RELIGION AND CULTURE IN INTERIOR DESIGNING33

A SEMINAR REPORT ONRELIGION AND CULTURE IN INTERIOR DESIGNING Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of degree ofMASTER OF SCIENCEINRESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND DESIGN APPLICATION

DEPARTMENT OF RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND DESIGN APPLICATION

SUBMITTED BY: HARSHITA SAINI

INDEX1. INTRODUCTION ..3-42. HINDU ARCHITECTURE 5-163. INFLUENCE OF SIKHISM ON ARCHITECTURE.17-214. BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE.22-275. MUSLIM ARCHITECTURE.28-326. CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE...33-387. CONCLUSION .39

INTRODUCTION One of the most enduring achievements of Indian civilization is undoubtedly its architecture. Indian architecture, which has evolved through centuries, is the result of socio-economic and geographical conditions. Different types of Indian architectural styles include a mass of expressions over space and time, transformed by the forces of history considered unique to India. As a result of vast diversities, a vast range of architectural specimens have evolved, retaining a certain amount of continuity across history.Culture is at the heart of interior design education and practice. Used broadly to describe a way of life, the notion of culture is often tied to different languages, foods, dress codes, religions, traditions and rituals, as well as interior environments that support diverse ways of living. The interior space of a home or building forms the setting for many human experiences. The design of an interior relies heavily on how the space is intended to be used; some prefer to design specifically around functionality and only have what is needed in the space, and others prefer to lavishly decorate with beautiful furniture and adornments. Individual needs play a large part in the design of an interior, such as a handicap, the number of people in a family, or the need for a specific piece of furniture such as a large table or a bed. However, another factor that influences the design of interior spaces that is often overlooked is religion. Individuals have an historical tendency to shape their interior spaces according to religious or spiritual beliefs, which is still seen in some cultures today. This may include, but is not necessarily limited to, the interior design of churches or temples and the subsequent mimicking of such designs in private residences, the incorporation of religious figures and iconography in art, paintings, and frescoes, and the design of interior spaces around religious items such as shrines or even statues. (Berger, 2013)In India there was a great rise in Buddhist architecture (300 B.C onwards) due to the influence of Buddhism where we come across the great stupas, viharas, the influence of Islam was also great in Indian architecture during the regime of Mughals. In Islamic architecture (700 A.D onwards) we see mainly tombs, mosques, madras, palaces etc. pointed arches are commonly used in the style. Hindu architecture (600 A.D onwards) which is defined to the construction of temple with numerous mouldings carvings, relief work based on Indian mythology.There was a spread of Christianity in India under the rain of Britishers who ruled India. Gothic style was prevalent where we mainly see pointed arches used in construction of churches and pointed churches over lofty church was held in position buttresses. The wall was no longer required to support the structure so they were replaced by huge windows. Filled with stained glass. (Hiraskar, 1991)

HINDU ARCHITECTUREThe Hindu religion has evolved due to the combination of faiths of Aryans and Dravidians. The Aryan principles are given in 'Rig-Veda' (collection of 1028 hymns in praise of Devas to seek their blessings) and composed in 1506 800 B.C. There are also Sam-Veda (chants); Yajur-Veda (prayers) and Atharv-Veda (magic formulae). From the-dogmatic side, Hindus believe in 'Karma' and 'Re-birth'. On the moral side it is characterised by `Dharma' religion. For self-realisation there are Thakti-marga' the path of devotion. `Gyan-Marga' or path of knowledge and `Karma-marga' or path of action. Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh are the great Triad of Hindu worship. Brahma is the soul and creator of the Universe, God Vishnu is the preserver and God Mahesh, Siva, Shankar and known by numerous names is the destroyer. For all religious rites the Brahman priest hood was required who had alone the authority to perform. In the early period of Hinduism the Brahman priesthood was powerful and invested with unlimited authority and equipped with all the learning of the age. This period was known as Bhahmanical period and the abuse, of their powers invited the challenge of Bhuddists and him. This is sub-divided into the following three styles:I. Northern Hindu Style (A.D. 600 to the present day)II. Central Hindu Style (AD. 450-750 and 1000-1325) to the present day)III. South Hindu Style (A.D. 625-1750 to the present day).

I. NORTHERN HINDU STYLE OR INDO-ARYAN STYLEThis style had spread over at least three fourth part of northern India. The earliest movement started in the state of Orissa, the land of the Oriyas, its ancient name is Kalinga. It offered strong resistance to Mauryas but finally subdued to Ashoka in 260 B.C. After Ashoka's death Kalinga regained its independence and later became more powerful under Kharavela. In A.D. 610 it was under king Sasanka but after his death Harsha conquered Orissa.The beginning of this Orissa group is seen at Bhubaneswar where there are about a temples. Most improtant are the temple of Jaganath at Puri (1000 A.D.) built by Mahasivagupta Yayati II and Sun Temple at Konark (1250 A.D.) built by Narasinha I.The other groups are confined to some area such as at Khajuraho all of which were built in a period of hundred years from A.D. 950 to 1050 under Chandella Rajas of Bundelkhand. The largest of entire series is Shiva Temple of Kandariya Mahadev (1000 A.D.). Further the Northern Hindu Style was extended to Rajputana, Gujarat and Deccan. (Triwedi, 1993)CHARACTERISTICS The typical plan of the temple is square most basic, rational and elementary of all geometric forms. The temple rests on high platform called `pista'. The temple is approached by an assembly hall, known as Jaga-mohan-one which pleases the world (also called as Rekha Deul because of emphasis on vertical lines), where the deity is placed. It is this garbh-griha over which rises the spire or sikhra (Urusringa). The Hidus regarded the temple as the body of Cosmic Man (Purusha). So the lower upright part of the main Deul is known as bada (feet) and the upper tapering part is known as chhapra (trunk). Over the chhapra, is a large melon shaped feature called amalaka (cap stone) crowned with kalasa (head)called Amrit-kalasa, symboling the Jar of Nectar. Similarly the jaga-mohan has the lower upright partthe bada and upper tapering part pida which is crowned with Ghanta-kalasa.The other feature of this temple is that the pillars are notable for their absence. The interior is plain, featureless but exterior walls are profusely ornamented, Due to the religious ritual developments other buildings were added in front, in one axial line, such as Bhog-Mandir i.e. offering hall in the front, and followed by `Nat-Mandir' or 'Dancing Hall' e.g. The Sun Temple at Konark, Jagannath Temple at Puri, Temple of Vital, Bharateswar temple Ling raja temple, Mukteswar temple at Bhubaneswar. (Hiraskar, 1991)

