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RenaissanceFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected fromRennaisance)

This article is about the European Renaissance of the 14th17th centuries. For the earlier European

Renaissance, see Renaissance of the 12th century. For other uses, seeRenaissance

(disambiguation).

David, by Michelangelo(The Accademia Gallery, Florence) is an example of high Renaissance art

The Renaissance (UK:/r ne s ns/ ,US:/ r n s ns/ ,French

pronunciation:[ n s s] ,French:Renaissance, Italian: Rinascimento, from rinascere "to be reborn")

[1] was acultural movement that spanned the period roughly from the 14th to the 17th century,

beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Agesand later spreading to the rest of Europe. Though the

invention of printing sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century, the changes of the

Renaissance were not uniformly experienced across Europe. As a cultural movement, it encompassed

innovative flowering of Latin and vernacular literatures, beginning with the 14th-century resurgence of

learning based on classical sources, which contemporaries credited toPetrarch, the development of

linearperspective and other techniques of rendering a more natural reality in painting, and gradual but

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widespreadeducational reform. In politics the Renaissance contributed the development of the

conventions ofdiplomacy, and in science an increased reliance on observation that would flower later

in the Scientific Revolutionbeginning in the 17th century. Traditionally, this intellectual transformation

has resulted in the Renaissance being viewed as a bridge between the Middle Agesand theModern

era. Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in manyintellectualpursuits, as well as social and

political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for itsartistic developments and the contributions of

such polymaths asLeonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term "Renaissance man".[2][3]

There is a consensus that the Renaissance began in Florence, Tuscany in the 14th century.[4]Various

theories have been proposed to account for its origins and characteristics, focusing on a variety of

factors including the social and civic peculiarities ofFlorence at the time; its political structure; the

patronage of its dominant family, the Medici;[5][6] and the migration ofGreek scholars and texts to Italy

following theFall of Constantinopleat the hands of theOttoman Turks.[7][8][9]

The Renaissance has a long and complexhistoriography, and in line with general scepticism of

discrete periodizations, there has been much debate among historians reacting to the 19th-century

glorification of the "Renaissance" and individual culture heroes as "Renaissance men", questioning the

usefulness ofRenaissance as a term and as a historical delineation.[10]The art historian Erwin

Panofsky observed of this resistance to the concept ofRenaissance

It is perhaps no accident that the factuality of theItalian Renaissancehas been most vigorously

questioned by those who are not obliged to take a professional interest in the aesthetic aspects of

civilization historians of economic and social developments, political and religious situations, and,

most particularly, natural science but only exceptionally by students of literature and hardly ever

by historians of Art.[11]

Some have called into question whether the Renaissance was a cultural "advance" from the Middle

Ages, instead seeing it as a period of pessimism andnostalgiafor the classical age,[12] while social and

economic historians of the longue dureespecially have instead focused on the continuity between the

two eras,[13] linked, as Panofsky himself observed, "by a thousand ties"[14]

The word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as

the Carolingian Renaissanceand theRenaissance of the 12th century.

Contents

[hide]

1 Overview

2 Origins

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o 2.1 Latin and Greek phases of Renaissance humanism

o 2.2 Social and political structures in Italy

o 2.3 Black Death/Plague

o 2.4 Cultural conditions in Florence

3 Characteristics

o 3.1 Humanism

o 3.2 Art

o 3.3 Science

o 3.4 Religion

o 3.5 Self-awareness

4 Spread

o 4.1 Northern Europe

o 4.2 Portugal

o 4.3 Croatia

o 4.4 Spain

o 4.5 England

o 4.6 France

o 4.7 Germany

o 4.8 Hungary

o

4.9 Netherlandso 4.10 Poland

o 4.11 Russia

o 4.12 The Importance of the Renaissance to the Enlightenment

5 Historiography

o 5.1 Conception

o 5.2 Debates about progress

6 Other Renaissances

7 See also

8 Notes

9 References

10 Further reading

11 External links

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Overview

Renaissance

Topics

Architecture

Dance

Literature

Music

Painting

Philosophy

Science

Technology

Warfare

Regions

England

France

Germany

Italy

Netherlands

Northern Europe

Poland

Spain

V

T

E

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Leonardo da Vinci'sVitruvian Manshows clearly the effect writers of Antiquity had on Renaissance thinkers.

Based on the specifications inVitruvius's De architectura(1st century BC), Leonardo tried to draw the

perfectly proportioned man.

