Report of Training CIITM

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ABOUT DOORDARSHAN KENDRA JAIPUR

The first television broadcast was viewed by the people of Rajasthan on 1st August 1975

under the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment targeting the districts of Kota, Sawai

Madhopur and Jaipur. The footprint of the American satellite ATS -6 fell on 388 villages in these

districts which were provided with Direct Receiving sets. Special educational programmes were

then produced at Delhi.

On 1st March 1977, Upgrah Doordarshan Kendra (UDK) was set up at Delhi. The

programmes produced at UDK for Jaipur were relayed via high power transmitters. On 1st June

1987, Jaipur Doordarshan Kendra was set up. Initially the Kendra produced only 30 minutes of

programming and this was gradually increased. Presently the Kendra originates about four hours

of programming daily.

The terrestrial channel covers 78% by population and 71% by area of Rajasthan.

The total numbers of transmitters are:

1. High Power: 8 Nos.

2. Low Power: 80 Nos.

3. Very Low Power: 18 Nos.

4. Transposes: 2 Nos.

Transmitters in Rajasthan for DD2 3 Nos (Jaipur, Jodhpur & Kota)

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1. AUDIO BASICS

VOICE UNIT

1. BEL AND DECIBEL

• Bel is defined as the logarithm to the base 10 of the ratio of the change in power level for

audio measurement.

• Bel = log (p2/p1)

• Where p1 and p2 are the powers being compared.

• In practice, the unit Bel was found to be high. Hence the unit decibel was defined which

is equal to one tenth of a Bel.

• Decibel = 10log(p2/p1)

• The Decibel is called as dB. Although dB was originally derived for audio, but now the

dB unit is commonly used for R.F. Signal also. Change in audio power of 1 dB is barely

noticeable. However some people can notice a change of 2 dB.

• A positive (+) sign indicates that P2 is greater than P1 and it may be stated as “P2 is so

many dB above P1”. A negative (-) sign indicates that P2 is less than P1 and it may be

stated as “P2 is so many dB below P1”.

• 0 dB indicates that P2 is equal to P1.

2. DBM

• The advantages of calculating power ratios by the dB method is clearly demonstrated by

the following example :

• The power output of a particular microphone is of a milli watt.

• This signal is then amplified to 1 kilowatt power. The system gain expressed as an

arithmetical ratio is 10 000 000 000 000 = 1013. Expressed in the decibel notation this

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becomes 130 dB. The microphone power output could be stated as –70 dB relative to 1

mw and the audio power output as +60 dB relative to 1 mw.

• dB is used only to indicate Gain or Loss in a system like amplifier or attenuator

respectively.

Reference levels

• The dB may be used to indicate absolute power provided that the reference level is

known. Without a reference level power expressed in dB is meaningless.

• A reference level of 1 mill watt is widely used and accepted internationally. Using this as

reference level a power of 1 watt may be specified as :

a) + 30 dB (Reference level 1 milli watt)

b) + 30 dB ( 0 dB = 1 mw)

c) + 30 dBm

• (dBm indicates a power expressed in dB with a reference level of 1 mW).

• In Broadcasting, 1 Watt is generally expressed as +30 dBm.

TV STUDIO AUDIO

Sound mixing and control

As a rule, in television, sound accompanies the picture. Several microphones are

generally required for production of complex television programs besides other audio sources

also called marred sound from telecine, VTR, and audio tape/disc replays. All these audio

sources are connected to the sound control console.

The sounds from different sources are controlled and mixed in accordance with the

requirement of the program. Split second accuracy is required for providing the correc

audio source in synchronization with the picture thus requiring lot of skill from the engineer

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Even the level of sound sometimes is varied in accordance with the shot composition called

prospective.

AUDIO FACILITIES

An audio mixing console, with a number of inputs, say about 32 inputs is provided in

major studio. This includes special facilities such as equalization, PFL, phase reversal, echo

send/receive and Digital reverberation units at some places console tape recorders and disc

reproducers provide for playing back/creating audio effects as independent sources (Unmarried)

to the switcher.

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Microphones

Introduction

A microphone is a transducer that converts acoustic energy to electrical energy.

There are five key types of microphone that we may use

1. Moving coil microphone

2. Ribbon microphone

3. Condenser microphone

4. Electret microphone

5. Crystal microphone

All employ different mechanisms to convert sound energy to electrical energy. Hence all

have different advantages and disadvantages. We will hence need to choose the right type of

microphone for the right type of application.

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The microphone is not expected to deliver electrical power- it operates into HIGH

ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE such that there is (approximately) zero current - VOLTAGE is the

output variable. Consequently, it is conventional to talk of the "Open Circuit" response

The microphone may be sensitive to any combination of acoustic variables, but the

simplest case is a microphone that is responsive to pressure input.

Microphone Sensitivity

When choosing a microphone pressure sensitivity is an important parameter. A

microphone’s sensitivity (pressure sensitivity) is defined as the voltage generated in response to

a certain pressure input.

The common notation is:

M0 (Volts/Pascal)

Alternatively a microphone’s sensitivity can be expressed in logarithmic form. As with

pressure and power, voltages can be expressed in decibels relative to a reference.

I.e. dB re 1 V/Pa

So converting to this scale…

dB re 1 V/Pa

Generally the greater the pressure sensitivity the more sensitive the microphone is to

quieter sounds. Also the greater the signal will be produced relative to noise in cables, etc.

However, as we shall see a high sensitivity may not be the first consideration when

choosing a microphone for a given application.

Frequency Response

The frequency response of a microphone is the characteristic graph obtained by recording

the voltage output level in dB, while the microphone is exposed to a range (sweep) of pure

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sinusoidal tones of equal intensity. The frequency response is often given as a graph or stated as

variation within a given range, e.g.

Frequency response 3dB from 20Hz - 20 kHz

The frequency response gives important information about the tonal balance of the

microphone under different acoustic conditions. For high quality instrument grade microphones a

large flat range (20Hz to 20 KHz) is required.

1. Moving Coil Microphone

The moving coil microphone works on the principle of Electromagnetic Induction. As a

copper wire coil moves in the magnetic field a voltage is generated as given by…

Where V is resulting voltage from B is magnetic field, l is the length of the copper wire

and u is the velocity at which it passes thought the field. An incoming sound causes pressure

variations which cause a corresponding movement of the microphone’s diaphragm and hence the

attached coil in a magnetic field. Moving coil microphones are cheap and robust making them

good for the rigors of live performance and touring. They are especially suited for the close

miking of Bass and Guitar speaker cabinets and Drum kits. They are also good for live vocals as

their resonance peak of around 5 kHz provides an inbuilt presence boost that improves

speech/singing intelligibility

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The Shure SM58 shown is a classic moving coil microphone being an industry standard

for live vocal, cabinet and drum miking. They are rugged and don’t require phantom power (see

later).

