PowerPoint Presentation

Prepared by:Jonalyn D. CentenoPiagets Stages ofCognitive DevelopmentRandolph Ananayo(Professor)Stages of cognitive developmentby John PiagetWho is John Piaget?John Piaget was born on August 9, 1896, in Neuchtel, Switzerland. Over the course of his career in child psychology, he identified four stages of mental development, called schema. He also developed new fields of scientific study, including cognitive theory and developmental psychology. Piaget received theErasmus Prize in 1972 and the Balzan Prize in 1978. He died on September 16, 1980, in Geneva, Switzerland.

Early lifeBiologist and psychologist Jean Piaget was born on August 9, 1896, in Neuchtel, Switzerland. He was his parents first child. Piagets mother, Rebecca Jackson, attributed his intense early interest in the sciences to his own neurotic tendencies. Yet Piagets father, a medieval literature professor named Arthur, modeled a passionate dedication to his studiesa trait that Jean Piaget began to emulate from an early age. At just 10 years old, Piagets fascination with mollusks drew him to the local museum of natural history, where he stared at specimens for hours on end. When he was 11 and attending Neuchtel Latin High School, Piaget wrote a short scientific paper on the albino sparrow. By the time he was a teen, his papers on mollusks were being widely published. Piagets readers were unaware of his age and considered him an expert on the topic.

After high school, Piaget went on to study zoology at the University of Neuchtel, receiving his Ph.D. in the natural sciences in 1918. In 1918, Piaget spent a semester studying psychology underCarl Jung and Paul Eugen Bleuler at the University of Zrich, where Piaget developed a deeper interest in psychoanalysis. Over the course of the next year, he studied abnormal psychology at the Sorbonne in Paris.

Sensory motor stagebirth 2 years oldPiaget's ideas surrounding the Sensory Motor Stage are centred on the basis of a 'schema'. Schemas are mental representations or ideas about what things are and how we deal with them. Piaget deduced that the first schemas of an infant are to do with movement. Piaget believed that much of a baby's behaviour is triggered by certain stimuli, in that they are reflexive. A few weeks after birth, the baby begins to understand some of the information it is receiving from it's senses, and learns to use some muscles and limbs for movement. These developments are known as 'action schemas'.Babies are unable to consider anyone else's needs, wants or interests, and are therefore considered to be 'ego centric'.During the Sensory Motor Stage, knowledge about objects and the ways that they can be manipulated is acquired. Through the acquisition of information about self and the world, and the people in it, the baby begins to understand how one thing can cause or affect another, and begins to develop simple ideas about time and space.Babies have the ability to build up mental pictures of objects around them, from the knowledge that they have developed on what can be done with the object. Large amounts of an infant's experience is surrounding objects. What the objects are is irrelevant, more importance is placed on the baby being able to explore the object to see what can be done with it. At around the age of eight or nine months, infants are more interested in an object for the object's own sake.A discovery by Piaget surrounding this stage of development, was that when an object is taken from their sight, babies act as though the object has ceased to exist. By around eight to twelve months, infants begin to look for objects hidden, this is what is defined as 'Object Permanence'. This view has been challenged however, by Tom Bower, who showed that babies from one to four months have an idea of Object Permanence

Pre operational stage2 years 7 yearsDuring this stage, children's thought processes are developing, although they are still considered to be far from 'logical thought', in the adult sense of the word. The vocabulary of a child is also expanded and developed during this stage, as they change from babies and toddlers into 'little people'.Pre-operational children are usually 'ego centric', meaning that they are only able to consider things from their own point of view, and imagine that everyone shares this view, because it is the only one possible. Gradually during this stage, a certain amount of 'decentering' occurs. This is when someone stops believing that they are the centre of the world, and they are more able to imagine that something or someone else could be the centre of attention.'Animism' is also a characteristic of the Pre-operational stage. This is when a person has the belief that everything that exists has some kind of consciousness. An example of this is that children often believe that a car won't start because it is tired or sick, or they punish a piece of furniture when they run into it, because it must have been naughty to hurt them. A reason for this characteristic of the stage, is that the Pre-operational child often assumes that everyone and everything is like them. Therefore since the child can feel pain, and has emotions, so must everything else.