The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in

the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the rest of Europe by the 16th century, its

influence was felt inliterature,philosophy,art, music, politics,science, religion, and other aspects of

intellectual inquiry. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for

realism and human emotion in art.[15]

Renaissance humanists likePoggio Bracciolini sought out in Europe's monastic libraries

the Latinliterary, historical, and oratorical texts ofAntiquity, while theFall of Constantinople(1453)

generated a wave of migr Greek scholars bringing precious manuscripts in ancient Greek, many of

which had fallen into obscurity in the West. It is in their new focus on literary and historical texts that

Renaissance scholars differed so markedly from the medieval scholars of theRenaissance of the 12th

century, who had focused on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural sciences, philosophy and

mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts. In the revival ofneo-Platonism Renaissance

humanists did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many of the Renaissance's greatest works

were devoted to it, and the Church patronizedmany works of Renaissance art. However, a subtle shift

took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of

cultural life.[16]In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were

brought back from Byzantium to Western Europe and engaged Western scholars for the first time

since late antiquity. This new engagement with Greek Christian works, and particularly the return to the

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original Greek of the New Testament promoted by humanists Lorenzo Valla andErasmus, would help

pave the way for theProtestant Reformation.

Well after the first artistic return to classicism had been exemplified in the sculpture ofNicola Pisano,

Florentine painters led byMasacciostrove to portray the human form realistically, developing

techniques to renderperspective and light more naturally.Political philosophers, most

famously Niccol Machiavelli, sought to describe political life as it really was, that is to understand it

rationally. A critical contribution to Italian Renaissance humanism Pico della Mirandola wrote the

famous text "De hominis dignitate"(Oration on the Dignity of Man, 1486), which consists of a series of

theses on philosophy, natural thought, faith and magic defended against any opponent on the grounds

of reason. In addition to studying classical Latin and Greek, Renaissance authors also began

increasingly to usevernacularlanguages; combined with the introduction ofprinting, this would allow

many more people access to books, especially the Bible.[17]

In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve

the secularand worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches

to thought. Some scholars, such as Rodney Stark,[18]play down the Renaissance in favor of the earlier

innovations of the Italian city statesin the High Middle Ages, which married responsive government,

Christianity and the birth of capitalism. This analysis argues that, whereas the great European states

(France and Spain) were absolutist monarchies, and others were under direct Church control, the

independent city republics of Italy took over the principles of capitalism invented on monastic estates

and set off a vast unprecedented commercial revolution which preceded and financed the

Renaissance.

Origins

Florence, the center of Renaissance

Main article: Italian Renaissance

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Most historians[who?] agree that the ideas that characterized the Renaissance had their origin in late

13th century Florence, in particular with the writings ofDante Alighieri(12651321) and Francesco

Petrarca(13041374), as well as the painting ofGiotto di Bondone (12671337).[19] Some writers date

the Renaissance quite precisely; one proposed starting point is 1401, when the rival geniuses Lorenzo

Ghibertiand Filippo Brunelleschi competed for the contract to build the bronze doors for the Baptistery

of theFlorence Cathedral(Ghiberti won).[20] Others see more general competition between artists and

polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as

sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began

in Italy, and why it began when it did. Accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its

origins.

During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand. Artists depended totally on patrons while

the patrons needed money to sustain geniuses. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th

centuries by expanding trade into Asia and Europe. Silver mining in Tyrolincreased the flow of money.

Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during theCrusades, increased the prosperity of

Genoa and Venice.[21]

Michelet defined the 16th-century Renaissance in France as a period in Europe's cultural history that

represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a modern understanding of humanity and its place

in the world.[22]

Latin and Greek phases of Renaissance humanism

Coluccio Salutati

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In stark contrast to theHigh Middle Ages, when Latin scholars focused almost entirely on studying

Greek and Arabic works of natural science, philosophy and mathematics,[23] Renaissance scholars

were most interested in recovering and studying Latin and Greek literary, historical, and oratorical

texts. Broadly speaking, this began in the 14th century with a Latin phase, when Renaissance scholars

such asPetrarch,Coluccio Salutati (13311406),Niccol de' Niccoli(13641437) and Poggio

Bracciolini(13801459 AD) scoured the libraries of Europe in search of works by such Latin authors

as Cicero,LivyandSeneca.[24] By the early 15th century, the bulk of such Latin literature had been

recovered; the Greek phase of Renaissance humanism was now under way, as Western European

scholars turned to recovering ancient Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts.[25]

