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RELIABILITY

 

ABILITY OF THE PRODUCT TO PERFORM REQUIRED FUNCTION UNDER STATED CONDITIONS FOR A STATED PERIOD OF TIME (ISO – 8402 – 1986)

 

IT IS THE CHANCE THAT A PRODUCT WILL WORK FOR THE REQUIRED TIME.

 

WE NEED TO

- TO QUANTIFY RELIABILITY IN TERMS OF PROBABILITY

- DEFINE PRODUCT PERFORMANCE

- DEFINE ENVIRONMENT

- DEFINE OPERATING TIME BETWEEN FAILURES

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RELIABILITY PROGRAM:

• SETTING OVERALL RELIABILITY GOALS

• APPORTIONMENT OF RELIABILITY GOALS

• STRESS ANALYSIS

• IDENTIFICATION OF CRITICAL PARTS

• FMEA

• PREDICTION OF RELIABILITY

• DESIGN REVIEW

• SELECTION OF SUPPLIERS

• CONTROL OF RELIABILITY DURING MANUFACTURING

• RELIABILITY TESTING

• FAILURE REPORTING AND CORRECTIVE ACTION SYSTEM

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APPLICATION:

COMPLICATED PRODUCTS E.G. ELECTRONIC / SPACE SCIENCES

 

RELIABILITY FIGURES OF MERIT:

1) MEAN TIME BETWEEN FAILURES (MTBF)

MEAN TIME BETWEEN SUCCESSIVE FAILURES OF A REPAIRABLE PRODUCT

2) FAILURE RATE – NO OF FAILURES PER UNIT TIME

3) MEAN TIME TO FAILURES (MTTF) – MEAN TIME TO FAILURE OF A NON-REPAIRABLE PRODUCT

4) MEAN LIFE – MEAN VALUE OF MAJOR OVERHAUL WEAR – OUT TIME

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5) MTFF – MEAN TIME TO FIRST FAILURE OF REPAIRABLE PRODUCT

6) MTBM – MEAN TIME BETWEEN MAINTENANCE

7) LONGEVITY – WEAROUT TIME FOR A PRODUCT

8) AVAILABILITY – OPERATING TIME EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE

OF OPERATING AND REPAIR TIME

9) SYSTEM EFFECTIVENESS – EXTENT TO WHICH A PRODUCT

ACHIEVES REQUIREMENTS OF USER

10) PROBABILITY OF SUCCESS – RELIABILITY (USED FOR ONE SHOT

OR NON-TIME-ORIENTED PRODUCTS)

11) REPAIRS / 100 NUMBER OF REPAIRS PER 100 OPERATING HOURS

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DERATING

FMECA C = CRITICALITY

SUMMARY OF TESTS:

PERFORMANCE

ENVIRONMENTAL

STRESS

RELIABILITY

  

TO CLEARLY IDENTIFY THE ROOT CAUSE AND CONSEQUENTIAL FAILURE OF OTHER PARTS

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6.7 EARLY WARNING OF NEW-PRODUCT PROBLEMS:

PROBLEMS CAUSED BY DESIGN RESULTS IN DEVELOPMENT OF VARIOUS

FORMS OF EARLY WARNING ON EXPECTED FAILURES. FOLLOWING

TABLE SHOWS NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT STAGES AND

APPROPRIATE TESTS FOR EACH STAGE.

PHASES OF NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

TESTS

CONCEPT AND FEASIBILITY STUDY CONCEPT REVIEW

PROTOTYPE DESIGN DESIGN REVIEW, RELIABILITY AND MAINTAINABILITY PREDICTION, FAILURE MODE, EFFECT AND CRITICALITY ANALYSIS, SAFETY ANALYSIS, VALUE ENGINEERING

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PHASES OF NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

TESTS

PROTOTYPE CONSTRUCTION PROTOTYPE TESTS,

ENVIRONMENTAL TESTS,

OVERSTRESSING

PRE PRODUCTION PILOT PRODUCTION LOTS,

EVALUATION OF TOLERANCES

EARLY FULL-SCALE PRODUCTION,

MARKETING AND USE

EMPLOYEES AS TEST PANELS,

SPECIAL PROVISION FOR PROMPT

FEEDBACK

ALL PHASES FAILURE ANALYSIS, DATA

COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

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6.8 FAILURE MODE EFFECT ANALYSIS:

FAILURE MODE AND EFFECT ANALYSIS (FMEA) IS A PREDICTION OF

FAILURE OF DESIGN STAGE. THIS COMBINES THE TECHNOLOGY,

KNOWLEDGE AND EXPERIENCE OF A DESIGNER TO IDENTIFY

FORESEEABLE FAILURE MODES OF PRODUCT OR PROCESS AND TO

PLAN FOR ITS ELIMINATION.