However the inertia of the coil reduces high frequency response. Hence they are NOT

best suited to studio applications where quality and subtlety are important such as high quality

vocal recording or acoustic instrument micking.

The above shows the frequency response of an SM58

• Frequency range 20 Hz...15 kHz

• Sensitivity of SM58 … 2.8mV/Pa (-54.5 dBV/Pa)

2. Condenser Microphones

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A thin plastic diaphragm coated with an extremely thin vaporized metal (gold or

aluminum) is stretched over a shallow cavity closed by a metal back plate. The resultant

capacitor can be charged with 48 Volts DC phantom power. As the diaphragm moves in

sympathy with sound pressure the distance with respect to the back plate varies, so does

capacitance (ability to hold charges) causing current and hence a change in voltage

(mechano/electrical transduction).The output impedance must be very high (100Mohms) to

achieved useful signal which then must be amplified (pre-amp stage).

Size and shape of diaphragm doesn’t have to be dictated by suitable positioning along

magnetic field, hence it can be a very light disk (12-25mm diameter).

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The resultant sound quality is hence very good, capacitor mics being the standard for top

quality music and audio recording.

Convenience is reduced by the need for phantom power and a susceptibility to humidity.

The Neumann U87 is a classic condenser microphone be an industry standard for vocals

and orchestra instruments. The microphone has a warm sound clear sound.

U87 Frequency Response (cardioid

• Frequency range 20 Hz...20 kHz

• Pressure Sensitivity 20/28/22 mV/Pa @ 1kHz for omni/polar/figure8 respectively

• Maximum SPL for THD 0.5% 117 dB (cardioid)

• Maximum SPL for THD 0.5% with pre attenuation 127 dB

Factors influencing open circuit sensitivity:

If the polarizing field V pol too big then sparks can puncture the thin metal diaphragm. If

the displacement response of the diaphragm is too big or then the microphone.

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• operates at a lower bandwidth

• has a disrupted field (polar effects)

• experiences distortion

Practical Construction

The internal components of an instrumentation grade pressure microphone, such as this

Bruel and Kjaer 4190

Are shown in the exploded diagram....

The microphone has zero response at zero frequency due to:

i) Pressure release vent (component 4)ii) Blocking capacitor

The DC blocking capacitor simply prevents the phantom power from entering the head

amplifier, allowing only audio signals to pass.

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3. Electret Microphones

These work as capacitor microphone except a permanent (electrostatic) charge applied to

microphone during manufacture removing need for phantom power. However the diaphragm

requires a larger mass to hold the electrostatic charge adversely effecting frequency responseElectrets tend to be cheap, compact and easy to mass-produce.

Classic applications include built in microphones for portable cassettes and tie clip

microphones.

However, recently some high quality examples have begun to appear such as the AKG

C1000S. Called ‘Back Electrets’ they can have similar diaphragms to traditional condenser

microphones by applying the electrostatic charge to the rigid back plate.

AKG C1000S Frequency Response

• Sensitivity 6 mV/Pa (-45 dBV)

• MAXIMUM SPL FOR 0.5% THD: 137 dB

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The AKG C1000S represents terrific value for money having a

high quality response without the need for external phantom power of pre

amplification (an internal nine volt battery is used for the preamp stage).

They’re great for recording vocals and acoustic instruments, and are

convenient enough for live applications though humidity can be a

problem so they should be looked after. However, professional studios





The ROYER R121 ribbon microphone gives a beautifully warm and smooth sound

quality.

ROYER R121 Frequency Response

•

Frequency Response: 30-15,000 Hz +/- 3dB• Sensitivity: >-53 dBv Re. 1v/pa

• Maximum SPL: >135dB

5. Crystal Microphones

These microphones utilize the ‘piezoelectric effect’. Piezo (Greek for Push) electric

solids produce a voltage between surfaces when a mechanical stress is applied. Conversely theyexhibit deformation when a voltage is applied. This is due to structure of their crystal lattice.

Certain types of crystal such as Quartz and Rochelle Salt will have the charges of their respective

molecules polarized by deformation. There is a cumulative effect through out the crystal creating

a voltage.

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Here’s how the effect can be applied to a microphone.

Sound waves couple their movement to a diaphragm which intern communicates the

resulting vibration to an attached piezo electric crystal. Charges and hence voltages are

proportional to the crystal’s bending. The frequency response of crystal microphones is often

limited to a relatively narrow band restricting their application. Also older Rochelle Salt versions

were sensitive to moisture, though modern choices of ceramic peizo electric crystals (barium

titanate and lead zirconate) are more robust. Crystal microphones tend to be used for low quality

audio applications such as telephone handsets since they don’t require phantom powering or

amplification and are cheap to produce. However, there are some high quality versions, such as

CADs HM50, which are ideal for specific applications.

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The HM 50’s is ‘A superb omni directional crystal microphone used by discriminating

Harmonica musicians. The HM 50’s high output crystal element has been factory tuned to

provide just the right presence or “bite” to create the ideal sound for blues and many other styles

of play.’

Piezo electric transducers can be attached directly to the sound board of acoustic

instruments such as guitars. The resulting vibration produces a signal large enough to be sent to

guitar amplifiers. They are also are used in accelerometers for vibration analysis.

• Frequency Response: 30 Hz - 8 kHz

• Open Circuit Voltage: -49 dB (0 dB = 1 volt per microbar) @

max. gain 35 mV/Pascal

Directional Properties of Microphones

Every microphone has a property known as directionality. This describes the

microphone's sensitivity to sound from various directions. Some microphones pick up sound

equally from all directions; others pick up sound only from one direction or a particular

combination of directions. The types of directionality are divided into three main categories:

1. Omni directionalPicks up sound evenly from all directions (omni means "all" or "every").

2. Unidirectional

Picks up sound predominantly from one direction. This includes cardioid and

hypercardioid microphones (see below).

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3. Bidirectional

Picks up sound from two opposite directions.

Omni directional

Cardioid

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Hypercardioid

Bidirectional

FUNDAMENTALS OF LIGHTING

Lighting can emphasize important details or hide them. It can flatter a subject by bringing

out positive attributes, and it can de-emphasize or hide less attractive attributes. Lighting can

even impart a sinister and hostile look.