CASE STUDY I: - KONARK SUN TEMPLEKonark Sun Temple is a 13th century Sun Temple (also known as the Black Pagoda), at Konark, in Orissa. It was constructed from oxidized and weathered ferruginous sandstone by King Narasimhadeva I (1238-1250 CE) of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty. The temple is an example of Orissan architecture of Ganga dynasty. The temple is one of the most renowned temples in India and is a World Heritage Site. Legend has it that the temple was constructed by Samba, the son of Lord Krishna. It is said that Samba was afflicted by leprosy, brought about by his fathers curse on him. After 12 years of penance, he was cured by Surya, the Sun God, in whose honour he built the magnificent Konark Sun Temple.EtymologyThe name Konark is derived from the Sanskrit word Kona (meaning angle) and word Arka (meaning sun) in reference to the temple which was dedicated to the Sun God Surya.ArchitectureLocated on the shoreline, now a little over 3 km from the sea, the temple takes the form of the chariot of Surya (Arka), the Sun God, and is heavily decorated with stone carving. The entire complex was designed in the form of the God's huge chariot drawn by seven spirited horses on twelve pairs of exquisitely decorated wheels at its base. The huge wheels carved at the base of the temple are one of the major attractions. The spokes of the wheels serve as sundials and the shadows cast by these can give the precise time of the day. The pyramidal roof soars over 30 m (98 ft.) in height. The temple complex also contains erotic sculptures similar to the temple in Khajuraho.The entrance is guarded by two giant lions, which are each shown crushing a war elephant. Each elephant in turn lies on top of a human body. The temple symbolizes the majestic stride of the Sun God. At the entrance of the temple is a Nata Mandir. This is where the temple dancers used to perform dances in homage to the Sun God. All around the temple, there are various floral and geometric patterns. The temple is now partly in ruins, and a collection of its sculptures is housed in the Sun Temple Museum, which is run by the Archaeological Survey of India. The poet Rabindranath Tagore wrote of Konark: "Here the language of stone surpasses the language of man."The Sun Temple, built in the thirteenth century, was conceived as a gigantic chariot of the Sun God, with twelve pairs of exquisitely ornamented wheels pulled by seven horses. Majestic in conception, this temple is one of the most sublime monuments of India, famous as much for its imposing dimensions and faultless proportions as for the harmonious integration of architectural grandeur with plastic allegiance. Every inch of the temple is covered with sculpture of an unsurpassed beauty and grace, in tableaux and freestanding pieces ranging from the monumental to the miniature.The subject matter is fascinating. Thousands of images include deities, celestial and human musicians, dancers, lovers, and myriad scenes of courtly life, ranging from hunts and military battles to the pleasures of courtly relaxation. These are interspersed with birds, animals (close to two thousand charming and lively elephants march around the base of the main temple alone), mythological creatures, and a wealth of intricate botanical and geometrical decorative designs. The famous jewel-like quality of Orissan art is evident throughout, as is a very human perspective which makes the sculpture extremely accessible.The temple is famous for its erotic sculptures, which can be found primarily on the second level of the porch structure. It will become immediately apparent upon viewing them that the frank nature of their content is combined with an overwhelming tenderness and lyrical movement. This same kindly and indulgent view of life extends to almost all the other sculptures at Konark, where the thousands of human, animal, and divine personages are shown engaged in the full range of the 'carnival of life' with an overwhelming sense of appealing realism. It is admittedly the best in Orissa. Its fine traceries and scrollwork, as well as the beautiful and natural cut of animal and human figures, give it superiority over other temples.The Sun temple belongs to the Kalinga school of Indian temple architecture. The Main Sanctum which (229 ft. high) was constructed along with the Audience Hall (128 ft. high) having elaborate external projections. The Main Sanctum which enshrined the presiding deity has fallen off. The Audience Hall survives in its entirety, but only small portions of the Dancing Hall (Nata Mandir) and the Dining Hall (Bhoga Mandap) have survived the vagaries of time. The Temple compound measures 857 ft. (261 m) by 540 ft. (160 m). The alignment of the Sun Temple is on the East-West direction. The Temple is located in natural surroundings, abounding with casuarina plantations and other types of trees such as mahogany, rosewood, eel which grow on sandy soil. (Kak, 2005)

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Figure2: Retrieved from data: image/jpeg; base64II. CENTRAL HINDU STYLEThe architecture falls into two distinct types:- Rock-cut StructuralRock-cut Architecture at BadamiThe Chalukyan capital city Badami was protected by a fort wall surrounded by a moat. The superfluous water of Agastytirtha' was a sporting place for the royal families. Badami was also a religious centre. Goddess Banashankari' (the deity of vegetation) was the presiding deity. A festival is held annually in her honour on the full moon day in the month of Paushya i.e. Jan/Feb.But what is most interesting thing from architectural point of view is a series of four cave temples hewn from top to bottom in the scrap of a southern hill called Ranmandal (Fort of battlefield). These are Brahminical in nature, one shaivite, two Vishnavites, and the fourth belongs to Jaina. The rock-cut images in all the caves are of large proportions. Richly decorated plinths, stone pillars with bracket figures, exquisite sculptures full of grace, vigour and life, and scenes based on mythological stories are the characteristics of the rock-cut architecture.Structural ArchitectureIn addition to the rock-cut cave temples, the Badami Chalukyans also built several structural temples along the edge of the lake and hill tops. It was at Aihole and Pattadkal that experimentation in temple building conducted from 450 A.D. to 650 A.D. gave birth to the Hindu temple and evolved its various architectural components and features. At Aihole alone are about seventy exquisite stone temples over a few km sq. area. This was an important phase in the evolution of Hindu temples.The early Chalukyans combined some features of -contemporary north and south Indian style of construction i.e. Nagar and Dravidian respectively to create their own style of construction, which is characterised by high platform, pithas Ornate door frames, plinth moulding, vestibule a projected roof over the ardh-mantapa and the octagonal sikhara over Girbha Griha. (Singh, 2013)

CASE STUDYII: - KAILASA TEMPLEThe Kailasa Temple, Ellora (750-950A.D.). The Kailas Shiva's Paradise was executed under the patronage of a powerful ruler Krishna I (757-783 A.D.) of Rashtrakuta dynasty of Malkhed. It is planned in ascending heights giving the shape of a mountain, the traditional abode of Siva. The temple stands freely within the excavated basin in the mountain side. The island measures about 60 m long 30 m wide and rises to about 31 m high. The main body of the temple measures 46 m x 30 m long and stands on a lofty plinth 8 m high with an entrance from west. The substructure is heavily moulded at top and bottom but the middle portion and the corners are provided by a splendid frieze of boldly carved elephants and lions. The temple is approached by high flight of steps leading to the mantapa. The cornice, pilasters, niches, and portions of the mantapa are marvellously designed.There are five shrines and the stately tower over the main cella rises to a height of 31 m in three tiers. The cells with the image of god in the form of a lingam is well proportioned measuring 21 m x 19 with sixteen square pillars in a group of four.The pillars are massive. The shaft for half its length, is plain square prism, while the upper portion is round and fluted. The elaborate capital consists of compressed 'cushion' form like that of rock cut temples -of Elephanta.In front is a Nandi shrine with a pavilion 6 m x 6 m built detached from the main structure but connected to it by a bridge. On either side of it there are two free standing pillars knows as Dhwaja stambas15 m high crowned with trident i.e. trishul or emblem of Shiva to whom the 'Kailas' dedicated. These are similar to the obelisks of Egyptian temples.This structural temple is reproduced in the rock based on large scale with full details. It was cut from the top to downwards and the entire surface was covered with white gesso so that it coo shine brilliantly like the snow clad peak of the Mount-Kailas in the Himalayas. As a monument bail on profound skill, imagination, and religious consciousness, it has no peer in rock architecture. (Hiraskar, 1991)