Concrete Operations Stage 7 years 11 yearsDuring this stage, the thought process becomes more rational, mature and 'adult like', or more 'operational', Although this process most often continues well into the teenage years. The process is divided by Piaget into two stages, the Concrete Operations, and the Formal Operations stage, which is normally undergone by adolescents.In the Concrete Operational stage, the child has the ability to develop logical thought about an object, if they are able to manipulate it. By comparison, however, in the Formal Operations stage, the thoughts are able to be manipulated and the presence of the object is not necessary for the thought to take place.Belief in animism and ego centric thought tends to decline during the Concrete Operational stage, although, remnants of this way of thinking are often found in adults.Piaget claims that before the beginning of this stage, children's ideas about different objects, are formed and dominated by the appearance of the object. For example, there appears to be more blocks when they are spread out, than when they are in a small pile. During the Concrete Operational Stage, children gradually develop the ability to 'conserve', or learn that objects are not always the way that they appear to be. This occurs when children are able to take in many different aspects of an object, simply through looking at it. Children are able to begin to imagine different scenarios, or 'what if' something were to happen. This is because they now have more 'operational' thought. Children are generally first able to conserve ideas about objects with which they are most comfortable.

Formal Operations Stage11 years 16 yearsFinally, in the formal operational stage of adolescence, the structures of development become the abstract, logically organized system of adult intelligence. When faced with a complex problem, the adolescent speculates about all possible solutions before trying them out in the real world.The formal operational stage begins around age 11 and is fully achieved by age 15, bringing with it the capacity for abstraction. This permits adolescents to reason beyound a world of concrete reality to a world of possibilities and to operate logically on symbols and information that do not necessarily refer to objects and events in the real world.There are 2 major characteristics of formal operational thought.The first is 'hypothetic-deductive reasoning'. When faced with a problem, adolescents come up with a general theory of all possible factors that might affect the outcome and deduce from it specific hypothese that might occur. They then systematically treat these hypothese to see which ones do in fact occur in the real world. Thus, adolescent problem solving begins with possibilty and proceeds to reality.The second important characteristic of this stage is that it is 'propositional' in nature. Adolescents can focus on verbal assertions and evaluate their logical validity without making refence to real-world circumstances. In contrast, concrete operational children can evaluate the logic of statements by considering them against concrete evidence only.

Erik EricksonCareer:When he finished high school, Erikson dabbled in art and spent some time traveling throughout Europe. At the suggestion of a friend, Erikson studiedpsychoanalysisand earned a certificate from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society.He also took a teaching position at a school created by Dorothy Burlingham, a friend ofAnna Freud's. He continued to work with Burlingham and Freud at the school for several years, met Sigmund Freud at a party, and even became Anna Freud's patient. "Psychoanalysis was not so formal then," he recalled. "I paid Miss Freud $7 a month, and we met almost every day. My analysis, which gave me self-awareness, led me not to fear being myself. We didn't use all those pseudoscientific terms then -- defense mechanism and the like -- so the process of self-awareness, painful at times, emerged in a liberating atmosphere."