 

FMEA, THEREFORE CAN BE DEFINED AS – “A GROUP OF ACTIVITIES

INTENDED TO RECOGNIZE AND EVALUATE THE POTENTIAL FAILURE OF A

PRODUCT OR PROCESS AND ITS EFFECTS. IDENTIFY ACTIONS THAT

COULD ELIMINATE OR REDUCE THE CHANCE OF POTENTIAL FAILURES.

THE ENTIRE PROCESS IS TO BE DOCUMENTED”.

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FMEA IS A TEM-EFFORT. MOST COMMONLY IT IS USED FOR DESIGN AND

SOME TIMES FOR PROCESS. 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A DESIGN FMEA CONSIDERS THREE ASPECTS TO

PREDICT A FAILURE AND ITS SEVERITY.

1. SEVERITY OF THE POTENTIAL MODE (S)

2. OCCURRENCE (O) – IT IS THE LIKELIHOOD THAT A SPECIFIC

CAUSE WILL OCCUR

3. DETECTION (D) AN ASSESSMENT OF THE ABILITY OF VARIOUS

ACTIONS TO CONTROL THE DESIGN TO DETECT A POTENTIAL DESIGN

WEAKNESS.

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THE TYPICAL FAILURE MODES COULD BE:

CRACKED, DEFORMED, LOOSENED, LEAKING, STICKING, SHORT

CIRCUITED (ELECTRICAL), OXIDIZED, FRACTURED ETC.

 

THE FAILURE EFFECTS ARE:

NOISE, ERRATIC OPERATION, POOR APPEARANCE, UNSTABLE

INTERMITTENT OPERATION, ROUGH, INOPERATIVE, UNPLEASANT ODOR,

OPERATION IMPAIRED.

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THE CAUSES FOR FAILURE COULD BE:

INCORRECT MATERIAL SPECIFIED, INADEQUATE DESIGN LIFE

ASSUMPTION, OVERSTRESSING, INSUFFICIENT LUBRICATION CAPACITY,

INADEQUATE MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS, POOR ENVIRONMENTAL

PROTECTION ETC.

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THE FAILURE MECHANISMS MAY INCLUDE:

YIELD, FATIGUE, MATERIAL INSTABILITY, CREEP, WEAR, CORROSION

FROM THE THREE ASPECTS MENTIONED ABOVE, THE RISK PRIORITY

NUMBER (RPN) IS WORKED OUT

RPN – (S) X (O) X (D)

RPN IS A MEASURE OF DESIGN RISK.

RPN IS TO BE USED TO RANK ORDER THE CONCERNS IN DESIGN IN

PARETO FASHION. RPN LIES BETWEEN 1 TO 1000. FOR HIGHER R.P.N.

RE-DESIGN IS NECESSARY TO REDUCE DESIGN RISK. SPECIAL

ATTENTION IS TO BE GIVEN WHEN SEVERITY IS HIGH.

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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS-1

Q.1 FILL IN THE BLANKS:

1. THE MAIN RESPONSIBLE CAUSE COMMON IN ALL FAILURES IS _________

2. NEGATIVE PRODUCT EXPOSURE TO CUSTOMER CAN MEAN A FAR MORE CUSTOMER QUALITY PROBLEM IN TERMS OF LOSS OF

POTENTIAL MARKET DUE TO ________

3. ‘DEBUG’ INCLUDES HIGH FAILURE RATE AT THE INITIAL STAGES BECAUSE OF ___________

4. INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS AND EVIDENCES MUST BE DONE BY _________ HAVING PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE OF SUCH INVESTIGATIONS.