Unlike the case of those Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since

late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. Ancient

Greek works on science, maths and philosophy had been studied since the High Middle Agesin

Western Europe and in the medieval Islamic world (normally in translation), but Greek literary,

oratorical and historical works (such as Homer, the Greek

dramatists, Demosthenes and Thucydidesand so forth), were not studied in either the Latin or

medieval Islamic worlds; in the Middle Ages these sorts of texts were only studied by Byzantine

scholars. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of

Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity. This movement to

reintegrate the regular study of Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts back into the

Western European curriculum is usually dated to Coluccio Salutati's invitation to the Byzantine

diplomat and scholarManuel Chrysoloras (c.13551415) to Florence to teach Greek. [26]

Social and political structures in Italy

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A political map of the ItalianPeninsulacirca 1494

The unique political structures of lateMiddle AgesItaly have led some to theorize that its unusual

social climate allowed the emergence of a rare cultural efflorescence. Italy did not exist as apolitical

entity in the early modern period. Instead, it was divided into smallercity statesand territories:

the Kingdom of Naples controlled the south, the Republic of Florence and the Papal States at the

center, theMilaneseand theGenoese to the north and west respectively, and theVenetiansto the

east. Fifteenth-century Italy was one of the most urbanised areas in Europe.[27]Many of its cities stood

among the ruins of ancient Roman buildings; it seems likely that the classical nature of the

Renaissance was linked to its origin in the Roman Empire's heartland.[28]

Historian and political philosopherQuentin Skinnerpoints out that Otto of Freising (c. 11141158), a

German bishop visiting north Italy during the 12th century, noticed a widespread new form of political

and social organization, observing that Italy appeared to have exited from Feudalism so that its society

was based on merchants and commerce. Linked to this was anti-monarchical thinking, represented in

the famous early Renaissance fresco cycle Allegory of Good and Bad Government in Siena

byAmbrogio Lorenzetti (painted 13381340) whose strong message is about the virtues of fairness,

justice, republicanism and good administration. Holding both Church and Empire at bay, these city

republics were devoted to notions of liberty. Skinner reports that there were many defences of liberty

such asMatteo Palmieri's (14061475) celebration of Florentine genius not only in art, sculpture and

architecture, but "the remarkable efflorescence of moral, social and political philosophy that occurred

in Florence at the same time".[29]

Even cities and states beyond central Italy, such as the Republic of Florence at this time, were also

notable for their merchant Republics, especially the Republic of Venice. Although in practice these

wereoligarchical, and bore little resemblance to a modern democracy, they did have democratic

features and were responsive states, with forms of participation in governance and belief in liberty.[30][31]

[32]The relative political freedom they afforded was conducive to academic and artistic advancement.

[33]Likewise, the position of Italian cities such as Venice as great trading centres made them intellectual

crossroads. Merchants brought with them ideas from far corners of the globe, particularlythe Levant.

Venice was Europe's gateway to trade with the East, and a producer of fineglass, while Florence was

a capital of textiles. The wealth such business brought to Italy meant large public and private artistic

projects could be commissioned and individuals had more leisure time for study.[33]

Black Death/Plague

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Plague 1497-1499

One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation caused by theBlack Death inFlorence,

which hitEuropebetween 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century

Italy. Italy was particularly badly hit by the plague, and it has been speculated that the resulting

familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than

onspiritualityand the afterlife.[34] It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of

piety, manifested in thesponsorship of religious works of art.[35] However, this does not fully explain

why the Renaissance occurred specifically in Italy in the 14th century. The Black Death was a

pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy. The Renaissance's

emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors.[10]

The plague was carried by fleas on sailing vessels returning from the ports of Asia, spreading quickly

due to lack of proper sanitation: the population of England, then about 4.2 million, lost 1.4 million

people to the bubonic plague. Florence's population was nearly halved in the year 1347. As a result of

the decimation in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to

enjoy more freedom. To answer the increased need for labor, workers traveled in search of the most

favorable position economically.[36]

The demographic decline due to the plague had some economic consequences: the prices of food

dropped and land values declined by 30 to 40% in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400.

[37]Landholders faced a great loss but for ordinary men and women, it was a windfall. The survivors of

the plague found not only that the prices of food were cheaper but also found that lands were more

abundant, and that most of them inherited property from their dead relatives.