Television is based on the medium of light; in fact, without light there could be no video.

Just as sound must be skillfully controlled in audio production, light must be expertly controlled

in television.

But, before we can successfully control light, we need to understand and control its three

basic characteristics:

• coherence (quality)

• color temperature

• intensity

1. Light Coherence

Coherence, often called quality, is the hardness or softness of light. Light quality is

probably the least understood and the most neglected of the three variables.

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In the photos above the objects are exactly the same. Two of the variables of light are

also exactly the same: intensity and color temperature. The only difference is the third variable:

the coherence of the light. The first photo was shot with soft light, the second with a hard light

source. (In Module 35, "Altering Appearances," we'll look at additional factors that can affect the

appearance of subject matter.)

1.Hard Light

Light that is transmitted directly from a small point source results in relatively coherent

(parallel) rays. This gives the light a hard, crisp, sharply defined appearance. The light

from a clear, unfrosted light bulb, a focused spotlight, or the noonday sun in a clear sky, all

represent hard light sources.

Point

Source

OBJECT

Single

HardEdge

shadow

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Hard light casts a sharp, clearly defined shadow. When hard light is used to illuminate a

face, imperfections in the skin stand out. The result is less than flattering. But in other

applications, such as bringing out the texture in leather, or the engraving on a piece of jewelry

this can be an advantage.

Fig. Component of a hard Light

Note in the photo on the left how the writing stands out. Also note the clearly defined

shadow of the flower at the bottom of the photo. Compare this photo with the one in the section

below (with soft light) where the letters are hard to read and the shadow of the flower has all but

disappeared.

Several types of lighting instruments are used in TV to create hard light, including the

beam-spot projector and the ellipsoidal spotlight.

2. Soft Light

Soft (diffused) light has the opposite effect. As shown in the photo on the left below, soft

light tends to hide surface irregularities and detail

Large areaSource

OBJECT

MultipleShadows

GivingSOFT

edge

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Spun-glass diffusers (above) are used over the front of lights to soften and diffuse their

beams. Note resulting photo on the left. At the same time, diffusers also reduce the intensity of

light.

Soft light sources are used in production to create a broad, even area of light. In the field,

videographers often rely on umbrella reflectors (on the right, below) to create a soft lighting

effect. As you can see, this is simply a light bounced off the inside of a silver or white, umbrella-

like reflector. The illustration below on the left shows a much heavier soft light that is

commonly hung from the grid in studios

Because soft light tends to hide lines, wrinkles and blemishes, it's desirable in doing

glamour work. The photo of the model on the left was shot with soft light.

A soft light source placed close to the camera minimizes surface detail. The effect is

commonly referred to as flat lighting.

Although it has certain applications, especially in extreme close-ups of objects where

shadows would obscure important details, flat lighting leaves subject matter somewhat

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"dimensionless." When used over a large area, it can impart an arid and sterile-looking

appearance.

Color TemperatureAlthough the second attribute of light, color temperature, refers to its basic color, we're

also speaking of a characteristic of light that goes beyond the obvious.

As we've noted, under normal conditions approximate color consistency comes into play

and automatically makes a perceptual adjustments for these different sources of light.

Although light can be any color between infrared and ultraviolet, there are two basiccolor standards: 3,200K (Kelvin) for incandescent lamps used in studios and 5,500K for average

daylight.

Light Intensity

The third and last lighting variable is intensity. As we will see, the control of light

intensity (or quantity) represents a major variable in dramatic production.

Light intensity (quantity) is measured in foot-candles (candela) in the United States, or in

lux in most other countries. Even in the United States "lux" seems to be replacing "foot-candles."

As we've noted, a foot-candle equals about 10.74 lux (or, for a rough conversion, multiply foot-

candles by 10 to get lux).

To provide some points of reference:

1. Sunlight on an average day ranges from 32,000 to 100,000 lux.

2. TV studios are lit at about 1,000 lux.

3. A bright office has about 400 lux.

4. Moonlight represents about 1 lux.

5. Starlight measures a mere 0.00005 lux.

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The Key Light

In typical lighting setups, lighting instruments serve four functions:

• key lights

• fill lights

• back lights

• background lights

The photo below was shot with so-called formula or three-point lighting.

If you study this photo you may detect four light

sources:

• one on the left (the key light )

• one of the right (a much dimmer fill light )

• one on the hair (a back light )

• one on the background (a background light )

The combination effect of these four lights (put in exactly the right place, at exactly the

right intensity and with the right quality/coherence), creates an optimum over-all effect.

Key Light Considerations

As the name implies, the key light is the main light.The key light highlights the form,

dimension and surface detail of subject matter. In terms of coherence or quality, it should be in

the middle of the hard-to-soft range. As you can see from some of the illustrations in these

chapters, light that is either too hard or too soft is not desirable for most subject matter. A

"middle ground" is achieved with a Fresnel light. In three-point (formula) lighting the key light is

placed at an angle of between 30- and 45-degrees from either the left or the right of the camera.

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In the photograph of the model above, the key light is on the left, just as it's shown here.

Forty-five degrees off to one side is best (as shown in the drawing), because, among other

things, it brings out more texture and form (dimension) in the subject. For the sake of

consistency, the 45-degree angle will be used throughout this discussion.

This brings us to the rule we'll need to keep in mind, especially if multiple cameras and

camera angles are involved in the production.

The Key's Vertical Angle

We have established that the horizontal angle for the key light is approximately 45-

degrees to the left or right of the subject in relation to the camera. One other key light angle

should be considered: elevation.

As shown below, this angle is also commonly 45 degrees for the key light.

Some lighting directors prefer to place the key right next to the camera, or at a vertical

angle of less than 30 degrees. Sometimes in limited on-location conditions this may be

unavoidable.

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However, three problems result from reducing these angles:

• The full illusion of depth and form will be sacrificed (not especially desirable unless you

want to create a flat effect with minimal surface detail).

• There is a risk of having shadows from the key light appear on the background directly

behind the subject (where they are most objectionable).

• The talent is forced to look almost directly into a bright key light when they try to look at

their camera, which can result in squinting, not to mention make reading a camera prompter

difficult...

Ideally, when the talent face their close-up camera they should see the key light 45-

degrees off to one side of the camera at an elevation of about 45-degrees-which is not unlike the

effect we often see outside in sunlight.

The Fill Light

Ideally, the fill light should be about 90 degrees away from the key light.