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III. THE SOUTH HINDU OR DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE (600 A.D.).The south India was little affected by outside invasion. It enjoyed full freedom. Hence Dravidian architecture developed into its own form and tradition.The south Indian style is mainly confined to the construction of temples which is itself a saga in architecture. The Hindus considered the temple as a microcosm of the cosmic Man (Purusha) so it has pada (feet), lower legs (Jangha), waist (Kati), and sikhara (head), the topmost member and the tower being composed of gradually diminishing storeys (talas). In all the Dravidian temples one finds the God to whom the temple is dedicated.CHARACTERISTICS The early Dravidian temple consists of `garbha-griha' (womb-house) with a mandapa or the open porch. The shrine containing the garbha-griha is crowned with steeply tapering `sikhara' formed by a horizontal system of storeyed towers, each storey ornamented with cells. The mandapa is provided with flatter pyramidal covering. They mainly adopted the trabeated system of construction. The arch is deliberately omitted since the arch never sleeps. A simple but poetic excuse accepted by the Hindu builders to avoid the use of arch. No Mortar was also used there being practically no inclined pressure acting between the courses of masonry.The temple has an ambulatory consisting of an enclosed corridor around the outside of the garbha-griha. Later on, the temples were added with many pillared mantapa, so called Thousand Pillared Mantapa for special rituals, dramatic performance, music and dance recitals in honour of the deity. Further the temples were expanded with courtyards called prakaras' enclosing tall gate-ways or `Gopurams' which in due course increased in number. Besides these temples, tanks wells or pushkarinis were constructed. Water was used for religious rituals or drinking purposes by the pilgrims. Dwellings for various grades of priests were provided in the courtyard. Temples were built on the top of hills so as to guide the pilgrim to the temples from miles away. They were also situated amidst beautiful surroundings.Temples were not only places of worship but also centres of learning. Along with elaborate religious rituals, festivals `Saptas' of Hari-Katha, performances of dances, dramas based on religious theme were continued.Dravidians being fine craftsmen; temples were designed most elegantly with great interest to display ornamentation and fine art that covered every part of the temple. In Dravidian art, it is not the engineering skill but sculptors skill that is most important. (Appadurai, 1976)

CASE STUDYIII: - TIRUPATI BALAJI TEMPLEThe Tirupati Temple is the most famous pilgrim centre and held in much reverence to the ardent devotees. The temple is at the top of the sacred hill Venkatadri containing seven peaks which are said to represent the seven hoods of Adi-sesha-the divine serpent of Lord Vishnu. In the middle of its body the shrine of Ahobilam is located while at its end or tail, lies the shrine of Sri-Sailam.The temple usually connects both the town Tirupati at the foot of the seven hills and the pilgrim centre called Tirumalai. The Lower Tirupati is about 10 kms from Renigunta. It is one hour journey by bus along the ghat roads. But many religious-minded pilgrims go to the top of the hills mostly walking by the ancient path way about 11 kms long. Old people are usually carried on men's shoulders on small Dholies. There are many mantapas on the way to the hill affording shelters to the pilgrims. The main temple on hill top is based on Dravidian architecture. The temple has three prakarams or stone enclosures, with a gopuram, the main tower facing the east. The temple is approached by a long dark colonnaded corridor and at end lies the garbha-griha containing the deity Srinivasa Swami, also known as Venkatachalapati, Seshachalapati or Balaji. The doors of the gate leading to the garbha-griha are covered with gold plate and so therefore knows as Bangaru Vakili i.e. golden gate. The Vimana over the sanctum is also covered with gold plate, and is called "Ananda Nilayam""Abode of Joy". The main deity is Vishnu in the standing posture. The pilgrims offer very large contribution in the form of ornaments, jewels, coins, currency notes.It is said that this temple was built at the beginning of `Kali-Yuga' or about 5000 years ago and the king Parikshit and his son Janamejaya of Mahabharata are said to have taken part in the construction of the prakarams or stone enclosures. The Chola kings are said to have added and restored the temple from time to time. Every day, religious rituals or poojas are carried out in the temple, starting with `Suprabhatam' in the morning till Ekanta Seva in the night. Everyday neivedyam is distributed free to the pilgrims, along with the prasadams in the form of sandal-wood paste and refined camphor powder `Sreepadarenu'.Adjacent to the temple, there is a sacred tank-Swami Pushkarani where the pilgrims take the holy bath before going to the temple. There are eleven waterfalls but the well-known are the 'Mush Ganga' and 'Papa Vinasanam' about 3 to 5 kms to the north of the temple.In the Lower Tirupati there are other ancient temples, the most important one is the spacious temple of Govindaraja Swami of Chola type with a lofty gopuram over the entrance.At Tiruchanur, about 5 km from Lower Tirupati, there is a temple of Goddess Sri Padmavati, the consort of Venkateswar.From the large income of the Tirumalai temple, the Devasthanam maintains many educational charitable and social welfare institutions Shri Venkateshwar University at Tirupati was founded in 1954. Today Tirupati has become not only a sacred place of Pilgrimage but also the well-known centre of learning. (Hiraskar, 1991)