5. FMEA CONSIDERS THREE ASPECTS TO PREDICT FAILURE AND ITS SEVERITY

1. ____________ 2. _____________ 3. _____________

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LEADERSHIP:

LEADERSHIP IS STRONG INFLUENCE ON FOLLOWERS

LEADERSHIP IS VERY IMPORTANT IN ORGANIZATIONAL LIFE

LEADERSHIP IS A CRUCIAL FACTOR IN THE BALDRIGE

LEADERSHIP IS NATIONAL QUALITY AWARD

ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGES NEED INFLUENTIAL LEADERS TO CAUSE

FOLLOWERS TO CHANGE

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LEADERSHIP IS ASSOCIATED WITH THE DETERMINATION OF THE GOALS,

A VISION FOR THE FUTURE AND THE PROCESS OF CHANGE TO REACH

THE GOALS AND THE FUTURE. LEADERSHIP IS ABOUT HELPING PEOPLE

TO DO THINGS THEY WOULD NOT NORMALLY DO.

FORMAL LEADERSHIP:

DESIGNATION FROM THE ORGANIZATION

 

INFORMAL LEADERSHIP:

INFLUENCES GROUP MEMBERS EVEN WITHOUT ORGANIZATIONAL

DESIGNATION.

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ROLE OF LEADERSHIP:

• ESTABLISH AND SERVE ON QUALITY COUNCIL

• ESTABLISH QUALITY POLICIES

• ESTABLISH AND DEPLOY QUALITY GOALS

• PROVIDE THE RESOURCES

• PROVIDE PROBLEM – ORIENTED TRAINING

• STIMULATE IMPROVEMENT

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• SERVE ON TOP MANAGEMENT - QUALITY IMPROVEMENT TEAMS WHICH

ADDRESS CHRONIC PROBLEMS TOP MANAGEMENT NATURE

• PROVIDE FOR REWARD AND RECOGNITION

SPENDING TIME (@ 10%) ON THESE ISSUES PROVIDES EVIDENCE OF

LEADERSHIP THAT INSPIRES OTHER

VISIBLE QUALITY:

BOSS CENTERED OR AUTOCRATIC LEADER

SUBORDINATE CENTERED OR DEMOCRATIC LEADER

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LEADERSHIP CONTINUUM

BOSS CENTERED LEADERSHIP

SUBORDINATE CENTERED LEADERSHIP

USE OF AUTHORITY BY MANAGER

AREA OF FREEDOM FOR SUBORDINATES

MANAGER MAKES

DECISION AND

ANNOUNCES IT

MANAGER SELLS

DECISION

MANAGER PRESENTS IDEAS AND

INVITES QUESTIONS

MANAGER PRESENTS TENTATIVE DECISION

SUBJECT TO CHANGE

MANAGER PRESENTS

PROBLEM GETS SUGGESTIONS

MAKES DECISION

MANAGER DEFINES

LIMITS ASKS

GROUP TO MAKE

DECISION

MANAGER PERMITS

SUBORDINATES TO FUNCTION WITHIN LIMITS DEFINED BY SUPERIOR

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ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

CONSISTS OF THE KEY VALUES AND BELIEFS THAT ARE SHARED BY ORGANIZATIONAL MEMBERS. CULTURE MAY NOT BE READILY OBSERVABLE

OBSERVABLE PART OF CULTURE CONSISTS OF  

ARTIFACTS – SIGNS AND PRODUCTS OF CULTURE

SYMBOLS – ORGANIZATIONAL AWARDS

STORIES – EVENTS THAT CHARACTERIZE THE VALUES OF THE ORGANIZATION

HEROES – INDIVIDUALS WHO PERSONIFY CULTURE OF ORGANIZATION E.G. NARAYAN MUTHY, BILL GATES.

SLAGONS – SHORT SAYING THAT CAPTURE ORGANIZATIONAL VALUES

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TOYOTA CULTURE:

THE PATTERN OF BASIC ASSUMPTIONS THAT A GIVEN GROUP HAS

INVENTED, DISCOVERED OR DEVELOPED IN LEARNING TO COPE WITH ITS

PROBLEMS OF EXTERNAL ADAPTATION AND INTERNAL INTEGRATION

AND THAT HAVE WORKED WELL ENOUGH TO BE CONSIDERED VALID AND

THEREFORE TO BE TAUGHT TO NEW MEMBERS AS THE CORRECT WAY

TO PERSSIVE THINK AND FEEL IN RELATION TO THESE PROBLEMS.