This means that if you draw lines from the key to the subject and then to the fill light,

you'll create a right angle.

Although the fill can be positioned at any point from right beside the camera to 45

degrees away, it's safest to place the fill 45 degrees from the camera.

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By lighting a full 90 degree area, an important margin of safety is created in case subjects

unexpectedly move and camera angles have to be changed during the production.

Although the horizontal angle for the key should be about 45-degrees, the vertical angle

of the fill is less critical.

Generally, the fill is placed just above the camera, as shown above, which means it ends

up being slightly lower than the key. In

this position it can easily do what it's

intended to do: partially fill in the shadows

created by the key light.

The height of the fill can be

lowered from the grid to the proper angle

by an extension rod (pipe) or by a counterbalanced extension device shown above on the right.

We've suggested that the fill light should be softer than the key. A soft light source is able

to subtly fill in some of the key's shadows without creating a second catch light in the eyes.

Note in the photo here how the shadow from the key on the cheek is only partially

removed by the fill, creating a gradual rounding off of the key light on the cheek.

This key-fill difference provides much of the perception of three dimensions that'sdesirable in a medium that's limited to two dimensions. If a key light puts out a wide beam of

light, part of this light can be bounced off of a reflector board to act as a fill.

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The Back Light

At this point in formula lighting we've covered two of the three lights on the subject.

The third point is represented by the back light. The function of the back light is to

separate the subject from the background by

creating a subtle rim of light around the subject.

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The back light, sometimes called a hair light, should be placed directly behind the subject

in relation to the close-up camera.

From an overhead perspective you should be able to draw a straight line from the lens of

the close-up camera, through the subject, directly to the back light. Note drawing above.

Although the elevation of the back light is often dictated by conditions, a 45 degree angle

is most desirable. If the back light is too low, it will be picked up by the camera in wide shots; if

it's too high it will spill over the top of the subject's head, lighting up the tip of the nose, creating

"the Rudolph effect," after a well-known reindeer.

Compared to the key, a smaller, lower-wattage instrument can be used for a back light for

two reasons. First, back lights are often placed closer to the subject than the key light, and,

second, with subjects confined to a limited area like a chair, the beams of most Fresnel lights can

easily be "pinned down" (focused into a narrower beam) to intensify the beam.

Background Lights

Background lights are used to illuminate the background area and add depth and

separation between scene elements. (Remember that a back light is designed to light up the back

of subjects and a background light is designed to light up the front of backgrounds.) The effect of

the backlight is shown below.

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Once the background light is added, the lighting setup is complete, as shown in the

drawing on the right above.

Any type of light can be used as a background light as long as it provides fairly even

illumination across the background, does not hit the central subject matter, and is at the

appropriate intensity.

If the background has detail or texture, you will want to put the background light on the

same side as the key, as shown in the drawing above. This keeps the dominant light consistent in

the scene.

Note in the photo on the left above that you can see the effect of both the back light and

the background lights.

Lighting Instruments

"Quartz" Lamps

Almost all incandescent lamps used in TV production are tungsten-halogen lamps

(commonly called quartz lamps). They normally range from 500 to 2,000 watts.

This type of lamp is more efficient than the common light bulb-type incandescent lamp,

and it does not darken with age.

Ceramic Lights

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Ceramic lamps, which were introduced by the Arri Company in 2006, address several of

the shortcomings of quartz (tungsten-halogen) lamps.

First, they are much more efficient. A 250-watt ceramic spot provides as much light as a

conventional 1,000-watt tungsten-halogen light. This means that for the same amount of light

they take one-quarter the power.

Next, they operate at a much cooler temperature. If you touch a quartz lighting fixture

while it's on, you would probably get a rather painful burn. Ceramic lights get warm, but not

excessively hot.

Third, ceramic lamps last about eight times as long as a quartz, or tungsten halogen lamp.

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HMI Lights

HMI lights also have several advantages over standard quartz or incandescent lights.

First, compared to standard incandescent lights they deliver five times the light output per

watt.

This means that they generate less heat, which is an important consideration when

shooting inside in a confined space. (Incidentally, HMI stands for Hydrargyrum Medium Arc-

length Iodide.)

Fresnels

Thus far we've been talking about the lamps used in lighting instruments. These lamps must be

mounted in some sort of housing.

For decades the most widely used has been the Fresnel (pronounced fra-nell). The HMI light

pictured above is mounted in housing with a Fresnel lens (see below).

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Although these lights used to be so bulky and heavy that they were confined to studios, recent

versions are small enough to be packed away in lighting kits and used on location.

The Fresnel lens in the front of the light (named for the person who devised it) consists of

concentric circles that both concentrate and slightly diffuse the light. Note the photo on the lef

below. The coherence (quality) of the resulting light represents an ideal blend between hard and

soft. In the studio these lights are typically hung from a grid in the ceiling.

Scoops

Scoops produce a softer light than Fresnels. The

incandescent (tungsten-halogen) lamps they normally

use range from 500 to 2,000 watts.

Because there is no lens, the light is not projected any

significant distance. As we will see, scoops are commonly used in the

studio for fill light.

Note that this scoop shown here has a square filter frame attached to the front. Colored

gels, diffusers, and scrims can be slid into this frame to change the light in various ways.

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Barn doors

From lighting instruments themselves we now turn to attachments that are used with

these lights.

Adjustable black metal flaps called barn doors can be attached to some lights to mask off

unwanted light and to keep it from spilling into areas where it's not needed.

While barn doors provide a soft cutoff

(edge) to the perimeters of the light, flags provide

a sharper, more defined cutoff point.

TV STUDIO CHAIN

In Doordarshan Studio programme can be recorded or transmitted. Studio can be dividedinto three major areas such as:

1. Action Area (i.e. Studio).

2. Production Control Room (P.C.R)

3. Central Apparatus Room (C.A.R).

1. Action Area

This place requires large space and ceiling. Artist gives performance in this area

Typical size of TV studio is 20 x 20 x 8.5 meters. Requirement for a TV Studio:-

i. Very efficient air conditioning.

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ii. Uniform and even flooring for smooth operation of camera.

iii. Acoustic treatment.

iv. Communication between studio and P.C.R.

v. Three or more cameras with teleprompter.

vi. Pick up wall sockets for audio operations.

vii. Tie lines for video & audio from P.C.R.

viii. Cyclorama and curtain.

ix. Audio & Video monitoring facilities.

x. Alarming light, safety devices like fire alarm system, fire fighting equipment &

digital clock display.