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INFLUENCE OF SIKHISM ON ARCHITECTURECASE STUDY IV: - GOLDEN TEMPLE The study of the art and architecture of the Golden Temple has, unfortunately, remained a subject of unconcern for art historians and critics. According to the official list of buildings of interest, published by the Punjab Government in 1875, the design of the temple, as reconstructed by Ranjit Singh, was borrowed from the shrine of Saint Mian Mir, near Lahore. Louis Rousselet, writing in 1882, regarded it as a "handsome style of architecture". Major Cole described it as an adaptation of Mohammadan styles, flavoured with a good deal of Hindu tradition. Percy Brown considered it to be a product of the synthesis of Hindu and Muslim influences, combined with elaborations that imparted it an appearance of its own. In the opinion of Hermann Goetz, Kangra transformation of Oudh architecture was taken over by the Sikhs and evolved into that wonderful, though occasionally gaudy, Indian 'rococo' art often seen in the gurudwaras of Punjab. The architectural prototype of the Golden Temple came into being as an idea combining the dharamshala and the tank envisaged by Guru Arjan, the son and successor of Guru Ram Das. Instead of building the temple on a high plinth in the Hindu style, Guru Arjan had it built in a depression so that worshippers had to go down the steps in order to enter it. Also it had four entrances, symbolic of the new faith which made no distinction between the four Hindu castes. Although there is no written record or contemporary sketch giving the concept of the prototype, it appears to have been, more or less, similar to the present structure dating from 1764, with the greater part of its decoration added in the early years of the nineteenth century. The year 1764 has been ascribed by H. H. Cole in his monograph on the temple .published in 1884. However, in Tawarikh Sri Amritsar, published in 1889, Giani Gian Singh states that the tank, the Hari Mandir, the causeway and Darshani Deorhi were completed in 1776. The main structure rises from the centre of the sacred pool, 150 metres square, approached by a causeway about 60 metres long. An archway on the western side of the pool opens on to the causeway, bordered with balustrades of fretted marble, and, at close intervals, there are standard lamps, their great lanterns set upon marble columns. The 52-metre square-based Hari Mandir, to which the causeway leads, stands on a 20-metre square platform. Its lower parts are of white marble, but the upper parts are covered with plates of gilded copper. In the interior, on the ground floor, is the Guru Granth Sahib, placed under a gorgeous canopy, studded with jewels. On the second storey is a pavilion known as Shish Mahal or Mirror Room, so designed as to have a square opening in the centre to view from there the ground floor, with the further provision of a narrow circumambulatory around the square opening. The interior of the Shish Mahal is ornamented with small pieces of mirror, of various sizes and shapes, skilfully inlaid in the ceiling, and walls richly embellished with designs, mostly floral in character. Further above the Shish Mahal is again a small square pavilion, considerably small both at its base as well as in its elevation, surmounted by a low fluted golden dome, lined at its base with a number of smaller domes. The walls of the two lower storeys, forming parapets, terminate with several rounded pinnacles. There are four chhatris or kiosks at the corners. The combination of several dozens of large, medium and miniature domes of gilded copper create a unique and dazzling effect, enhanced by the reflection in the water below. The typical art and architectural features of the Golden Temple can be summed up as:-1. Multiplicity of chhatris which ornament the parapets, angles at every prominence or projection2. The invariable use of fluted domes covered with gilded copper3. Balconised windows thrown out on carved brackets or bay-windows with shallow elliptical cornices; and 4. Enrichment of walls, arches and ceilings by various forms of mural art. Maharaja Ranjit Singh repaired the principal building in 1802 A.D. This act is commemorated by an inscription over the entrance to the central shrine, which reads: The Great Guru in His wisdom looked upon Maharaja Ranjit Singh as his chief servitor and Sikh, and, in His benevolence, bestowed on him the privilege of serving the temple. To roof the temple with sheets of gilded copper, he donated Rs. 500,000 and the work was executed by Mistri Yar Mohammad Khan, under the supervision of Bhai Sand Singh. The first plate on the temple was fixed in 1803 A.D. The personages who donated for the embellishment of the ceiling on the ground floor included Tara Singh Gheba, Pratap Singh, Jodh Singh and Ganda Singh Peshawari, the last of whom made his contribution in 1823 A.D. The archway under the Darshani Deorhi was embellished with sheets of gilded copper by Sangat Singh, the Raja of Jind. Being the central shrine of the Sikhs, almost every sardar of any pretension contributed to its architectural and decorative additions from time to time. That is why it is not feasible, except for a few date-inscribed works, to make a chronological account of the decorations, murals or other work, in the Golden Temple. The decorations which fall strictly in the category of mural painting are floral patterns interspersed with animal motifs. There are about 300 different patterns on the walls, which, from a distance, look like hung Persian carpets. The naqqashes, or painters, of these patterns had developed a terminology of their own to distinguish various designs. Among these the most prominent is known by the name of Dehin: a medium of expression of the imaginative study of the artist's own creation of idealised forms. Gharwanjh is the base of Dehin. This is also a decorative device involving knotted grapples between animals. In the Golden Temple are seen Ghawanj showing cobras, lions and elephants clutching one another, carrying flower vases in which fruits and fairies have been depicted. Patta is a decorative border design used around the Dehin and often depicted through creepers. There are also compositions based on aquatic creatures. The only mural depicting human figures is to be seen on the wall behind the northern narrow stairway leading to the top of the shrine, representing Guru Gobind Singh on horseback. According to the late Bhai Gian Singh Naqqash, it was painted by a Kangra artist specially commissioned by Ranjit Singh for this purpose. It is said to be a true copy of a miniature painting that originally was in the collection of Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra, which Ranjit Singh had intended to get copied in the form of a mural in the Golden Temple. Since the artist of the miniature in question had already died, the mural was executed by the painter's grandson. The name of the painter, however, is not known. Paintings depicting mythological scenes referred to by H. H. Cole have entirely disappeared. Writing in 1878, W. Wakefield referred to erotic frescoes that covered the walls of the Golden Temple. However, in the absence of any other corroborative observation, his statement is of dubious value. In addition to the work that falls strictly under the category of mural painting, a great volume of similar work in allied arts, loosely coming in the range of mural arts, has been done in the Golden Temple from time to time. This includes the work in embossed copper, gach, tukri, jaratkari and ivory inlay. Most of the exterior upper portions of the walls of the Golden Temple are covered with beaten copper plates, heavily gilded. The raised decorations are mainly floral and abstract, but there are some panels representing the human figure. On the front side, for instance, are two embossed copper panels, the lower representing Guru Nanak flanked by Bala and Mardana, and the upper representing Guru Gobind Singh on horseback. Gach, a sort of stone or gypsum, was treated to form a paste and was applied on the wall like lime. Then it was fashioned out in designs with steel cutters and other implements. Gach work inlaid with coloured glass was known as tukri work and is to be seen in the second storey of the Shish Mahal. Jaratkari work involved the inlaying of coloured cut-stones in marble and is to be found on the lower portion of the exterior walls of the temple. In fact, the work is pietredure and the inlay consists of semi-precious stones, such as lapis lazuli and onyx. The designs are Mughal in spirit, but the introduction of human figures, never shown in true Mughal decorations, reveals their Sikh origin. The ivory inlay work is to be seen only on the doors of the Darshani Deorhi. The gate is made of shisham wood, the front overlaid with silver, the back inlaid with ivory. The silver-plated front is ornamented only with panels. At the back are square and rectangular panels with geometrical and floral designs, in which are introduced birds, lions, tigers and deer. Some of the ivory inlay is coloured green and red, the effect being, in the words of H. H. Cole, "extremely harmonious." Most of the painters and craftsmen, who worked in various branches of mural arts and its appurtenances in the Golden Temple, remained unknown. Therefore, barring a very few works, it is almost impossible, in the present state of our knowledge, to attribute them to particular painters and craftsmen. The late Bhai Hari Singh, himself an artist, prepared a list consisting of twenty names of painters and craftsmen who worked in the Golden Temple. A good deal of the old work, particularly mural in character, has disappeared from the precincts of the Golden Temple. Initially, the disappearance of murals started at the close of the nineteenth century, when devotees were permitted to present contributions in the form of inlaid marble slabs, which were fixed on the walls painted with frescoes. The old Bungas of the Golden Temple, which have been demolished, were repositories of splendid paintings. Inside the main Darshani Deorhi, where marble slabs have been fixed, there were fine paintings by Mahant Ishar Singh. Efforts have also been made to renovate the decaying paintings in the, temple proper. But there appears not much reason to regret the loss, because, in the words of Michael Edwardes, the Golden Temple "is a symbol, glowing in richness and colour. That richness has, over the years, been constantly renewed, not always perhaps in the best of taste. But the Hari Mandir is not a museum. On the contrary, it is a shrine, part of the essential machinery of a living faith."

