Religions 11: What is Roman Religions 11: What is Roman religion?religion?

Key concepts Key concepts

Chronological overviewChronological overview 753 BCE: Rome’s foundation: Romulus753 BCE: Rome’s foundation: Romulus 753-509 BCE: Rome kingdom753-509 BCE: Rome kingdom 509-27 BCE: Republic: battle between plebeians and 509-27 BCE: Republic: battle between plebeians and

patricians; Rome more powerful: expansion in Italypatricians; Rome more powerful: expansion in Italy 340-338: Italian War340-338: Italian War 264-129 BC: three Punic Wars against Carthage 264-129 BC: three Punic Wars against Carthage Subjugation of Hellenistic world (from about 200 Subjugation of Hellenistic world (from about 200

onwards):onwards): 168: Battle of Pydna: victory over Macedonia168: Battle of Pydna: victory over Macedonia 148: Provincia Macedonia148: Provincia Macedonia 146: Corinth destroyed146: Corinth destroyed

133-29: Rome conquers Pergamum (Asia Minor): provincia Asia133-29: Rome conquers Pergamum (Asia Minor): provincia Asia 91-89: Social War of Italian cities against Rome: they all get 91-89: Social War of Italian cities against Rome: they all get

Roman citizenshipRoman citizenship 88-79: Sulla restoration and dictator88-79: Sulla restoration and dictator 60: first triumvirate: Crassus, Pompey and Caesar60: first triumvirate: Crassus, Pompey and Caesar 58-50: Gallic conquest by Caesar58-50: Gallic conquest by Caesar 49-46: civil war, Caesar becomes dictator49-46: civil war, Caesar becomes dictator 44: Caesar killed44: Caesar killed 43: second triumvirate: Lepidus, Octavian and Mark Antony: O. 43: second triumvirate: Lepidus, Octavian and Mark Antony: O.

wins: battle of Actium 31, battle of Actium; death of Cleopatra wins: battle of Actium 31, battle of Actium; death of Cleopatra in 30in 30

27 BCE (or 31): end of Republic, begin of Roman Empire, with 27 BCE (or 31): end of Republic, begin of Roman Empire, with Augustus as Emperor; Empire until Rhine/DanubeAugustus as Emperor; Empire until Rhine/Danube

Julio-Claudian emperors (27 BCE-68 CE): Claudius conquers Julio-Claudian emperors (27 BCE-68 CE): Claudius conquers BritainBritain

Flavian Emperors (69-96): Vespasian, DomitianFlavian Emperors (69-96): Vespasian, Domitian Nerva and successors (96-138): Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian; Nerva and successors (96-138): Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian;

Trajan conquers Dacia (Roumania) and Mesopotamia Trajan conquers Dacia (Roumania) and Mesopotamia (briefly)(briefly)

Antonines (138-192): Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius: Antonines (138-192): Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius: height of Empireheight of Empire

192-284: military emperors, third-century ‘crisis’192-284: military emperors, third-century ‘crisis’ 284-305: Diocletian284-305: Diocletian 306-337: Constantine the Great: Christian Empire306-337: Constantine the Great: Christian Empire 284-602: Late Antiquity284-602: Late Antiquity 476: fall of Rome; East continues476: fall of Rome; East continues

TermsTermsGreek religionGreek religion Roman religionRoman religion

hieros, hagnos, hieros, hagnos,

hosios, hagioshosios, hagios sacersacer

eusebeiaeusebeia pietaspietas

asebeiaasebeia impietasimpietas

latreia/threskeialatreia/threskeia cultuscultus

sebesthai theous/ta sebesthai theous/ta

nomizomena/nomizein nomizomena/nomizein

tous theous tous theous etc.etc. religioreligio   

ReligioReligio ‘ ‘obligation with respect to the divine’obligation with respect to the divine’

a.a. negative: ‘prohibition’, e.g. it is the negative: ‘prohibition’, e.g. it is the religio religio that non-initiates do not participate in the that non-initiates do not participate in the mysteries of Eleusis (Livy)mysteries of Eleusis (Livy)

b.b.positive: ‘prescribed ritual/customary positive: ‘prescribed ritual/customary practice’practice’

From second century CE on: From second century CE on: religio religio comes to comes to mean ‘worship of a particular deity’ mean ‘worship of a particular deity’ (personal relation with god and (personal relation with god and commitment of way of life prominent)commitment of way of life prominent)

Apuleius, Apuleius, Golden Ass Golden Ass 11.26: ‘I was a 11.26: ‘I was a constant worshipper, a stranger to the constant worshipper, a stranger to the temple, but at home in the temple, but at home in the religioreligio’’