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The spread of disease was significantly more rampant in areas of poverty. Epidemics ravaged cities,

particularly children. Plagues were easily spread by lice, unsanitary drinking water, armies, or by poor

sanitation. Children were hit the hardest because many diseases such as typhus and syphilis target

the immune system and left young children without a fighting chance. Children in city dwellings were

more affected by the spread of disease than the children of the wealthy.[38]

The Black Death caused greater upheaval to Florence's social and political structure than later

epidemics. Despite a significant number of deaths among members of the ruling classes, the

government of Florence continued to function during this period. Formal meetings of elected

representatives were suspended during the height of the epidemic due to the chaotic conditions in the

city, but a small group of officials was appointed to conduct the affairs of the city, which ensured

continuity of government.[39]

Cultural conditions in Florence

Lorenzo de' Medici, ruler ofFlorenceand patron of arts

It has long been a matter of debate why the Renaissance began in Florence, and not elsewhere in

Italy. Scholars have noted several features unique to Florentine cultural life which may have caused

such a cultural movement. Many have emphasized the role played by the Medici, abanking familyand

laterducal ruling house, in patronizing and stimulating the arts. Lorenzo de' Medici (14491492) was

the catalyst for an enormous amount of arts patronage, encouraging his countrymen to commission

works from Florence's leading artists, includingLeonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, andMichelangeloBuonarroti.[5]

The Renaissance was certainly underway before Lorenzo came to power; indeed, before the Medici

family itself achieved hegemony in Florentine society. Some historians have postulated that Florence

was the birthplace of the Renaissance as a result of luck, i.e. because "Great Men" were born there by

chance.[40]Da Vinci, Botticelli and Michelangelo were all born inTuscany. Arguing that such chance

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seems improbable, other historians have contended that these "Great Men" were only able to rise to

prominence because of the prevailing cultural conditions at the time. [41]

Characteristics

HumanismMain article: Renaissance humanism

In some ways Humanism was not a philosophy per se, but rather a method of learning. In contrast to

the medievalscholasticmode, which focused on resolving contradictions between authors, humanists

would study ancient texts in the original, and appraise them through a combination of reasoning and

empirical evidence. Humanist education was based on the programme of 'Studia Humanitatis', that

being the study of five humanities:poetry, grammar,history,moral philosophyandrhetoric. Although

historians have sometimes struggled to define humanism precisely, most have settled on "a middle of

the road definition... the movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate the language, literature,

learning and values of ancient Greece and Rome".[42] Above all, humanists asserted "the genius of

man ... the unique and extraordinary ability of the human mind."[43]

Portrait of Sir Thomas More, 1527

Humanist scholars shaped the intellectual landscape throughout the early modern period. Political

philosophers such as Niccol Machiavelli and Thomas Morerevived the ideas of Greek and Roman

thinkers, and applied them in critiques of contemporary government. Pico della Mirandolawrote what

is often considered the manifesto of the Renaissance, a vibrant defence of thinking, theOration on the

Dignity of Man. Matteo Palmieri (14061475), another humanist, is most known for his work Della vita

civile ("On Civic Life"; printed 1528) which advocated civic humanism, and his influence in refining

the Tuscan vernacularto the same level as Latin. Palmieri's written works drawn on Roman

philosophers and theorists, especiallyCicero, who, like Palmieri, lived an active public life as a citizen

and official, as well as a theorist and philosopher and alsoQuintilian. Perhaps the most succinct

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expression of his perspective on humanism is in a 1465 poetic work La citt di vita, but an earlier

work Della vita civile (On Civic Life) is more wide-ranging. Composed as a series of dialogues set in a

country house in the Mugello countryside outside Florence during the plague of 1430, Palmieri

expounds on the qualities of the ideal citizen. The dialogues include ideas about how children develop

mentally and physically, how citizens can conduct themselves morally, how citizens and states can

ensure probity in public life, and an important debate on the difference between that which is

pragmatically useful and that which is honest.

The humanists believed that it is important to transcend to the afterlife with a perfect mind and body.

This transcending belief can be done with education. The purpose of humanism was to create a

universal man whose person combined intellectual and physical excellence and who was capable of

functioning honorably in virtually any situation.[44] This ideology was referred to as il uomo universal, an

ancient Greco-Roman ideal. The education during Renaissance was mainly composed of ancient

literature and history. It was thought that the classics provided moral instruction and an intensive

understanding of human behavior.