Early lifeErikson's mother, Karla Abrahamsen, came from a prominentJewishfamily inCopenhagen. She was married to Jewish stockbroker Valdemar Isidor Salomonsen, but had been estranged from him for several months at the time Erik was conceived. Little is known about Erik's biological father except that he was a Danish gentile. On discovering her pregnancy, Karla fled toFrankfurt,Germany, where Erik was born on June 15, 1902 and was given the surname Salomonsen.[2]Following Erik's birth, Karla trained to be a nurse and moved toKarlsruhe. In 1905 she married Erik's Jewish pediatrician, Theodor Homburger. In 1908, Erik Salomonsen's name was changed to Erik Homberger, and in 1911 Erik was officially adopted by his stepfather.[3]The development ofidentityseems to have been one of Erikson's greatest concerns in his own life as well as in his theory. During his childhood and early adulthood he was known as Erik Homberger, and his parents kept the details of his birth a secret. He was a tall, blond, blue-eyed boy who was raised in the Jewish religion. At temple school, the kids teased him for being aNordic; at grammar school, they teased him for being Jewish.[4]At Das Humanistisch Gymnasium his main interests were art, history and languages, but he lacked interest in school and graduated without academic distinction.[5]After graduation, instead of attending medical school, as his stepfather had desired, he attended art school in Munich, but soon dropped out.Uncertain about his vocation and his fit in society, Erikson began a lengthy period of roaming about Germany and Italy as a wandering artist with his childhood friend Peter Blos and others. During this period he continued to struggle with questions about his father and competing ideas of ethnic, religious, and national identity.[4]Psychoanalytic experience and training[edit]When Erikson was twenty-five, his friend Peter Blos invited him to Vienna to tutor art at the small Burlingham-Rosenfeld School for children whose affluent parents were undergoing psychoanalysis bySigmund Freud's daughter,Anna Freud.[4]Anna noticed Erikson's sensitivity to children at the school and encouraged him to study psychoanalysis at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute, where prominent analystsAugust Aichhorn,Heinz HartmannandPaul Federnwere among those who supervised his theoretical studies. He specialized in child analysis and underwent a training analysis with Anna Freud.Helene Deutschand Edward Bibring supervised his initial treatment of an adult.[4]Simultaneously he studied theMontessori methodof education, which focused on child development and sexual stages..

Strengths and Weaknesses of Erik Eriksons WorkSome of the strengths concerning Eriksons work involve his eight stages. Erikson along with several other researchers found that his eight stages serve as a guide that holds across time and cultures as well. While other theorists refer to the ongoing approach of development as phases or transitions, Erikson was not afraid to characterize development as visibly marked stages. Eriksons eight stages serve as an outline when it comes to defining our culture or even comparing it to a culture that had existed a few centuries ago. Most experimental studies based on Eriksons work grip around his efforts to ascertain identity, but also around his outlook on adolescence. The Eriksonian theory is used based on the fact that it has been defined as well-equipped to resolve the crisis of early adulthood, this can be successfully reached once the crisis of adolescence has been resolved. Some of the weaknesses regarding Eriksons work also involve his eight stages. If we accept his personal understandings of what each stage stands for, then everything will be ok. What needs to be mentioned is that sometimes in different cultures the timing can be rather off when being compared to the eight stages. A quick example would be potty training. In some cultures babies are potty trained by the time that they are nine months of age. In other cultures a few years pass until they begin the potty training and are even breast fed up until the age of five. Another example is that some cultures people marry as early as the age of thirteen and start having children shortly after that. Today, in our culture we have the tendency to hold off on marriage until around the age of thirty. Another topic that has been pointed out by many theorists is that Eriksons theory is more applicable to boys than it is for girls. This can be linked back to the fact that he agreed with Freuds belief that personality differences between boys and girls are biologically based, which originate in the possession or lack of a penis (penis envy). Another controversial aspect refers to Eriksons work belief on identity formation. Something that Erikson did not realize at the time was that more attention should have been paid to the adult lifetime.Eriksons Psychosocial TheoryInfancy (Birth -18 months)Trust vs. Mistrust

Psychosocial Crisis: Trust vs. MistrustDeveloping trust is the first task of the ego, and it is never complete. The child will not let its mother out of sight without anxiety and rage because she has become an inner certainty as well as an outer predictability. The balance of trust with mistrust depends largely on the quality of the maternal relationship.Main question asked: Is my environment trustworthy or not?Central Task: Receiving carePositive Outcome: Trust in people and the environmentEgo Quality: HopeDefinition: Enduring belief that one can attain ones deep and essential wishesDevelopmental Task: Social attachment; Maturation of sensory, perceptual, and motor functions; Primitive causality.Significant Relations: MaternalparentErikson proposed that the concept of trust versus mistrust is present throughout an individuals entire life. Therefore if the concept is not addressed, taught and handled properly during infancy (when it is first introduced), the individual may be negatively affected and never fully immerse themselves in the world. For example, a person may hide themselves from the outside world and be unable to form healthy and long-lasting relationships with others, or even themselves. If an individual does not learn to trust themselves, others and the world around them then they may lose the virtue of hope, which is directly linked to this concept. If a person loses their belief in hope they will struggle with overcoming hard times and failures in their lives, and may never fully recover from them. This would prevent them from learning and maturing into a fully-developed person if the concept of trust versus mistrust was improperly learned, understood and used in all aspects of their lives.