Appropriated by Christians: ‘the true Appropriated by Christians: ‘the true religio religio of the true God’ (Tertullian, of the true God’ (Tertullian, Apology Apology 24.2)24.2)

From this time on From this time on religio religio comes closer comes closer to our ‘religion’to our ‘religion’

Words for gods:Words for gods:- Theos/theaTheos/thea, , deus/deadeus/dea, plural , plural theoi/theaitheoi/theai, , didi- Abstract ‘divine’: Abstract ‘divine’: theostheos, , deusdeus- Other abstract words:Other abstract words:

a.a. daimon/daemondaimon/daemon: less specific than : less specific than theos/deustheos/deus, hence , hence variety of entities between human – divine sphere, variety of entities between human – divine sphere, ‘spirits’‘spirits’, ‘, ‘souls’; in Christian times, it would get a souls’; in Christian times, it would get a negative meaning through contrast with negative meaning through contrast with Theos/DeusTheos/Deus

b.b. Heros/herosHeros/heros: more restricted sphere, tombs (Greek); : more restricted sphere, tombs (Greek); in Roman world more stretched out: in Roman world more stretched out: Herakles/Hercules became god, human benefactors Herakles/Hercules became god, human benefactors could become heroescould become heroes

c. Numenc. Numen: vague (is there but exact : vague (is there but exact identity unclear) ‘divine power’, identity unclear) ‘divine power’, ‘divine will’ ‘divine will’

d. d. geniusgenius: guardian spirit of individual, : guardian spirit of individual, gradually wider scope: gradually wider scope: genius locigenius loci

e. e. Distinctively Roman: spirits of the Distinctively Roman: spirits of the dead as quasi-divine beings: dead as quasi-divine beings: di di manesmanes

Dis manibus sacrum

Approaches to the divineApproaches to the divine

Varro (1Varro (1stst cent. BCE), three cent. BCE), three approaches (approaches (theologiai = theologiai = ways to ways to think about the divine):think about the divine):

- the civil: civic/official/public religionthe civil: civic/official/public religion- the mythical: Roman myth and the mythical: Roman myth and

mythographymythography- the physical: philosophythe physical: philosophy

1. The Civil1. The Civil Rives discusses here cult = Rives discusses here cult = religious rituals and religious rituals and

practices employed in worshippractices employed in worship

NB: Bremmer discusses this under ‘ritual’ (what NB: Bremmer discusses this under ‘ritual’ (what is this and what is difference between the two?)is this and what is difference between the two?)

- Prayers: invocation – attention - requestPrayers: invocation – attention - request- Sacrifice (see offering scene on next slide: what Sacrifice (see offering scene on next slide: what

is difference with Greek religion?)is difference with Greek religion?)- VowsVows- Divination: interpretation of divine Divination: interpretation of divine

communicationscommunications

Arch of Marcus Aurelius, Rome

Initiation/purification (NB: Bremmer Initiation/purification (NB: Bremmer lists this under elaborate rituals)lists this under elaborate rituals)

2. Myth2. Myth

Placing too much emphasis on myths:Placing too much emphasis on myths:

Not central to Graeco-Roman religions:Not central to Graeco-Roman religions:-No canonNo canon-Marginal to cult (see discussion myth Marginal to cult (see discussion myth – ritual in Bremmer: myth only rarely – ritual in Bremmer: myth only rarely touches on ritual)touches on ritual)

Too little emphasis on Too little emphasis on mythsmyths

Other idea is that myths had lost all religious Other idea is that myths had lost all religious significance by Roman times:significance by Roman times:

- Shift from oral tradition to elite literature and Shift from oral tradition to elite literature and art; mythographies; however, not restricted art; mythographies; however, not restricted to elite: masses retained access, e.g. through to elite: masses retained access, e.g. through art, cultic practices etc.art, cultic practices etc.