2. Production Control Room (P.C.R)

Activities in this area are:-

i. Monitoring facilities for all the input and output sources (audio & video).

ii. Communication facilities with all technical areas and studio floor.

iii. Video & audio switcher for smooth switching.

iv. Ampex Digital optics (A.D.O) for getting various digital effects.

v. Character Generator (C.G) for Titles & Credit captions.

vi. Camera Control Unit (CCU) for controlling video level, color matching and other

various parameters of video.

vii. Light control room - A large number of lights are used to meet the needs of key

fill and back lights. Modern TV studios have a computer controlled system. The intensities of

various lights can be controlled from the light control unit.

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viii. Video Tape Recorder room (VTR)

In VTR room few broadcast standard video cassette recorders (VCRs) are provided for

recording and play back purposes.

3. Central Apparatus Room (CAR).

This is the nerve centre for a television station. Activities in this area are:

i. Distribution of regulated power supply to different technical areas.

ii. Sync pulse generator (S.P.G).

iii. Electronics for camera chain, video switcher, A.D.O & other equipment.

iv. Microwave links.

v. Patch panel for audio & video lines.

Video ChainThe block diagram on facing page connects all these sections and it can be observed that

the CAR is the nodal area. Now let us follow a CAM-I signal. CAM-I first goes to a Camera

electronics in CAR via a multi-core cable, the signal is then matched/adjusted for quality in CCU

and then like any other sources it goes to video switcher via PP (Patch Panel) and respective

VDAs(Video Distribution Amplifiers) and optional Hum compensator/Cable equalizers.

Output from the switcher goes to stabilizing amplifier via PP and VDAs. Output from

the stab. Is further distributed to various destinations. It may be noted that the use of VDAshelps to monitor the video signal at different locations and the use of PP is very helpful for

emergency arrangements during breakdowns and trouble shooting. A separate monitoring bus is

provided in CCU, LCU and END CONTROL with sources as shown. END CONTROL also has

35



a remote for the adjustment of levels etc. in the STAB AMP unit. Route for the other sources is

similar to this and can be understood from the block schematic.

Block Diagram of Video Chain Shown in Figure: - 1.

Area’s connected with Studio Chain:

1. Studio

2. CCU - Camera Control Unit

3. LCR - Light Control Room

4. PCR - Production Central Room

5. VTR - Video Tape Recording (VCR)

6. CAR - Central Apparatus Room

7. MSR - Master Switching Room

8. M/W - Microwave Room

9. FS - Frame Synchronizer

10. M - Monitors & Waveform Monitors

11. PP - Patch Panel

12. VDA - Video Distribution Amplifier

13. ADO - Ampex Digital Optics14. CG - Character Generator

15. OBS - O.B.Signal

16. SPG - Sync Pulse Generator

36



CCU

CCU

CCU

(Pre View)

OBS

ADO

VDA

VDA

VDA

CG

FS

SPG 1

1

2

3

VCRVDA

VDA

Electronics&CAMERA PP

M

VIDEO

SWI

TCHER

VCR

SPG 2

C/O

OTHER SOURCES

P/V

MSR

MW

STAB AMPLIFIER

Fig. 1 Block diagram of Video Chain

TV CAMERA

A TV Camera consists of four sections.

37



1. Camera lens and optics - To form optical image on the face plate of a pick up

device.

2. Optical Block.

3. Transducer or pick up device – To convert optical image into an electrical

signal.

4. Electronics - To process output of a transducer to get a Color Composite Video

Signal. (CCVS).

1. Camera Lens - The lens for a video camera has following sections :-

I. Focus - To form a focused optical image.

II. Zoom Section - A lens with a variable focal length is called as Zoom lens. For

getting different composition of pictures like long shot or close up, lens with variable focal

length is required.

III. Aperture or In’s Control - Intensity of the light can be controlled by changing

the In’s of the camera. In’s can be operated in manual mode or it can be automatic.

2. Optical Block - Optical Block consists of filters and beam splitter. Beam splitter

splits the incoming light into three beams i.e. red, green and blue.

3. Transducer or Pickup device -

38



I. Photo emissive material - These materials emit electrons when the light falls on them

Amount of emitted electrons depends on the light. These cameras are bulky and need lot o

light. These are no longer in use.

II. Charge coupled devices (CCD Camera) - These semiconductor devices convert light into a

charge image which is collected at a high speed to form a signal.

4. Electronics - The signal received from the pick up device is amplified and processed to

get a CCV signal.

How picture signals are produced in the TV camera are shown in figure.

The latter camera, and in fact most of today's video cameras, use an

imaging chip, such as the CCD shown on the left. Many cameras

now use a CMOS chip, but at this point the distinction is not that

important.

The most common chip sizes are 1/4 inch, 1/3 inch, 1/2 inch and 2/3

inch (the size of the little box shown near the center of the CCD chip

above).

Video Resolution

39



Video resolution is a measure of the ability of a video camera to reproduce fine detail.

The higher the resolution -- the more distinct lines in a given space that the camera can

discern -- the sharper the picture will look. We'll take a closer look at how this is measured in a

moment.

The standard NTSC broadcast TV system can potentially produce a picture resolution

equal to about 300 lines of horizontal resolution. (This is after it goes through the broadcast

process. What you see in a TV control room is generally much higher.)

CATV, DVD, HDTVD, and digital satellite TV transmissions go beyond 400 lines of

resolution. Note that the number of lines of resolution is different than the total number of

horizontal scanning lines, which are 525 or 625 in SDTV.

Contrast Ratio

Contrast Ratio is a measurement of the difference in brightness between the whitest

white and the darkest black within an image. A ratio of 300:1 means the brightest point in the

image is 300 times as bright as the darkest point. A higher contrast ratio therefore means a larger

difference in brightness.

Contrast ratio is of interest in two situations:

1. Cameras: When recording an image (video, film, photography)

2. TVs, Monitors, etc. When choosing or setting up a playback device (TV

computer monitor, etc)

40

http://www.mediacollege.com/lighting/contrast-ratio/camera.html

http://www.mediacollege.com/lighting/contrast-ratio/tv.html

http://www.mediacollege.com/lighting/contrast-ratio/camera.html

http://www.mediacollege.com/lighting/contrast-ratio/tv.html



Camera Angles

The term camera angle means slightly different things to different people but it always refers to

the way a shot is composed. Some people use it to include all camera shot types, others use it to

specifically mean the angle between the camera and the subject. We will concentrate on theliteral interpretation of camera angles, that is, the angle of the camera relative to the subject.