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WHAT WE SEE: WHAT A NEWCOMER WOULD

NOTICE (e.g. DRESS, ORGANIZATIONAL CHARTS,

PHYSICAL LAYOUT, DRESS OF FORMALITY,

LOGOS, MISSION STATEMENT

NORMS & VALUES

UNDERLYING ASSUMPTIONS

WHAT THEY SAY: WHAT WE WOULD BE TOLD IS

THE REASON WHY THINGS ARE THE WAY THEY

ARE AND SHOULD BE. COMPANY PHILOSOPHY

NORMS AND JUSTIFICATIONS.

WHAT THEY DEEPLY BELIEVE AND ACT ON:

UNCONSCIOUS TAKEN FOR GRANTED BELIEFS

ABOUT THE ORGANIZATION AND ITS WORK /

PURPOSE, ABOUT PEOPLE, REWARDS AND

PUNISHMENT.

ARTIFACTS

&

BEHAVIOR

THREE LEVELS OF CULTURE

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MANAGING THE PROCESS OF CHANGE:

• ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE CAN TAKE PLACE AT THREE LEVELS:

• THE INDIVIDUAL

• THE GROUP

• THE ORGANIZATION

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INDIVIDUAL CHANGE IS THE BASIS FOR ALL CHANGE. THOSE

RESPONSIBLE FOR MANAGING CHANGE NEED TO INVOLVE PEOPLE, TO

DISCUSS AND FOSTER IDEAS 

AT MANAGEMENT LEVEL MDP (MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT

PROGRAMMES) ARE THE MAIN METHOD OF ENCOURAGING SUCH

CHANGE.

MDP FOCUS:

DEVELOP SKILLS MANAGERS NEED TO COPE WITH PRESENT JOBS.

DELEGATE POWER TO SUBORDINATES.

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CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT:

THOUGHT PROCESS, DECISION MAKING, SUGGESTIONS, INITIATIVE AND

COMMUNICATION / REPRESENTATION SKILLS OF SUBORDINATES WILL

IMPROVE.

ORGANIZATION CHANGE = ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

FIVE CHARACTERISTICS: PLANNED, ORGANIZATION – WIDE MANAGED

FROM THE TOP, ATTEMPTING TO INCREASE. THE ORGANIZATIONAL

EFFECTIVENESS, CHANGES IN STRUCTURE, ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESS

AND ATTITUDES

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RESISTANCE TO CHANGE:

PEOPLE DISLIKE CHANGE, AND WILL ATTEMPT TO AVOID IT.

THE REALITY IS THAT THE MAJORITY OF THE POPULATION OF THE

DEVELOPED WORLD HAS HAPPILY ADAPTED TO ENORMOUS CHANGES,

BOTH IN TECHNOLOGY AND THEIR WAY OF LIFE. HOWEVER, PEOPLE

DIFFER IN THEIR READINESS TO ACCEPT CHANGE. PEOPLE FALL INTO

FIVE DIFFERENT TYPES: INNOVATORS, EARLY ADOPTERS, MAJORITY

(EARLY), MAJORITY (LATE) AND LAGGARDS.

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• INNOVATORS ARE QUICK TO ADOPT NEW IDEAS AND TO CHANGE

ACCORDINGLY. THEY ARE ALSO RISK TAKERS, AS SOME OF THE

NEW IDEAS MAY PROVE TO BE MISTAKEN AND/OR DIFFICULT TO

ADAPT AND PUT INTO PLACE.

• EARLY ADOPTERS FOLLOW CLOSELY BEHIND THE INNOVATORS,

BUT ARE RATHER MORE RESPECTABLE AND TEND TO CONFORM

WITH SOCIETAL NORMS. THEY ARE NOT SEEN BY THE REST OF

SOCIETY TO BE AS NON-CONFORMIST AS THE INNOVATORS.

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• THE EARLY MAJORITY TAKE ON CHANGE ONCE IT HAS STARTED TO

BECOME ACCEPTED.

• THE MORE CONSERVATIVE LATE MAJORITY WAIT TO SEE ALL THE

EFFECTS BEFORE ADOPTING CHANGE.

• FINALLY, THE LAGGARDS ARE VERY SUSPICIOUS OF CHANGE AND

ARE SLOW TO ADAPT.

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THE OTHER MYTH IS THAT RESISTANCE TO CHANGE IS NECESSARILY A

BAD THING. THE EXISTENCE OF RESISTANCE MAY BE AN INDICATOR

THAT, FOR SOME REASON, A CLOSER LOOK IS NEEDED AT THE ROOT

CAUSES FOR THE RESISTANCE.

