last week I met a girl whose brother works in your law firm.b. *Last week I met a girl brother works in your law firm.

Omission of Nonsubject Relative Pronouns cont.

http://www.usingenglish.com/quizzes/509.html

Reduction in Subject Relative Clauses

Although we have previously seen that the relative pronoun cannot be omitted in S relatives, in certain S relatives, it appears that the relative pronoun can be omitted if an additional change is made .

Reduction in Subject Relative Clauses

REDUCTION IN CLAUSE with Be In S relative clauses, the relative pronoun and a form

of be may be deleted when they are followed by:

A present participlea. That man who is standing over there knows the Prime Minister.b. That man standing over there knows the Prime Minister.

  A past participle in a passive sentencea. The bills that were passed by the House yesterday died in the Senate.b. The bills passed by the House yesterday died in the Senate.

Reduction in Subject Relative Clauses

REDUCTION IN CLAUSE with Be An adjective followed by a prepositional phrase as in (1),

including past participle adjectives as in (2).

(1) a. Senators who are familiar with details of the proposal believe that it has a good chance of passing. b. Senators familiar with details of the proposal believe that it has a good chance of passing.

(2) a. He is considered to be a prophet who is descended from heaven.

b. He is considered to be a prophet descended from heaven.

Postnomial Modifiers with aStative Verb in -ing Form

Postnominal modifiers with stative verbs in present participle form might be a special type of reduced relative clause.

A woman resembling your wife is sitting in front of me.

This sentence has the same meaning as: A woman who resembles your wife is sitting in front of me.

It is not a reduced version of the ungrammatical sentence: * A woman who is resembling your wife is sitting in front of

me.

Omission or Reduction

QUESTION

WORKSHEET # 2

Omission or Reduction

ANSWERS

WORKSHEET # 2

THANK YOU!