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BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE (300 B.C.-820 A.D.).Buddhist. Siddhartha also known as Gautam, his surname, son of king Sakya the founder of Buddhism, was born in 563 B.C. (in Lumbini) at Kapilavastu, a city on the borders of Nepal. He came from kingly family belonging to Kshatriya caste. His 29th year brought on a revolution in his view of life. He came in his life, the sight of Death, a dead body being carried on the soulders of men, chorusing a mournful chant. It was one of the four pictures of life's grim realities which made prince Gautam to give up his kingdom and find through- metaphysical search the path of Deliverance, Moksha-Marga from pang of birth, sickness, decrepit and fear from death. Finally in 531 aligned-Enlightenment (Samma Sambuddha) by meditating under Bodhi (Peepal) Tree at Gaya. He then came to be known as the Buddha or the enlightened one. He then went to Sarnath and there in Deer Park preached the Law for the first time. His religion teaches against animal sacrifice, to observe oneness, humanity, the deliverance from sorrow and all trouble and from ignorance through enlightenment to the ultimate 'Nirvana'. According to his doctrine, salvation emancipation from the cycle of rebirth i.e. Nirvana can be attained by individual by a path of self-purification, with no regard to caste, creed and not depend on Brahmanical intercession. He attained Nirvana in about 483 B.C. at Kusinagara (U.P.). There are three kinds of objects worthy of veneration in Buddhist religion. 1. Sarika:- the physical remains like hair, nails, bone2. Paribhogika: - like begging bowl, robes, and vessels. 3. Uddesika:-symbols like Tri-Ratna, Stupa, and Chakra etc. The religion is divided into two broad schools, the Hiniyana (Small Vehicle) and the Mahayana, (Large Vehicle) the former maintains the original teachings and the latter considers Buddha as eternal and supreme deity who was represented in sculpture in human form. Buddhism declined in India in 7th century but was carried over to Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Burma, Kampuchea, Java and Far East.

CHARACTERISTICS The major features of this style are stupas, or topes, stambhas or lats, chaitayas, viharas or monasteries. Though primitive Buddhism rejected any form of image worship, they represented Buddha by means of symbols like stupa, bodhitree indicating Enlightenment, Wheel of Law, as first sermon as well as corporeal vehicle of Buddha, and his footprints. Other sculptural works include, jataka tales, serpents, yakshas, and yakshis. Sometimes, female figures were also used on the bracket capitals, and pillars. This style spread in N. Indian, Sri Lanka, China, Japan, Germany etc.I. STUPAS (OR TOPES)The construction of stupa is a meritorious work as the monument propagates the 'Doctrine'. These stupas are the circular tumuli built of earth, covered with stone or brick the plan, elevation, section-and the total form of which were all derived from circle-the embryo of the most powerful architectural form of Buddhism. They have been called in Prakrit word `stupa', and were erected over the sacred relics of the monks and worshipped with great reverence. They are therefore also known as 'Relic-shrines'.All the Aryan poetry first found expressed in Vedic hymns is seen to have composed on the constructive elements of the stupa. The stupa more than the funeral mound was planned like a Vedic Village, on the lines of divine order. The spherical dome symbolized the infinite space of the sky, abode of God.)Dome is also called `Anda:' or 'Egg' or Womb (Garbha) as it contains the seed or 'bija' namely the relic of the monk. The top of -the dome, was a small square balcony in decorative form, called 'Harmika' (Heaven of 33 gods) enclosing a pedestal. As a mark of dignity a three-tiered stone or wooden umbrella (chhatrayasti) supported on shaft (chhatrayasti) was raised over the pedestal which the Vedic altar was of burnt sacrifice and represented the village shrine. This umbrella (the world axis) over the reliquary, originally the insignia of the young prince Siddharth, was once the Buddhist equivalent symbol for the mystic tree of Lord Vishnu. In the later period a more universal kind was used in which the Harmika was expanded above, into an inverted stepped pyramid and covered by an umbrella forming the finial of the stupa such as at Karli.The brick-work surface of the dome was finished off with thick layer of lime mortar. In some stupas, the dome was coloured and even gilded and some recesses were left at intervals for receiving small lamps to be lit at the time of festivals. It appears like a beacon and blazes the enlightening magic of the Buddhist faith to the four quarters of the Universe The stupa was enclosed within a wooden or stone railing called 'Vedica' leaving an ambulatory passage with gate-ways called (Toranas' (Sk-from-tor-a pass) at each end of the cardinal points. These ceremonial gateways originally based on timber on bamboo gateways of Aryan Village are similar to Chinese Pai-Lou and the Japanese 'Torii' and are great architectural features of Buddhist style. Sometimes around the base of the dome, a terrace or `rnedhi' was added from the ground, thus forming a separate and upper ambulatory passage or `padraskina path' so that the worshipping devotes could move in homage round the stupa, and access to climb it was provided by double stair case or `sopana' with high balustrade on the south side. The upper Pradaskina path was perhaps reserved for the monks, the traditional one at ground level was open to all common devotees. In some stupas to improve the architectural appearance, a rectangular projection to the base of the dome was provided at the four cardinal points. Interior of this, a staircase leading to the upper processional path was provided while at top a row of five graceful pillars were constructed. These pillars so called `aryaka pillars' standing just opposite the four gateways marked the arms of cosmic system, like the main streets of the Aryan Village and represented the five Dhyana Buddhas and also five episodes in the life of Buddha.II. TYPICAL BUDDHIST COLUMN OR ORDER. The column are of two types one is based on Persepolitan type and other Graeco-Roman type. The former is octagonal with bell shaped capital supporting animal sculptures such as lion, horse, bull, sedent elephants carrying male and female riders, chakra or wheel etc. The shaft is highly polished and has a vase-shaped base probably derived from the upright timber post placed in an earthen pot to protect it from attacks of insects and water. Some authorities on architecture consider this column to be entirely of Indian origin and wrongly termed as Persepolitan type. The Graeco-Roman type is rectangular with shallow flutes. They are tall and slender, the height nearly six to eight times its lower diameter. At top is a capital usually with a fluted vase motif.III. CHAITYAS From Sanskrit Chita a pyre or sacred spots are the temples as well or assembly halls created out of particular demands of Buddhist religion. These became necessary to accommodate those who congregated to pay their homage. These have a smaller rectangular door wary which opens to a vaulted hall, with apsidal end and divided longitudinally by two colonnades forming a broad have in the centre and the two aisles. At end in stupa also carved in natural rock with enough space around it for circumambulation. The roof is usually semi-circular.IV. VIHARAS OR MONASTERIES(Gumphas). These are the residential places of Buddhist priests. There are24 rock-cut viharas, at Ajanta. They consist of a main-hall entered by doorway. 'They also contain the assembly hall, dining chambers. From the halls deep into the rocks, cells are provided for meditation.Some great structural viharas were about 60m high covered with glazed tiles. Pillars were richly chiselled in the form of dragons. Beams were painted in red and rafters with all colours of rainbow. Viharas were literally the pleasure gardens of monastic precints. (Yun, 2006)