Art

Main articles:Italian Renaissance painting,Renaissance painting, andRenaissance architecture

The Creation of Adam byMichelangelo

The Renaissance marks the period of European history at the close of the Middle Ages and the rise of

the Modern world. It represents a cultural rebirth from the 14th through the middle of the 17th

centuries. Early Renaissance, mostly in Italy, bridges the art period during the fifteenth century,

between the Middle Ages and the High Renaissance in Italy. It is generally known that Renaissance

matured in Northern Europe later, in 16th century. [45]One of the distinguishing features of Renaissance

art was its development of highly realistic linear perspective. Giotto di Bondone (12671337) is

credited with first treating a painting as a window into space, but it was not until the demonstrations of

architectFilippo Brunelleschi (13771446) and the subsequent writings ofLeon Battista Alberti (1404

1472) that perspective was formalized as an artistic technique.[46] The development of perspective was

part of a wider trend towards realism in the arts.[47] To that end, painters also developed other

techniques, studying light, shadow, and, famously in the case ofLeonardo da Vinci,human anatomy.

Underlying these changes in artistic method, was a renewed desire to depict the beauty of nature, and

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to unravel the axioms ofaesthetics, with the works of

Leonardo,Michelangelo and Raphaelrepresenting artistic pinnacles that were to be much imitated by

other artists.[48]Other notable artists includeSandro Botticelli, working for the Medici in

Florence,Donatelloanother Florentine andTitianin Venice, among others.

Concurrently, in the Netherlands, a particularly vibrant artistic culture developed, the work ofHugo van

der Goes andJan van Eyck having particular influence on the development of painting in Italy, both

technically with the introduction ofoil paintand canvas, and stylistically in terms of naturalism in

representation. (see Renaissance in the Netherlands). Later, the work ofPieter Brueghel the

Elderwould inspire artists to depict themes of everyday life. [49]

Leonardo da VinciSelf-portrait, hisMona Lisa,The Last Supperand Vitruvian Man are examples of

Renaissance art

In architecture,Filippo Brunelleschi was foremost in studying the remains of ancient classical

buildings, and with rediscovered knowledge from the 1st-century writerVitruviusand the flourishing

discipline ofmathematics, formulated the Renaissance style which emulated and improved on classical

forms. Brunelleschi's major feat of engineering was the building of the dome ofFlorence Cathedral.

[50]The first building to demonstrate this is claimed to be the church of St. Andrew built by Alberti

in Mantua. The outstanding architectural work of the High Renaissance was the rebuilding ofSt.

Peter's Basilica, combining the skills ofBramante, Michelangelo,Raphael, Sangallo and Maderno.

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Mona Lisaby Leonardo da Vinciis a master piece of Renaissance and world art

The Roman orders types of columns are used: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite. These

can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative, set against a wall in

the form ofpilasters. During the Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns, pilasters,

andentablatures as an integrated system. One of the first buildings to use pilasters as an integrated

system was in the Old Sacristy (14211440) by Filippo Brunelleschi.[51]

Arches, semi-circular or (in theMannerist style) segmental, are often used in arcades, supported on

piers or columns with capitals. There may be a section of entablature between the capital and the

springing of the arch. Alberti was one of the first to use the arch on a monumental. Renaissance vaults

do not have ribs. They are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the Gothicvault

which is frequently rectangular.

The Renaissance artists were not pagans although they admired antiquity and they also kept some

ideas and symbols of the medieval past. Nicola Pisano (c. 1220c. 1278) imitated classical forms by

portraying scenes from the Bible. The Annunciation by Nicola Pisano, from the Baptistry at Pisa,

demonstrates that classical models influenced Italian art before the Renaissance took root as a literary

movement [52]

Science

Main articles:History of science in the Renaissance andRenaissance technology

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1543'Vesalius' studies inspired interest in human anatomy.

Galileo Galilei. Portrait incrayonby Renaissance sculptorLeone Leoni

The rediscovery of ancient texts and the invention ofprintingdemocratized learning and allowed a

faster propagation of ideas. But the first period ofItalian Renaissance is often seen as one of scientific

backwardness: humanists favoured the study ofhumanitiesovernatural philosophy orapplied

mathematics. And their reverence for classical sources further enshrined

theAristotelian and Ptolemaicviews of the universe.