 

ANOTHER ISSUE IS WHERE TOP MANAGEMENT JOINING A COMPANY

INSTIGATE CHANGE FOR CHANGE’S SAKE IN ORDER TO MAKE THEIR

PERSONAL MARK ON THE ORGANIZATION.

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REASONS FOR RESISTANCE:

IF AN INDIVIDUAL’S JOB IS AT RISK OR HE OR SHE HAS WORRIES ABOUT

COPING WITH THE NEW CONCEPTS, PROCEDURES, SYSTEMS, SKILLS,

PRACTICES, ETC., RESISTANCE TO THE RELATED CHANGES IS NOT

SURPRISING. A GOOD EXAMPLE IS SPC. FEAR OF CHANGE IS OFTEN

ENHANCED BY THE SECRECY IN WHICH CHANGE PROGRAMMES ARE

PLANNED AND IMPLEMENTED. THIS FAILURE TO COMMUNICATE IS OFTEN

DUE TO MANAGEMENT’S FEARS THAT PEOPLE WILL FIND WAYS OF

BLOCKING THE CHANGES IF THEY ARE AWARE OF THEM IN ADVANCE.

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CHANGE WILL ALWAYS INVOLVE SOME EFFORT, AS NEW WAYS OF DOING

THINGS HAVE TO BE LEARNT, FEAR OF THE UNKNOWN WILL BE A MAJOR

FACTOR.

 

WHERE PROGRAMMES ARE CARRIED OUT BY OUTSIDE CONSULTANTS,

PERSONNEL MAY BE SUSPICIOUS OF OUTSIDERS AND ASK: ‘WHAT CAN

THEY TEACH US?’ OR ‘WHAT DO THEY KNOW ABOUT THE INDUSTRY?’

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OVERCOMING RESISTANCE TO CHANGE:

TO INVOLVE THOSE WHO WILL BE AFFECTED IN THE DECISION-MAKING

PROCESS. INDIVIDUALS WHO HAVE BEEN INVOLVED IN PLANNING,

DEVISING AND IMPLEMENTING CHANGE ARE FARE MORE LIKELY TO FEEL

POSITIVELY ABOUT IT.

WHEN MANAGING A PROCESS OF CHANGE THE HUMAN TRAIT OF PEOPLE

WANTING TO SUPPORT THEIR OWN IDEAS SHOULD NEVER BE

FORGOTTEN. NATURAL LEADERS WITHIN A BUSINESS CAN ALSO ASSIST

WITH BREAKING THROUGH RESISTANCE TO CHANGE.

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THE IDEAL SITUATION IS WHERE ALL THE NECESSARY INFORMATION IS

FREELY AVAILABLE AND DECISION ARE THEN TAKEN BY CONSENSUS.

MANAGING THE PROCESS OF CHANGE:

STEP1: ESTABLISH A NUMBER OF KEY CULTURAL PARAMETER TO

PROVIDE THE BASIS FOR A COMMON UNDERSTANDING THROUGHOUT

THE COMPANY AS TO THE STYLE OR WAY OF WORKING THE

ORGANIZATION IS SEEKING TO ENCOURAGE. THE PARAMETERS SHOULD

BE SELECTED WITH CONSIDERABLE CARE AND FORETHOUGHT, AND

MUST BE APPLICABLE TO ALL LEVELS OF THE ORGANIZATION. THEY

SHOULD HIGHLIGHT FUNDAMENTAL AS OPPOSED TO SUPERFICIAL

ASPECTS OF MANAGEMENT STYLE.

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STEP2: DEVISE A MEANS OF MEASURING THE PARAMETERS AND ASSESS

THE CURRENT POSITION AGAINST THE PARAMETERS. RELATE THE

EXTENT OF THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF THE KEY BEHAVIOUR

PARAMETERS IDENTIFIED TO THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE

ORGANIZATION AND / OR INDIVIDUAL DEPARTMENTS. THE CONNECTION

BETWEEN ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS AND CORPORATE

CULTURE WOULD STRONGLY SUPPORT THE EFFORTS TO BRING ABOUT

CULTURAL CHANGE. IDENTIFY A DESIRABLE FUTURE SITUATION.

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STEP3: DEVELOP AN ACTION PLAN WHICH WILL ADDRESS THE

WEAKNESSES AND ACHIEVE THE TRANSITION. THIS COULD BE DONE

AWAY FORM THE WORKPLACE, IN A TRADITIONAL TRAINING FORUM, OR

AT THE WORKPLACE BY MEANS OF FACILITATIVE SUPPORT.