CASE STUDY V:-STUPA AT SANCHIThere are mainly three main stupas on the top of the Sanchi Hill which .lattes about 100 m above the plain. Of the three stupas (he biggest one is known as the Great stupa. The stupa 2 lies on the lower slope while stupa 3 lies about 50 m from the Great stupa, on main terrace of the hill.It was in 1818 that a British Officer General Taylor discovered the greatness of Sanchi but was neglected. After nearly one century, in 1912, Sir John Marshall, the then Director General of Archaeology rediscovered Sanchi. It took seven years to renovate the stupas.The Great Stupa, Sanchi (250 B.C.). This is the world famous stupa at Sanchi. It is about 40 km. from Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh. The reconstruction of the stupa was started as early as 150 B.C. when the existing stupa was enlarged nearly twice its previous size, However Ashokan brick tumulus was not removed but left intact containing the relic inside of the new construction. The dome 'anda' or 'egg' is a solid brick-work 3232 m in diameter and 12.8 m high the size of the present day. The dome has a slight 'crushed' profile at top and was surmounted by Harmika with a central triple umbrella. The facing of the dome consists of dry masonry composed of hammer dressed stones laid in even courses.A terrace (medhi) 4.87 m high from the ground was added thus creating a separate and upper ambulatory passage 1.8 m wise access to which was provided by a double staircase (Sopana) with 0 high balustrade, on the south side. There are four gateways known as `Toranas' at the cardinal points of the campass and are slightly staggered from the railing enclosing the stupa. These Toranas, the entrance to the ambulatory, were accepted as the traditional type of ceremonial portals and excel the array of architectural embellishment. Torana consists of two square upright, columns with capitals of lion or elephant heads denoting strength. These columns support three separate horizontal by Atlantean figures, a group of drawfs (on western portal), lions (on southern portal) and elephants (on northern and eastern portals). The panels have volutes at their terminal ends surmounting with animal sculpture. The top panel is crowned with Tri-Ratna (the three jewels) symbol of the Buddhist trinity, Buddha, the law (Dharma a) and monastic community (Sangha) with wheel of justice in the centre which rests on elephant-shaped pedestal. The total height of this erection is somewhat 10.36 m with a width of 3 m. The ambulatory or pradakshina path is fenced by railing (vedica) 3-35 m high all round the stupa. The vedica or railing- vomits of upright called `urdhva-patas' octagonal in plan, 45 cm in diameter spaced at 60 m from each other and connected by three lens shaped horizontals called suchior needles 60 cm deep beng threaded throught the holes of the upright. The top horizontal bar is provided with coping `ushnisha' to drain out rain water. Outside the railing there stood once the famous Ashoka Pillar, the fragments of which are noticed now to the right side of southern Torana. (Radhakrishnan, 1956) Figure8: Retrieved from data: image/jpeg; base64

MUSLIM ARCHITECTURE The Muslim religion is founded by Mohammad (Arabic for praised) who was born in Mecca in 570 A.D. His creed, embodied in the holy book 'Koran' is knows as Islam. Koran contains Surah, the utterances of Mohammad intended to reveal the words of God, delivered to him by the angel Gabriel. According to Koran, there are two dogmas. "There is a God but Allah and Mohammad is his Prophet" (La"ilaha illallah, Mohammadur Rasulallah). Islam is a pious submission to Allaha's will and God will one day be merciful and lift them up to the paradise. It teaches peace, love and forgiveness.After the death of Mohammad at Medina in 632 the spiritual direction was exercised by 'Caliphs', his close companions. But from 661, the Caliphs were hereditary dynastic rulers who settled at Damascus and later at Baghdad and Cordova. They constructed in their domain many religious buildingsthe mosques. Soon the religion spread far and wide.The earliest congregational mosques for Friday prayer were square enclosures surrounded by reeds and oriented towards Kaaba at Mecca, the holiest place was its focus. The essential equipment evolved slowly. According to the theory enunicated by Mohammand there is prohibition of worshipping any idols along with God, because He is one and the only God and no other object or person can share the worship of mankind. So Islamic ornament became non-sculptural. However, elaborate surface decoration was provided in all the mosques by beautiful geometric designs called 'Arabesque' (Arabic term "TAURIQ' meaning foliage) and texts from holy Koran. (There are two sects namely Shias and Sunnis based on the question of successor. Shias wanted the successor from Prophet's family while Sunnis wanted the succession from majority. One important line of descent from the Prophet's successor continues in the Aga Khan).CHARACTERISTICS Islamic architecture invention concentrates in three major constructions, the mosques or masjids, tombs and the palaces.1. Jami masjid- it is a Friday prayer mosque, a place of prostration. It has a large open court (sahn) surrounded by arcades or colonnades to ensure protection from severe heat of the sun with a fountain or tank in the centre for ablution. The liwan or iwan on the Mecca side is expanded and elaborated into a pillared hail forming the sanctuary with the wall at the back containing in elegant foliated arch shaped niche called `mihrab' showing qlibla or the direction for prayer. At the right side of mihrab a pulpit or mimbar is provided with a reading desk `dikka' from which the priest of 'imam' reads 'Koran'. A portion of the sanctuary enclosed by a screen (maqsura) forming a compartment for women (zenana). Towers or minarets are provided, from which `azaan' was given by the "muezzin or `maula' to call the faithful to prayers at fixed times. In latter period the minarets increased in numbers and meant solely for their picturesque effect. 2. Madrassah- It is a Collegiate Mosque containing lecture halls, library, and residences for students and teachers in addition to the mosque for prayer.3. Rauza- It is a large mausoleum which also includes a mosque as a separate building. It is contained within a spacious square enclosure the entire forming an attractive garden called Rauza after the garden ar-Rauza in the Prophet's Mosque at Medina. The tomb or Kabristan consists of single compartment of huzrah or estanah and covered with a dome. The underground chamber is called `maqbarah' or taikhana with the grave or qubr in the centre.4. Dargah- These are important tombs of nobles and occasionally called as Dargah in India derived from a Persian word meaning a court palace.5. Khans- These are the inns or serais where travellers took rest. It is two storeyed building. The ground floor for stabling camels and first floor, for residences of the travellers.6. The pointed arches- Another important feature of this style is the pointed arches which is the architectural symbol of hands joined in the prayer pointing towards heaven or Mecca indicating that all the things in the universe meet in only one The Allah.The arch spandrills usually consist of a voluted bracket holding a medallionone very prominent pattern commonly adopted. The types of arches used are: Two-centred pointed arch Four-centred pointed arch Ogee arch and Multicentred pointed arch. These are commonly used over ("poor and window openings with beautiful marble tracery (quamariya) in mosques and wooden tracery (mashrabiya) in houses. Harmonious combinations of arches, cornices, foliated parapets were disposed in an artistic form. 7. The Dome- Another important feature of this style is the dome symbolizing the arch of heaven which is invariably used in mosques and tombs. The dome is built is brick and stone and the plastered surfaces are decorated with intricate geometric patterns. Fluted or ribbed domes are common Persia and India. (Hiraskar, 1991)