- Criticism on myths; yet never entirely Criticism on myths; yet never entirely dismissed; and others gave deeper meaning dismissed; and others gave deeper meaning to myths (e.g. allegory)to myths (e.g. allegory)

- Ergo: kept religious meaning and significanceErgo: kept religious meaning and significance

The godsThe gods Kronos: Chronus/SaturnusKronos: Chronus/Saturnus Persephone: ProserpinaPersephone: Proserpina Hades: PlutoHades: Pluto Demeter: CeresDemeter: Ceres Poseidon: Neptunus/NeptunePoseidon: Neptunus/Neptune Hestia: VestaHestia: Vesta Zeus: JupiterZeus: Jupiter Hera: JunoHera: Juno Apollo: ApolloApollo: Apollo Artemis: DianaArtemis: Diana Hermes: Mercurius/MercuryHermes: Mercurius/Mercury Dionysos: Bacchus/DionysusDionysos: Bacchus/Dionysus Athena: MinervaAthena: Minerva Ares: MarsAres: Mars Aphrodite: VenusAphrodite: Venus Hephaistos: VulcanusHephaistos: Vulcanus

Greek vs. Roman mythGreek vs. Roman mythRelation Greek-Roman myth, idea of Roman slavishly taking over Relation Greek-Roman myth, idea of Roman slavishly taking over Greek myths, but this is untrue. Not one to one relationship:Greek myths, but this is untrue. Not one to one relationship:-Other emphasis in pantheon: e.g. Juno and Jupiter more, Minerva less Other emphasis in pantheon: e.g. Juno and Jupiter more, Minerva less important; Hercules worshipped as deityimportant; Hercules worshipped as deity-Romans usually put legendary men/heroes in well defined Romans usually put legendary men/heroes in well defined geographical and historical context: stories about early Rome geographical and historical context: stories about early Rome (Romulus and Rhemus), Aeneas ((Romulus and Rhemus), Aeneas (AeneidAeneid))

Ergo: there existed a ‘Roman mythology’!Ergo: there existed a ‘Roman mythology’!

Moreover, Roman pantheon was much more than just these gods:Moreover, Roman pantheon was much more than just these gods:-New gods: Silvanus (Pan), specific Italian gods (Bellona, Mater New gods: Silvanus (Pan), specific Italian gods (Bellona, Mater Matuta), eastern gods (Magna Mater, Isis etc.)Matuta), eastern gods (Magna Mater, Isis etc.)-Abstractions become highly popular, in particular since Hellenistic Abstractions become highly popular, in particular since Hellenistic period (Tyche/Fortuna, Helios/Sol, or even Tiber)period (Tyche/Fortuna, Helios/Sol, or even Tiber)-New additions to the pantheon were also the Roman emperors, who New additions to the pantheon were also the Roman emperors, who nonetheless retained separate status (nonetheless retained separate status (divusdivus) )

In conclusion, after approaches 1-2 to the In conclusion, after approaches 1-2 to the divine: divine:

Roman religion was much like Greek religion Roman religion was much like Greek religion (‘Graeco-Roman tradition’): religion in the (‘Graeco-Roman tradition’): religion in the Roman Empire, however, has to be seen after Roman Empire, however, has to be seen after developments in Hellenistic period (e.g. more developments in Hellenistic period (e.g. more emphasis on private experience of religion, emphasis on private experience of religion, ruler cult, abstract deities such as Fortuna), ruler cult, abstract deities such as Fortuna), which were fostered in a specific Roman which were fostered in a specific Roman context (stories about early Rome, Italian context (stories about early Rome, Italian deities etc.). deities etc.).

2b Art2b Art Much the same as myth (intertwined)Much the same as myth (intertwined)

* Again, too much emphasis on divine images: idolatry (= idol * Again, too much emphasis on divine images: idolatry (= idol worship), as if worship of statues was central to Greek-worship), as if worship of statues was central to Greek-Roman religion Roman religion

• Jewish-Christian concept: only worship of one God > Jewish-Christian concept: only worship of one God > concept is applied by early Christians to Graeco-Roman concept is applied by early Christians to Graeco-Roman traditionstraditions

• Greek terms for statue:Greek terms for statue:agalmaagalma, , andriasandrias, , aphidrumaaphidruma, , bretasbretas, , eidôloneidôlon, , eikôneikôn, , hedoshedos, , hidrumahidruma, , kolossoskolossos, and , and xoanonxoanon

• Latin: Latin: effigieseffigies, , imagoimago, , signumsignum, , simulacrumsimulacrum and and statuastatua

Jewish works, I BCE and later, Christian works first half II CE Jewish works, I BCE and later, Christian works first half II CE onwards > onwards > eidôloneidôlon; term is used for all Graeco-Roman ; term is used for all Graeco-Roman statues (though non-Christians used the term only rarely for statues (though non-Christians used the term only rarely for divine statues)divine statues)

Placing too little value on divine Placing too little value on divine images: as if they are only pure images: as if they are only pure decorationdecoration