Even though, around 1450, the writings ofNicholas Cusanus were

anticipating Copernicus'heliocentricworld-view, it was made in a non-scientific fashion. Science and

art were very much intermingled in the early Renaissance, withpolymath artists such as Leonardo daVinci making observational drawings of anatomy and nature. He set up controlled experiments in water

flow, medical dissection, and systematic study of movement and aerodynamics; he devised principles

of research method that led to Fritjof Capra classifying him as "father of modern science".[53]

In 1492 the "discovery" of the "New World" byChristopher Columbus challenged the classical world-

view, as the works ofPtolemy (geography) and Galen(medicine) were found not always to match

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everyday observations: a suitable environment was created to question scientific doctrine. As

the Protestant Reformationand Counter-Reformationclashed, the Northern Renaissanceshowed a

decisive shift in focus from Aristotelean natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences

(botany, anatomy, and medicine). [54]The willingness to question previously held truths and search for

new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements.

Some have seen this as a "scientific revolution", heralding the beginning of the modern age. [55]Others

as an acceleration of a continuous process stretching from the ancient world to the present day.

[56]Regardless, there is general agreement that the Renaissance saw significant changes in the way

the universe was viewed and the methods sought to explain natural phenomena.[57] Traditionally held

to have begun in 1543, when were first printed the booksDe humani corporis fabrica (On the

Workings of the Human Body) byAndreas Vesalius, which gave a new confidence to the role

ofdissection, observation, andmechanisticview of anatomy.,[57]and alsoDe Revolutionibus, by

the Nicolaus Copernicus. The revolutionary thesis of Copernicus' book was that the Earth moved

around the Sun. Significant scientific advances were made during this time byGalileo Galilei,Tycho

BraheandJohannes Kepler.[58]

Perhaps the most significant development of the era was not a specific discovery, but rather

aprocess for discovery, the scientific method.[57]This revolutionary new way of learning about the

world focused onempirical evidence, the importance ofmathematics, and discarded the Aristotelian

"final cause" in favor of amechanical philosophy. Early and influential proponents of these ideas

included Copernicus andGalileo and Francis Bacon[59][60] The new scientific method led to great

contributions in the fields ofastronomy,physics,biology, andanatomy. Joseph Ben-David wrote:

Rapid accumulation of knowledge, which has characterized the development of science since the 17th

century, had never occurred before that time. The new kind of scientific activity emerged only in a few

countries of Western Europe, and it was restricted to that small area for about two hundred years.

(Since the 19th century, scientific knowledge has been assimilated by the rest of the world).[61]

Religion

Main articles:Protestant ReformationandCounter-Reformation

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-short-science-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabricahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabricahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Vesaliushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-short-science-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-short-science-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Revolutionibus_Orbium_Coelestiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Revolutionibus_Orbium_Coelestiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galileihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galileihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Keplerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Keplerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-short-science-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-short-science-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-short-science-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_causehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galileihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galileihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Baconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Baconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Renaissancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-53http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-short-science-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabricahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Vesaliushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-short-science-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Revolutionibus_Orbium_Coelestiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galileihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Keplerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-short-science-56http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empiricismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Final_causehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galileihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Baconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-58http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rennaisance#cite_note-60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counter-Reformation

8/1/2019 Renaissance Wiki

18/31

Alexander VI, a Borgia Pope infamous for his corruption

Adoration of the MagiandSolomonadored by the Queen of Shebafrom theFarnese Hoursby Giulio

Clovio marksthe end of the Italian Renaissanceofilluminated manuscript together with theIndex Librorum

Prohibitorum.

The new ideals of humanism, although more secular in some aspects, developed against

a Christianbackdrop, especially in the Northern Renaissance. Much, if not most, of the new art was

commissioned by or in dedication to theChurch.[16] However, the Renaissance had a profound effect

on contemporary theology, particularly in the way people perceived the relationship between man and

God.[16] Many of the period's foremost theologians were followers of the humanist method,

including Erasmus, Zwingli,Thomas More,Martin Luther, and John Calvin.

The Renaissance began in times of religious turmoil. The lateMiddle Ages saw a period of political

intrigue surrounding thePapacy, culminating in the Western Schism, in which three men

simultaneously claimed to be true Bishop ofRome.[62]While the schism was resolved by the Council of

Constance(1414), the 15th century saw a resulting reform movement known asConciliarism, which

sought to limit the pope's power. Although the papacy eventually emerged supreme in ecclesiastical

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