CASE STUDY VI:-JAMA MASJID Mosque is also known by different other names, such as the Masjid-i Jahn-Num in Persian language which stands for the World-reflecting Mosque. The biggest mosque in India, the Jama Masjid witnesses thousands of pilgrims everyday who visit to offer their prayers to Allah. Depicted as the most picturesque mosque in the country, it is situated in the starting point of the bustling Chawri Bazar Road, which is one of the main thoroughfares of Old Delhi. The shrine is home to many remnants that have been kept in a secret area in the north entrance. If you want to see an age old transcript of the Quran printed on deer skin, the footmarks, sandals, and a red beard-hair of Prophet Mohammad.History of Jama MasjidThe construction of the beautiful Jama Masjid was started by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan who is also famous for constructing the Taj Mahal. The construction began in the year 1644 and was accomplished in 1656. The foundation stone of this mosque was placed by the famous Mughal emperor in Shahjahanabad, which is now known as Old Delhi. The day was the 10th of Shawwal 1060 or October 19, 1650 AD. It took the collective endeavor of more than 6000 artisans to build this magnificent shrine. At that time, the amount of money spent for the construction was Rs.10 lakhs. Another architectural wonder, also a creation by Shah Jehan, the Red Fort is also located in front of the Jama Masjid. With four towers, three grand entrances, and two minarets that have a length of 40 meters, this shrine is a true feast to the eyes. Approximately 25,000 pilgrims can offer their prayers in this mosque together.Architectural pattern of Jama MasjidIslamic architectural wonder has the capacity to accommodate around 85,000 visitors. At the holy shrine, there is a sprawling rectangular shaped square and the area of the square is 75 meters by 66 meters. There are three big domes and two minarets in the shrine. The western portion of the shrine constitutes a huge hall which features 260 columns that have been sculpted in the Jain and Hindu architectural pattern. The main courtyard of the mosque has entrance from three directions; north, east and south. The gateway to the east takes towards the burial chamber of Sultan Ahmed Shah.The main square of the mosque has also entrance from three directions as mentioned above by three flights of stairs which were constructed with red sandstone. There are 389 staircases in the northern entrance of the shrine. The eastern entrance of the shrine was used by the village people and there are 774 staircases. Historically, these staircases were used for food stalls, stores, and road performances. The eastern portion of the shrine was switched to a marketplace for selling birds and poultry in the morning. When you visit the mosque, you will see that the shrine is south facing. The length of the mosque is approximately 8058 meters or 22561 feet and its breadth is 549 meters or 258258 feet. There are eight domes at the top of the shrine with recurring streaks of white marble and purple. The open areas of the shrine are enclosed with walls and every one of them features a tall entrance in the middle.There are two towering minarets in the shrine that are approximately 41 meters tall and have 130 stairs, lengthwise streaked with red sandstone and white marble. These two minarets are placed on both sides of the domes.There is a hall beneath the attics of the shrine which feature seven vaulted gateways that face the west. All the boundaries of the shrine are waist-high and coated with marble. If you walk to the far side of this, you will come across a hall for offering prayers, and the area of the hall is approximately 61 meters by 27.5 meters. There are 11 vaulted gateways to this prayer hall. White and black marble has been used to coat the floor of the shrine. (Ali, 2012)

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CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE From the East came the new attitude towards religion. Men were tired of what human intellect could provide. The invisible the mysterious, the irrational were the need of the population. The various creeds of Mithraism from Persia, Judaism found their followers. But Christianity proved the strongest. Christianity is founded by Jesus. He was born at Bethlehem near Jerusalem.-He was the son of Joseph and mother Mary. He lived in Nazareth, till he was 30 as an ordinary carpenter but later on the plunged himself for the services of mankind. Soon he became a revolutionary figure among the Jewish religious leaders who had only contempt for the poor and sinner. So he boldly exposed the injustice and hypocrisy of those religious leaders. Afraid of his growing power they accused him of -blasphemy and complained against him to Pontius Pilate, the Roman Governor. Consequently he was crucified. But this was not the end. He resurrected again on the third day. His disciples were shocked and surprised when their beloved Jesus appeared before them. They therefore realised that Jesus was at an ordinary man and further recognised him as the 'Son of God'. This recognition was the birth of Christianity as a religion of new faith. Bible is considered as holy book by the Christians. It consists of two parts. First part consists Old Testament which deals with the religion of Jesus and New Testament deals with the life and preachings of Jesus. The main purpose of Christian church was to provide shelter for the worshippers who met together and paid homage to the unseen god. The desire and necessity to centre, focus and celebrate an outstanding characteristic of Christian architecture. After Christianity became the official state religion at the end of 4th century, the number of lurch buildings increased markedly. At this time, in Rome alone, about thirty churches of basilican tie were built by the early Christians as followers of new faith. CHARACTERISTICThe Early Christians did make ample use of Graeco Roman architecture. There was no prosperity as was in Roman period. They had no substantial precedents of their own to follow. They lade use of the remains of Roman buildings for the construction of their new churches. The Orders of temples and stows whether Doric, ionic or Corinthian were collected and disposed them in symbolic plans. In the early stages they did not solve constructive problems. The columns, either short or long, fluted or unfluted, were brought to uniform size and height by some device for use in the same church. Columns were either closely spaced to carry entablature of widely spaced to carry semi-circular arches. There was no one basic kind of Constantinian church. Even the basilican form was variously treated sand was not in any way standardised. The plan of the church was simple in design, having two colonnades forming a long nave in the centre and two or four aisles on either with a high altar at one end and covered with simple timber of trusses. The baptisteries and mausoleum chapels however were circular, octagonal in shape based on Roman precedent, and also in the shape of a Greek cross. Yet Early Christian style evolved many forms, visual effects from those already in existence.The monumental churches succeeded brilliantly for the rapidly changing world. The basilican churches were rendered spacious, graceful, impressive and dignified by arranging the columns in rows. Most important of all, the main entrance was provided in one shorter side. This sort of treatment had driving point of focus. Eye was directed horizontally alone the row of columns of the seat of gods placed on high altar. One can see that a continuous magical rhythm fills the whole of the church. Mouldings were coarse-like in the Roman period. Skilled craftsmen were scarce. Incised relief mouldings, acanthus leaf mouldings were most common. A vast cycle of pictures, emblem, Biblical scenes and processions of martyrs in mosaic began by Ostrogoths and finished under Justinian enriched Early Christian architecture. In all these, colour was the prime ingredient. Coloured mosaics representing Christ, the Virgin lined the apses of the semi-circular domes. Pictures showing Adam and Eve in the Garden of Heaven, Biblican scenes became usual features of decoration. Their architecture represents their fanaticism, their passionate search for the mystery of the Real Presence. The constructional features and spatial development are so fitting and completely established that neither Gothic nor the present day churches have gone beyond it. (Hiraskar, 1991)