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TEAM BUILDING

THE DEVELOPMENT OF PEOPLE AND THEIR INVOLVEMENT IN

IMPROVEMENT ACTIVITIES IS A KEY FEATURE OF TQM. QUALITY CIRCLES

AND QUALITY IMPROVEMENT TEAMS ARE THE MOST FAMILIAR

EXAMPLES, MEMBERS OF ONE FUNCTIONAL AREA CROSS-FUNCTIONAL.

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THE EFFECTIVE SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS FACILITATES THE PROCESS OF

TEAM BUILDING AND THIS, ALONG WITH IMPROVED COMMUNICATION

AND UNDERSTANDING AND PEOPLE INVOLVEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT,

IS OFTEN MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE RESULT. TEAM BUILDING IS A

PRIMARY BUILDING BLOCK IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF TQM, AND SHOULD

BE ENCOURAGED WITHIN ANY ORGANIZATION. THE JAPANESE ARE MUCH

MORE COMFORTABLE WITH THE USE OF TAMS AS PART OF THEIR

QUALITY.

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QUALITY CIRCLES

QUALITY CIRCLES ARE A MEANS OF PROVIDING EMPLOYEES WITH THE

OPPORTUNITY TO SOLVE PROBLEMS, AND IMPLEMENT MONITOR THEIR

SOLUTIONS. 

QUALITY CIRCLES APPEAR TO WORK BECAUSE OF THREE MAIN FACTORS:

1. MEMBERS LIKE TALKING ABOUT THEIR WORK:

2. MEMBERS ARE INTERESTED IN THEIR WORK AND WANT TO

CONTRIBUTE; AND

3. MEMBERS WELCOME THE OPPORTUNITY TO IDENTIFY AND

SOLVE, USING THEIR SKILLS AND EXPERIENCE, THE PROBLEMS THEY

HAVE TO LIVE WITH AND NOBODY SEEMS TO CARE ABOUT.

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TEAM-BUILDING METHODS:

• THE TYPE OF TEAM;

• THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE TEAM;

• THE OBJECTIVES OF THE TEAM;

• HOW LONG THE TEAM HAS BEEN IN OPERATION;

• THE SITUATION

• THE PROJECTS TO BE TACKLED;

• WHETHER A CONSULTANT / FACILITATOR IS TO BE USED;

• THE SKILLS AND PREFERENCES OF THE CONSULTANT / FACILITATOR; AND

• THE ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT HOW CHANGE TAKES PLACE

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ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT SITUATIONAL DETERMINANTS WILL BE

THE ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE.

 

• THERE ARE A NUMBER OF TYPES OF TEAMS, EACH WITH

DIFFERENT OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS, WHICH CAN BE

EMPLOYED IN QUALITY-IMPROVEMENT ACTIVITIES – SOME TEAMS

ARE DRAWN FROM ONE FUNCTIONAL AREA AND HAVE A NARROW

FOCUS, OTHERS ARE WIDER AND TEND TO BE CROSS-

FUNCTIONAL.

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• QUALITY CIRCLES HAVE A SPECIAL CHARACTER QUITE DIFFERENT

FROM OTHER METHODS OF GROUP WORKING OR PROBLEM-

SOLVING.

• SUPERIOR-PERFORMING COMPANIES OPERATE A VARIETY OF

TEAMS TO FACILITATE THEIR CONTINUOUS QUALITY-

IMPROVEMENT EFFORTS.

• TEAM BUILDING IS A PRIMARY BUILDING BLOCK IN TQM

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• TEAM BUILDING INCLUDES BUILDING MUTUAL TRUST, DEVELOPING

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS AND ADAPTING TO PEOPLE’S NEEDS.

• A VARIETY OF APPROACHES ARE USED IN TEAM BUILDING:

T-GROUPS, ROLE NEGOTIATION, STRUCTURED APPROACH, TEAM

DEVELOPMENT PACKAGES AND TEAM INTERACTION ANALYSIS.

• FOR A TEAM TO FUNCTION EFFECTIVELY A NUMBER OF ROLES

MUST BE REPRESENTED, FOR EXAMPLE TASK LEADERS,

SOCIAL-EMOTIONAL SPECIALISTS, LOGICAL THINKERS AND

STRONG FIGHTERS.

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