• Eye-Level

This is the most common view, being the real-world angle that we are all used to. It

shows subjects as we would expect to see them in real life. It is a fairly neutral shot.

• High Angle

A high angle shows the subject from above, i.e. the camera is angled down towards the

subject. This has the effect of diminishing the subject, making them appear less powerful,

less significant or even submissive.

• Low Angle

This shows the subject from below, giving them the impression of being more powerful

or dominant.

• Bird's Eye

The scene is shown from directly above. This is a completely different and somewhat

unnatural point of view which can be used for dramatic effect or for showing a different

spatial perspective.

In drama it can be used to show the positions and motions of different characters and

objects, enabling the viewer to see things the characters can't.

The bird's-eye view is also very useful in sports, documentaries, etc.

• Slanted

Also known as a Dutch tilt, this is where the camera is purposely tilted to one side so the

horizon is on an angle. This creates an interesting and dramatic effect. Famous examples

include Carol Reed's The Third Man, Orson Welles' Citizen Kane and the Batman series.

Dutch tilts are also popular in MTV-style video production, where unusual angles and

lots of camera movement play a big part.

41

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http://www.mediacollege.com/video/shots/



Video Camera Focus

The ability to manually focus your camera is a critical skill at any level of video

production. This page shows you the basics — at the end of the page you can choose to continueand learn more advanced focus techniques.

Note: Manual focus is so important that most professional cameras don't even have an

auto-focus feature.

Video Camera White Balance

White balance basically means color balance. It is a function which gives the camera a

reference to "true white" — it tells the camera what the color white looks like, so the camera willrecord it correctly. Since white light is the sum of all other colors, the camera will then display

all colors correctly.

How to Perform a Black Balance

Black balance is an operation similar to white balance. As white balance gives the camera

a reference to "true white", black balance gives a reference to "true black". This function is

normally available only in professional cameras — home video users don't need to worry about

it.

Aperture

This important parameter of a lens is also called as aperture or iris. The opening of the

lens is controlled by collapsible fins inside the lens. This control like ZOOM can be either

manual or automatic. Since camera man has to control focus and zoom by his two hands the

third variable i.e., iris is preferred on auto mode most of the time. It is also related by the f stop

number.

finsthroughopeninglensof diameter

lengthfocal.nostopf =

Lens nomenclature

42

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http://www.mediacollege.com/video/camera/white-balance/



A camera lens number specifies image size, zoom ratio, focal length at widest angle. Built in

extender details and iris servo details etc.

For example in a typical lens no. J 18 x 8.5 B I R S we can decode:

J = 2/3 Tube/CCD (PV for 1" size and PH for 1/2" Size)

18 = Zoom Ratio

8.5 = focal length at widest angle

B = optical adjustment for prism camera included

I = No built in Extender

R = Zoom focus

S = iris servo control

Lens mount:

It is usually of two types for the Cameras used for ENG/EFP applications, these are

(1) Bayonet type &

(2) C - type.

43



R, G & B different optical wave length signals, as separated by the optical block are converted to

electrical signal in the transducer section of the camera. It is then processed in camera

electronics to give ccvs (color composite video signal) output.

Terminology

Pan Side-to-side camera movement.

Tilt Up-and-down camera movement.

Zoom In-and-out camera movement (i.e. closer and more distant).

Iris (Exposure)The opening which lets light into the camera. A wider iris means

more light and a brighter picture.

White balance Adjusting the colors until they look natural and consistent.

Shutter Analogous to the shutter in a still camera.

Audio Sound which is recorded to go with the pictures.

FUNDAMENTALS OF MONOCHROME AND COLOUR

TV SYSTEM

44



• A picture can be considered to contain a number of small elementary areas of light or

shade which are called picture elements.

• In the case of a TV camera the scene is focused on the photo-sensitive surface of pickup

device and an optical image is formed.

• The photoelectric properties of the pickup device convert. The optical image to an

electric charge image depending on the light and shade of the scene.

• To transmit this information scanning is employed.

• Electron beam scans the charge image and produce corresponding electrical signal. The

electron beam scans the image from left to right (line by line) & from top to bottom

(frame by frame) or field by field to provide signal variations in a successive order.

• The scanning is done both in horizontal and vertical direction simultaneously.

• The horizontal scanning frequency is 15,625 hertz. The vertical scanning frequency is 50

Hz.

• The frame is divided in two fields. Odd lines are scanned first and then the even lines

The odd and even lines are interlaced.

• The frame is divided into 2 fields the flicker reduces.

• The field rate is 50 hertz. The frame rate is 25 hertz (field rate is the same as power

supply frequency).

• There are 625 lines in a frame ie.312.5 lines in each field.

PAL VIDEO

• 625 scan lines per frame, 25 frames per second (40 m sec/frame)

45



• Aspect ratio 4:3

• Interlaced, each frame is divided into 2 fields, 312.5 lines/field

Three important points to remember:

1. Color representation:

2. PAL uses Y,U,V color model

3. Luminance (Y ) =0.3R+ 0.59G +0.11B

• In the PAL system the chrominance bandwidth is restricted to 1 MHz. Side bands extend

from 3.43 to 5.43 MHz. The sub carrier Frequency is 4.43 MHz.

• The (R-Y) and (B-Y) chrominance signals may be recovered at the television receiver by

suitable synchronous demodulation.

• The sub-carrier is to be generated by a local oscillator.

• This generated sub-carrier in the receiver must have same phase and frequency as that of

transmitted sub-carrier.

• This is achieved by transmitting 10 cycles of sub-carrier frequency on the back porch of

H synchronizing pulse and is known as BURST or color BURST.

• The two modulated signals at 90 degrees to each other produce the resultant chrominance

signal which gets added to Luminance signal to form Composite color Video Signal

(CCVS).

• In PAL System carrier is single, we need two signals i.e. (R–Y) and (B–Y) to modulate

independently.

46



• Both are of the same frequency but are displaced in phase by 90 degrees.

• Hence it uses quadrature Amplitude modulation (QAM).

Composite Video

• Composite video, as its name suggests, composite video is a single video signal that is a

composite of the black-and-white information (Y) and the color information (C).

Phase error correction in PAL system

Advantage of PAL over NTSC

47

θ - ∆ θ

- U

Received vector with NTSC line

U

V

- V

θ - ∆ θ θ

θ + ∆ θ Transmitted vector

At angle θ

Received vector with PAL line



• Phase Alteration by Line : Changing phase of the sub-carrier by 180 degree at each

alternating line to minimize the phase error. The phase error causes error in color

reproduction. Correction of colors is done in the Human Visual System.