3. Philosophy3. Philosophy Different schools of thought (Academics, Stoics, Epicureans), Different schools of thought (Academics, Stoics, Epicureans),

but all strived to define the divine. Generic ideas: but all strived to define the divine. Generic ideas: - morally good and perfectmorally good and perfect- source of blessings and virtuessource of blessings and virtues- Removed, yet linked to daily life by intermediate levels of Removed, yet linked to daily life by intermediate levels of

beingbeing

Philosophy was not ‘armchair science’ but way of life > comes Philosophy was not ‘armchair science’ but way of life > comes closer to our concept of ‘religion’; clear ideas about morals closer to our concept of ‘religion’; clear ideas about morals and behaviour, ‘missionary’ aspect (e.g. influence of Cicero’s and behaviour, ‘missionary’ aspect (e.g. influence of Cicero’s Hortensius Hortensius on Augustine, pp. 40-1 textbook)on Augustine, pp. 40-1 textbook)

However, despite criticism on all 3 other approaches to divine, However, despite criticism on all 3 other approaches to divine, philosophers never wanted to replace them and remained philosophers never wanted to replace them and remained restricted to the elite! (e.g. example of Cicero, restricted to the elite! (e.g. example of Cicero, On the Nature On the Nature of the Godsof the Gods, p. 40 textbook), p. 40 textbook)

ConclusionConclusion

4 independent approaches to the divine 4 independent approaches to the divine that overlapped in various ways:that overlapped in various ways:

- Myth and art: similar subjects, though Myth and art: similar subjects, though also differentalso different

- Cult separate, but myth and art also Cult separate, but myth and art also played a (limited) roleplayed a (limited) role

- Philosophy: most radically different from Philosophy: most radically different from other 3, but still did not reject them; other 3, but still did not reject them; either integrating or accepting themeither integrating or accepting them

AuthorityAuthority Diversity of approaches explains why there was no Diversity of approaches explains why there was no

priestly class and also why there existed a diversity priestly class and also why there existed a diversity of religious authorities in charge of different areasof religious authorities in charge of different areas

Rise of the Rise of the polispolis: religious authorities are:: religious authorities are:

a.a. Magistrates (civic priests)Magistrates (civic priests)

b.b. PriestsPriests

Focus on proper cult acts, not on their interpretation, Focus on proper cult acts, not on their interpretation, hence correcting someone’s religious behaviour hence correcting someone’s religious behaviour was not part of the job (unless it affected the well-was not part of the job (unless it affected the well-being of the community): they were facilitators of being of the community): they were facilitators of the holythe holy

Other misconception: Other misconception:

Emperor not head of religion (Emperor not head of religion (pontifex pontifex maximusmaximus), only president of highest ), only president of highest religious institution (religious institution (pontificespontifices) but ) but had no wider authority than Romehad no wider authority than Rome

Measures concerning religion derive Measures concerning religion derive from his authority as emperorfrom his authority as emperor

BeliefBelief

Belief: specific (modern) Christian connotation: Belief: specific (modern) Christian connotation: contains series of key doctrines that characterize contains series of key doctrines that characterize essence > problematic term for Antiquityessence > problematic term for Antiquity

Without this association, however, the term can Without this association, however, the term can be useful if we mean: ‘accepting something in be useful if we mean: ‘accepting something in the religious sphere as true even without proof’the religious sphere as true even without proof’

Rives, p. 48: Rives, p. 48: ‘What distinguishes the Graeco-Roman tradition from Christianity is thus the absence not of religious beliefs, but of pressures to define and scrutinize those beliefs’

A. religious significance should be seen A. religious significance should be seen primarily in terms of social and cultural factors, primarily in terms of social and cultural factors, not beliefnot belief

B. no central doctrineB. no central doctrine C. no mechanism to enforce ‘beliefs’: no C. no mechanism to enforce ‘beliefs’: no

orthodoxy (‘right belief’), but orthopraxy (‘right orthodoxy (‘right belief’), but orthopraxy (‘right action’)action’)

Ergo: individuals believed what they liked Ergo: individuals believed what they liked without interference; the only thing that was without interference; the only thing that was expected was that you did your religious expected was that you did your religious dutiesduties

MoralityMorality

Modern notion of religion strongly Modern notion of religion strongly associates with morality, but in associates with morality, but in Antiquity there were no fixed set of Antiquity there were no fixed set of rulesrules

Widespread belief in gods’ concern Widespread belief in gods’ concern with moral behaviour, but never with moral behaviour, but never systematised or imposed systematised or imposed

Ergo: not central to Graeco-Roman Ergo: not central to Graeco-Roman religion as it is nowreligion as it is now