Toddler (1 - 3 Years old)Autonomy vs. Shame & doubt

Psychosocial Crisis: Autonomy vs. Shame & doubtIf denied independence, the child will turn against his/her urges to manipulate and discriminate. Shame develops with the child's self-consciousness. Doubt has to do with having a front and back -- a "behind" subject to its own rules. Left over doubt may become paranoia. The sense of autonomy fostered in the child and modified as life progresses serves the preservation in economic and political life of a sense of justice.Main question asked: Do I need help from others or not.?When a child reaches the age of one to the age of three, Erikson explains, the child is developing a sense of autonomy . During this age, the toddler discovers he/she is no longer attached to the primary caregiver but is a separate individual (Gonzalez-Mena & Eyer, 2004). Autonomy is the independence a toddler strives for from caregivers. Toddlers autonomous behavior is a way of forming their own identity away from their caregivers (Bigner, 2006). This stage is a time where a toddler has the will to become independent. Shame and doubt is likely to occur when the toddler is not given any choices or boundaries because the toddler is determined to become independent. The strong will of a toddler may cause conflict between child and caregiver. Many parents are unaware of how to properly handle difficult situations in which they find themselves. Parents who are assertive and too demanding may find themselves in a power struggle with their toddler (Gonzalez-Mena & Eyer, 2006). In addition, parents may be too demanding for only good behavior from their toddler. Gonzalez-Mena and Eyer (2004) explain that demanding good behavior will only cause frustration for the toddler; instead, "it is far better for the child to see you as a support and an aid rather as an obstacle to his or her own developing capabilities and independence." Autonomy can be gained for the toddler when given reasonable choices and proper guidance from the caregiver. Parents can give healthy and wise choices to assist their child to succeed at this stage.

Child (4-6 Years)Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning, and attacking a task for the sake of being active and on the move. The child is learning to master the world around him or her, learning basic skills and principles of physics; things fall to the ground, not up; round things roll, how to zip and tie, count and speak with ease. At this stage the child wants to begin and complete his or her own actions for a purpose. Guilt is a new emotion and is confusing to the child; he or she may feel guilty over things which are not logically guilt producing, and he or she will feel guilt when his or her initiative does not produce the desired results.Main question asked: How moral am I?The development of courage and independence are what set preschoolers, ages three to six years of age, apart from other age groups when Erik Erikson discussed his third psychosocial stage. Young children in this category, ranging between three to six years of age, face the challenge of initiative versus guilt (Boer, 1997). As described in Bee and Boyd (2004), the child during this stage faces the complexities of planning and developing a sense of judgment. During this stage, the child learns to take initiative and prepare him or herself towards roles of leadership and goal achievement. Activities sought out by a child in this stage may include risk-taking behaviors, such as crossing a street on his or her own or riding a bike without a helmet; both examples involving self-limits. The child defines his or her own boundaries when taking initiative in crossing a street or riding a bike with no helmet, such as deciding to cross a street without looking both ways or choosing to ride a bike at his or her own pace with no helmet. Within instances requiring initiative, such as those previously mentioned, the child may also develop negative behaviors. These behaviors are a result of the child developing a sense of frustration for not being able to achieve his or her goal as planned and may engage in behaviors that seem aggressive, ruthless, and overly assertive to parents; aggressive behaviors, such as throwing objects, hitting, or yelling, are examples of observable behaviors during this stage. School Age (7-12 Years)Industry vs. InferiorityTo bring a productive situation to completion is an aim which gradually supersedes the whims and wishes of play. The fundamentals of technology are developed. To lose the hope of such "industrious" association may pull the child back to the more isolated, less conscious familial rivalry of the oedipal time.Main question asked: Am I good at what I do?According to Allen and Marotz (2003), "children at this age are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals." They work hard at "being responsible, being good and doing it right." They are now more reasonable to share and cooperate. Allen and Marotz (2003) also list some perceptual cognitive developmental traits specific for this age group: Children understand the concepts of space and time, in more logical, practical ways,beginning to grasp Piaget's concepts of conservation, gain better understanding of cause and effect and understand calendar time.At this stage, children are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills: reading, writing, telling time. They also get to form moral values, recognize cultural and individual differences and are able to manage most of their personal need and grooming with minimal assistance (Allen and Marotz, 2003). At this stage, children might express their independence by being disobedient, using back talk and being rebellious. Children in this stage have to learn the feeling of success. If the child is allowed too little success, he or she will develop a sense of inferiority or incompetence. Too much industry leads to narrow virtuosity (children who are not allowed to be children). A balance between industry and inferiority leads to competency. According to Robert Brooks (2001) parents can nurture self esteem and resilience in different ways: a. Understand and accept children's learning problems (highlight strengths) b. Teach children how to solve problems and make decisions c. Reinforce responsibility by having children contribute d. Learn from, rather than feeling defeated by mistakes e. Make the child feel special (create special times alone with them each week)