• Color correction is not done in NTSC system

Digital Earth Station

Modes of Distribution of TV Programmes

• Terrestrial

• Satellite• Cable

All the above three modes can be either in Analog or in digital domain.

Earth station

Downlink Uplink

Satellite Transmission Frequency bands

48



Frequency band Up Link Down Link

C-band 6 GHz 4 GHz

X-band 8 GHz 7GHz

Ku-band 14 GHz 11 GHz

Ka-band 30 GHz 20 GHz

Satellite Transmission: C-Band

• Frequency band 4000 to 8000 MHz

• Large sized dish required for reception

• Useful to System Providers / Cable Operators

• Mainly used for contribution & distribution

Satellite Transmission: Ku Band

• Frequency Band 12.5 to 18 GHz

• Smaller dish ( 60 – 90 Cms dia) needed for reception

• Most useful for DTH application

• Suitable for fly away terminals

• Coverage limited as compared to C band due to narrow beam

• Reception susceptible to failure during heavy rains

Satellite Broadcasting (C-band vs. Ku-band)

Feature C-band Ku-band

Frequency band 4/6 GHz 11/14 GHz

Receive dish size 2 -3 meter 0.6 meter

No. of dishes Multiple since received from different

satellites

One

Rain attenuation Low High

Individual direct reception Not so easy Very easy

Earth Station

• Earth Station is an uplink center from which the signals are fed to Satellite for

distribution in a specified area covered by the Satellite.

49



• The signal is up-linked from the earth station and received by many down link centers in

TV broad casting.

• It is a very important part of satellite communication system for broadcasting of signals.

Earth Station classification1. Analog Earth Station

2. Analog / Digital Simulcast

3. Digital Earth Station

4. ASNG

5. DSNG

6. C-band or Ku-band

TYPICAL ANALOG E/S SET UP

A1-A2

A1-A2

Sound Modcombiner

IF ModUPconverter HPA

Video

Baseband V:0-5MHz

A:5.5/5.75MHZ 70MHz

Channel freq.

Sound Modcombiner

IF Mod UPconverter HPA Video

Baseband V:0-5MHz A:5.5/5.75MHZ 70MHz

Channel freq.

DUMMY LOAD

Problems of Analog

• One programme per channel / transponder

• Comparatively noisy

50



• Ghosts in Terrestrial Transmission

• Lower quality with respect to VCD, DVD digital media

• Fixed reception

Why Digital?

• More programmes per channel / Transponder i.e. spectrum efficient

• Noise-Free Reception

• Ghost elimination

• CD quality sound & better than DVD quality picture

• Reduced transmission power

• Flexibility in service planning -quality / Bandwidth trade off.

• New services like Pay TV, VOD, Teletext, Data, and Surround sound, Multimedia

etc.

• Interactive services like e-commerce, e-banking, tele-quiz, tele-games etc.

• Automated operation in broadcast plan

• Non availability of analog systems in near future

• Future of TV transmission – DTH, DTT & Digital Cable

Satellite Broadcasting -Digital

• Tremendous savings in satellite capacity.

• 10 to 14 TV channels per 36 MHz Transponder ( DVB-S , MPEG 2 )

• 25 to 50 TV channels in 36 MHz Transponder ( DVB-S2, MPEG 4 / WM 9)

• Excellent quality of signal reception.

• New services like VOD, PPV etc.

51



E S

P D A

B a s e b a n d

P r o c e s s i n g

B a s e b a n d

P r o c e s s i n g

E n c . 1

E n c . 2

B a s e b a n d

P r o c e s s i n gE n c . R

M U X 1

M U X R

M o d u l a t o

r # 1

M o d u l a t o r

# RU / C-R

U / C 1 H P A 1

H P A R

V

V

A

V

A

V

A

V

A

A

V

A

R

O

U

T

E

R

What is Digital TV?

• Analog signal is sampled at 27 MHz, encoded into 10 bits PCM - Total bit rate : 270

Mbits/s

• Compression used : MPEG (Motion Picture Expert Group) to reduce bit rate varying

from 1.5 Mbits to 15 Mbits

52



Up-conversion

Up-converters

• The up-conversion is required to raise the frequency of the signal in desired band: C-

band, Extended C-band or Ku-band before transmission.

• The input to up converter is 70 MHz (output of modulator) and output of Up-converter is

fed to HPA.

• The up-conversion may done in stages or in one stage directly. For example the 70 MHz

signal is first converted into L –band and then L band signal raised to desired frequency

band.

• Normally L-band monitoring point is also provided in Up-converters for monitoring

purposes.

The important parameters of UP-converters are are:

1. Frequency band

2. Bandwidth

3. Input/ Output Return Loss

4. Noise Figure

5. LO Leakage

6. Frequency stability: (a) Daily 5x10-9 Max, (b) Yearly 1x 10-7 Max and c) 2x 10-

8 Max over entire operating Temperature.

7. Spurious: (a) -80 dBm Max ( Non Carrier), (b) –60 dBm Max( Carrier)

53



Power Amplification (HPA)

High Power Amplifier

The high power amplifier is used for the final power amplification of the digital RF

signal in C-band/ Ku band that is fed to the antenna.

The important parameters of HPAs are:

1. Frequency range

2. Output power at flange

3. Bandwidth

4. Gain variation (1.0 db (max.) for 40 MHz (narrow band)

5. 2.50 db for full bandwidth)

The different types of HPAs are:

1. KHPA - Klystron High Power Amplifier

2. TWTA -Traveling Wave Tube Amplifier

3. SSPA- Solid state Power Amplifier

54



Antenna system

1. Parabolic Dish Antennas (PDA)

• The most widely used narrow beam antennas are reflector antennas. The shape is

generally a paraboloid of revolution.

• For full earth coverage from a geostationary satellite, a horn antenna is used. Horns

are also used as feeds for reflector antennas.

• A small earth terminal, the feed horn is located at the focus or may be offset to one

side of the focus.

• Large earth station antennas have a sub reflector at the focus. In the Cassegrain

design, the sub reflector is convex with an hyperboloid surface, while in the

Gregorian design it is concave with an ellipsoidal surface.