CASE STUDY VII: CATHEDRAL CHURCH OF THE REDEMPTIONAs we approached the Cathedral through its large garden in the heart of New Delhi it was reminded of St. Paul's Cathedral at the heart of the city of London. Although in many ways the two buildings are very different both are dominated by their domes, both are neo-classical in style, and they have a similar grandeur. The Cathedral Church of the Redemption stands on a broad base and rises in massive blocks to the tower, topped by a dome. On top of that dome a cupola stands on narrow pillars, carrying a cross soaring high above the body of the church. The buff sandstone walls contrast with the bright red tiles of the sloping roofs. Looking at the Cathedral from outside the lack of windows adds to its massive appearance. In the early days after the capital of India was moved from Calcutta to Delhi the chaplain of the nascent city envisaged a massive Gothic church on the lines of Westminster Abbey. Sir Edwin Lutyens, the architect of Rashtrapati Bhavan, rejected the concept. He felt that Westminster Abbey, with all its glass windows would only be fit for 'frying bacon' in the heat of the Delhi summer. Henry Medd, who eventually designed the Cathedral, heeded Lutyens warning and that is why the Cathedral does not have many windows. Medd had worked for Lutyens and was assistant to Henry Baker, who designed the two wings of the Secretariat and the Council House, now Parliament. Opposite the south gate of the Cathedral's garden a short avenue leads to Rashtrapati Bhavan, which was of course the Viceroys House when the Cathedral was built.This proximity to the Viceroy's House may be the reason why the Cathedral stands where it does. Originally the site of the Cathedral was to be south of Rajpath, in the middle of the large roundabout on Janpath now known as Motilal Nehru Place. One theory has it that, with the rising tempo of the independence movement, it was thought it would be unsafe for the Viceroy to travel that far to attend church each Sunday. But there is also evidence that the clergy felt the site South of Rajpath would be too far away from most of the congregation who lived to the North of it. The Cathedral's eventual setting, in the surroundings of Baker and Lutyens' magnificent buildings adds to its grandeur.The Cathedral is built on an axis which runs from East to West with the high altar at the eastern end. So Henry Medd respected the Christian tradition of churches facing the rising sun which symbolizes the risen Jesus. A few steps led us up to the great door set in the West wall. In 1947 the first Bishop of Delhi knocked thrice on that door and asked permission to enter thereby signifying that the Church of the Redemption had become a Cathedral. Until Independence Delhi was part of the Lahore diocese and so there was no bishop in Delhi and therefore no Cathedral. Paul reminded me that still on special days like Christmas, Easter, ordinations of priests, and consecrations of bishops the service starts with a procession through the West door, down the long nave, up to the chancel where the clergy sit.When we entered the Cathedral from the west eyes were drawn to the sparkling white marble high altar. This was the intention of the architect too. The Viceroy Lord Irwin took a particular interest in the construction of the Cathedral, so much so that it was often known as the Viceroy's Church. He has been described as an Anglo-Catholic of singular and exemplary piety. He used to attend Holy Communion in theCathedral on weekdays as well as Sundays. Being an Anglo- Catholic his worship was centred on the sacraments, and in particular on the sacrament of Holy Communion celebrated on the high altar So, Medd designed his church to focus attention firmly on that altar. The six tall candles in silver candle-sticks on the altar are symbols of the Anglo-Catholic tradition too.At the west end there is a gallery for the organist and the choir. On the walls of many churches there are lots of tablets remembering those who have passed away. In Delhi's Cathedral there are three: one commemorating Arthur Mahinder who for more than thirty two years played the organ in that gallery and was master of the choir; the second commemorating Major General George Tabuteau, Director of Medical Services in India; and the third Henry Alexander Nesbitt Medd the Architect of the Church. The stone font where babies and other new members of the Church of North India are baptized is also situated at the west end. It has a carved wooden representation of the Cathedral's dome as its cover. Most visitors walking round the Cathedral are unlikely to see the black marble foundation stone laid by Lord Irwin on the twenty third of February nineteen twenty seven. It's laid in the floor at the top of the nave, the centre of the church, and is now covered by a red carpet. Nearby the marble stone are the front pews. The South pew was reserved for the Viceroy and the North pew for the Commander-in Chief. Those pews have crowns engraved on them. The long nave is balanced by a long chancel. The clergy taking part in the worship sit on both sides of the chancel below the plain wooden throne of the bishop, which bears the red shield of the Delhi diocese set on a white plaque. The bishop attends services whenever he wants to and particularly on special occasions but Paul told me no one else was allowed to sit on that throne, or in (Greek cathedra), the word from which Cathedral is derived. Standing before the high altar I saw in the middle of the six candlesticks a silver cross gifted by George V, the only ruling British monarch to visit India before Independence. He it was who announced that Delhi would become the capital of India at the great Durbar of 1911. The altar was decorated with flowers elegantly arranged in silver vases. Above the high altar a copy of one of the Italian Renaissance painter Giovanni Bellini's paintings of the Madonna and Child. Behind the high altar there is an elaborately carved wooden screen with a curved panel at the top on which an image of Christ on the cross stands. On one side Mary, the mother of Jesus, looks up at the twisted, half-naked figure of Jesus, nailed to the cross, and on the other stands St. John.The image of the crucifixion is particular relevant to the Cathedral. Most churches are dedicated to saints but after much discussion it was decided that Delhi's Cathedral should be dedicated to the Redemption. Christianity teaches that it was Jesus on the cross who won redemption from our sins for us.The figures of Christ on the cross, the Blessed Virgin Mary, and St John were carved inItaly and given to the Cathedral by the Dean and Chapter of York Minster. It is the Cathedral of one of England's two Archbishops', the Archbishop of York. The Dean and Chapter of York also gifted a substantial sum for furnishing the Cathedral. The link between Delhi and York was forged by Lord Irwin who as a Yorkshire landowner also became the first Earl of Halifax a city in Yorkshire. He had earlier been MP for Ripon, a Cathedral city in Yorkshire. Paul and In the southern side-aisle the small side chapel of the Ascension is situated. There a lamp burns continuously signifying that bread, which has been consecrated by a priest during the celebration of Holy Communion, is kept there for those who are infirm. Several pictures of scenes from the life of Jesus painted by the artist A.D.Thomas hang in the side aisles. In the Chapel of the Ascension Paul pointed out that the artist had included a portrait of himself clad in a green robe in his painting of Christ commanding his disciples to 'go into all the world and preach the gospel'. The Cathedral's only stained glass window is in the Cathedral a colourful, nonrepresentational, modern design gifted by Lynn Wilson.Crossing from the southern to the northern side there is aisle Childrens Corner. It includes a magnificent Christmas tapestry which is a copy of the nineteenth century Pre- Raphaelite artist Burne Jones' tapestry in the chapel of Exeter College Oxford.

Centre of the Cathedral are the tall columns and the high vaulted roof which had created acoustical problems until it was coated with a special plaster. The height of the Cathedral's interior and the shadowy light let in by the few windows which created its mysterious atmosphere, an atmosphere eminently suitable for sacramental worship. It's no wonder therefore that Lord Irwin was delighted with the Cathedral when it was completed. He would be delighted that the same tradition continues today with, so Paul told me, more than five hundred worshippers attending services in English, Tamil, and Hindi every Sunday.Today the Cathedral is part of the Church of North India (CNI), a Church in a Special Relationship with the Anglican Communion and formed in 1970 with the union of six denominations. (Chakraborti, 2013)

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CONCLUSION In India, there was a great rise in Buddhist architecture (300 B.C. on ward) where we come across the great stupas, stambas, viharas, and finally Hindu Architecture (A.D. 600 to the present day) which is confined to the construction of temples, with numerous mouldings, carving, relief work based on Indian Mythology. In Muslim architecture, (700- A.D. onward), we see mainly tombs, mosques, madrasa, palaces etc. Pointed arches are commonly used in this style. On Western side, now there was spread of Christianity (313-800 A.D.) which had its birth at Judaea. It spread from Rome to other countries. The Christians mainly constructed churches of basilican type. Later on the capital was shifted to Byzantine from Rome when a new Byzantine style (300-1453 A.D.) was evolved, where we come across the construction of domes. It reached its culmination in Constantinople now known as Istanbul. The pointed arches over lofty church naves were held in position by surrounding buttresses called flying buttresses. The walls were no longer required to support the structure so they were replaced by huge win Historic architecture the architecture which follows the continuous which follows evolutionary course known as historic architecture. The style refers to the method of construction practised in a country depending on the availability of materials the religious condition and their traditions. Windows filled with stained glass. A new architecture so called modern architecture evolved in 19th century to meet the requirements of the common masses. So buildings of great varieties came into being, such as municipalities, libraries, clubs, shopping centres, restaurants, hospitals, technical schools, colleges markets, factories, bus terminals, airports, sky scrapers etc. It made rapid progress due to the modem materials like steel, concrete, glass, plastics etc. aided by modern techniques. This architecture of machine age is increasingly becoming more and more complex throughout the whole world.

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