Adolescence (12-19 Years)Identity vs. Role Confusion

The adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others. Superego identity is the accrued confidence that the outer sameness and continuity prepared in the future are matched by the sameness and continuity of one's meaning for oneself, as evidenced in the promise of a career. The ability to settle on a school or occupational identity is pleasant.Young Adulthood (19-34 yearsIntimacy vs. Isolation

Body and ego must be masters of organ modes and of the other nuclear conflicts in order to face the fear of ego loss in situations which call for self-abandon. The avoidance of these experiences leads to openness and self-absorption.According to Erik Erikson the young adult stage, Intimacy vs. Isolation, is emphasized around the ages of 19 to 34. At the start of the Intimacy vs. Isolation stage, identity vs. role confusion is coming to an end and it still lingers at the foundation of the stage (Erikson 1950). Young adults are still eager to blend their identities with friends. They want to fit in. When we arrive at stage six we should be prepared for intimacy, a close personal relationship, and isolation, the fact of being alone and separated from others. A balance between intimacy and isolation makes love possible as we must know how to be alone in order to learn to truly love. Having a balanced stage 6 will help tremendously later in the coming stages when unwelcome or unexpected isolation surfaces, for example, the death of a spouse or a loved one (Erikson, Erikson, Kivnick 1986). In stage six, one is ready for commitments, is able to handle real relationships to a certain extent (Erikson 1950), after all, establishing a real relationship takes practice and many of us do not marry our first love. Our ego should also be prepared for rejection, the challenge of break-ups, and isolation, being alone. Erikson believes we are sometimes isolated due to the above. We are afraid of rejection; being turned down, our partners breaking up with us. We are familiar with pain and to some of us rejection is painful, our egos cannot bear the pain. Erikson also argues that Intimacy has a counterpart: Distantiation: the readiness to isolate and if necessary, to destroy those forces and people whose essence seems dangerous to our own, and whose territory seems to encroach on the extent of ones intimate relations (1950)

Adulthood (35-60 Years)Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity is the concern of establishing and guiding the next generation. Socially-valued work and disciplines are expressions of generativity. Simply having or wantingchildrendoes not in and of itself achieve generativity. The great conflict at this stage is for an individual come up with something that society would remember them for. For some individuals, it goes to funding or finding NGOs(or different organizations), schools, families and maintain them. This is then generativity for them.

Late Adulthood (from 60 years)IntegrityvsDespairOne strength of Erikson's theory is that it acknowledges that development continues throughout thelife cycle. According to Erikson, even older people are not finished developing. Older people who are coming to terms with their own mortality have a deep needto look over their whole lives. in alife reviewa person who can look back over theirlife history, on the good times with gladness andsatisfaction, on hard times withself-respect, and on mistakes and regrets withforgiveness, and can find a new sense ofintegrityand a readiness for whatever life ordeathmay bring. A person caught up in old sadness, unable to forgive themselves or others for perceived wrongs, anddissatisfiedwith the life they've led, will easily drift intodepressionanddespair.