55



DSNG

•

Antenna case : Antenna segment case, Antenna mount case, Antenna hub case,Antenna feed horn case;1.9 mtr antenna (C band) & 1.2 mtr antenna ( Ku-band)

• HPA case : 400 W TWTA ( C band) & 125 W TWTA ( Ku-band)

• Base band unit : Test and monitoring case

• Digital case : Encoder,Modulator,Upconvertor(L band)

• HPA control and Upconvertor case : Upconvertor(C band / Ku-band ),HPA controller

• Power supply conditioner and distributor

56

A Typical Uplink PDA



SATTELITE COMMUNICATION

Doordarshan set up in Rajasthan• Two Modes :

1. Terrestrial

2. Satellite

• Doordarshan setup

o Studio Centre : 1

o Uplink Station : 1

57

Vehicle mounted DSNG



o Transmitters : 99

• Coverage :

By area By PopulationTerrestrial : 72% 80%

Satellite : 100% 100%

Satellite Communication

• Started in 1957 in Russia (Sputnik)

• Started in India on 14.04.82 (INSAT 1A)

Advantages

• Large coverage area (42% of Earth)

• Very High B.W. (Wide band Multi channel)

• Terrestrial uncovered pockets like valleys and mountains regions.

•Uniform Signal.

• Establish easily for Point to Point Communication.

Geostationary Orbit

A satellite in Geostationary Orbit is synchronized with the rotation of the Earth and the

period of Rotation is 23 Hrs. 56 Mts. 4.1 Sec. (Sidereal day) and it is static while looking from a

point of Earth. The inclination (Latitude difference with equator in degree) at any time is Zero

degree. The path is perfectly circular and so eccentricity is Zero.

• In this orbit, the orbit may be inclined at any angle to the equatorial plane. While looking

from an Earth Station

58



• Sidereal day=23 Hrs. 56 Mts. 4.1 Sec.

• Sunday = 24 Hrs.

• Satellite is placed at a height of 35786 Km. with a velocity of 3.074 Km/sec.

•

Earth rotates from East to West• Radius of Earth = 6378 Km.

Digital Earth Station at DDK, Jaipur

• Satellite Position (Parking Angle) 93.50E

• Satellite - INSAT 3A Transponder C-6

• Uplinking Frequency – 6165.5 MHz (Horizontal)

• Downlink Frequency – 3940.5 MHz (Vertical)

• System - (2+1) MCPC Mode

DD19 – DD Jaipur

DD News Feed

• Format - MPEG – 2 DVB (Video)

MPEG – 1, Layer II (Audio)

• Modulation – QPSK

• FEC - ¾

• Symbol Rate – 6.25 MSPS

AZ – 144.320

EL – 52.330

Frequency Range

S-Band 2.5 to 2.7 GHz BSS (Sound) MSS

C-Band 3.7 to 4.2 GHz FSS BSS(TV)

Ext. C-Band 4.5 to 4.8 GHz Military FSS

KU-Band 10.7 to 12.75GHz FSS BSS(TV)

KA-Band 20 to 30 GHz FSS BSS MSS

59



• FSS – Fixed Satellite Service (Telephony, Data & TV)

• BSS – Broadcast Satellite Service (TV, Digital Audio

B’casting (DAB)Satellite Internet Service

•

MSS – Mobile Satellite Service (Mobile & Fixed Terminal)

Frequency (Uplink) > Frequency (Down link)

6165.5 > 3940.5 MHz

6165.5 = 3940.5 + 2225 MHz

Reasons –

(1) To avoid interference between the uplink and down link.

(2) Because the satellite has a limited R.F. power out put.

(3) As path loss is proportional to Frequency

TYPE OF FEED[

• Prime Focus Feed

• Off set Focus Feed

• Gregorian Feed (Off set focus reflector & off set focus sub reflector )

• Cassegrain feed.

Look Angles

The coordinates to which an Antenna must be pointed to communicate the satellite are called

Look Angles (Azimuth Angle & Elevation Angle)

Azimuth angle- The angle between the Direction of Antenna Beam & Earth in Horizontal plane.

Elevation Angle – The angle between the Antenna centre Beam & Ground measured in Vertical

Plane.

Calculation of Az & El

For Geostationary satellite, three parameters are required:

60



1. Longitude of the Satellite DS

2. Longitude of the Place DE

3. Latitude of the Place Φ

• Radius of the Earth r = 6378 Km

• Radius of the geostationary orbit R = 42164 Km

I.e. r + Distance of orbit = R (6378+35786)

• Difference in Longitudes of Place & satellite (Absolute value ) D= |DE – DS|

• EL= Tan-1 [ CosD Cos Φ – r/R

1-(CosD Cos Φ)2

• Az= 1800 + Tan-1[ Tan D ]

Sin Φ

(+) Plus sign is taken when the Longitude of Satellite DS< Longitude of the Place (E/S) DE

(-) Minus Sign DS>DE

OUTSIDE BROADCASTING (OB)

OBJECTIVES:

1. To cater the aims of television - Education, Enrichment & Entertainment.

2. To make available the real live experience of various events/games or sports events to the

remote viewers.

61



3. To create a sense of involvement in various events according to the individual’s aptitude.

4. To inspire and captivate right from younger kids to senile Persons

5. To bring out the latent talents from prodigies and even from a consummate

sports person also.

TYPES OF COVERAGES

1. CULTURAL PROGRAMS

2. CEREMONIAL FUNCTIONS

3. ORGANISED EVENTS

4. SPORTS EVENTS

MODE OF COVERAGES

Generally various coverages are covered by any one of the following methods :-

1. Single camera recordings ( for T.V reports )

2. Multi camera with additional video effects facility and back ground commentary for

LIVE coverages.

THE EQUIPMENTS USED IN COVERAGES

The outside broadcast van, which itself is a self contained and full Complement studio setup, has

the following Equipment with it.

1. Cameras

62



2. Video switcher with DVE

3 Video Tape Recorders

4. Video server for slow & super slow motion

5. Character generator with Text & Graphics system

6. Microphones

7. Audio switcher

8. Intercom system

9. DSNG

9,10,11,129,10,11,12 Ground camerasGround cameras

9

10

11

12

3,4Wkt to Wkt (rear)

5,6Spin vision (Super slow motion)

5

34

6

1 21,2Wkt to Wkt (pavilion)

7

7,87,8 Mid wicket camerasMid wicket cameras

8

14

15

16

13,14,15,1613,14,15,16 Crease cameras(UnCrease cameras(Un --manned)manned)

13

17

18

17,1817,18Stump cameras (UnStump cameras (Un --manned)manned)

19,2019,20 Red Zone camerasRed Zone cameras

((LBW+UnLBW+Un --manedmaned ))

19

20

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