Repository 1017

Instructor’s Manual Chapter 8

Lecture Notes Organizing and Managing Your Hard Drive

Carolyn Z. Gillay, Bette A. Peat, Windows XP Command Line, Instructor’s Manual

Franklin, Beedle & Associates 2003 Page 1

Chapter 8

Organizing & Managing Your Hard Disk

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Explain the purpose of organizing a hard disk.

2. Explain the purpose and function of the TREE command.

3. List criteria for organizing a hard disk efficiently and logically.

4. Explain the role XCOPY can play in organizing a hard disk.

5. Explain the difference between contiguous and noncontiguous files.

6. Explain the purpose and function of the CHKDSK command.

7. Explain lost clusters and cross-linked files.

8. Explain the ways you can repair a disk.

9. Explain the purpose and function of using the Disk Defragmenter program.

STUDENT OUTCOMES

1. Reorganize the DATA disk.

2. Use the TREE command to view the organization of a disk.

3. Use the XCOPY command with its parameters to copy files.

4. Use the CHKDSK command to elicit statistical information about disks and memory.

5. Interpret the statistical information obtained by using the CHKDSK command.

6. Use CHKDSK to see if files are contiguous.

7. Repair a disk, if possible.

8. Use the Disk Defragmenter utility program.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

1. All disks should be organized. You should not place all your programs and data in the root

directory.

2. The root directory of a hard disk holds only 512 files if you are using FAT16.

3. Many users inefficiently organize their disk by application programs. This often leads to a

repetition of subdirectory names, forcing users to remember where they placed their files

and key in long path names. The operating system must search every subdirectory when

accessing a file. It is difficult to add and delete application programs and data files in this

scheme.

4. One way to organize a hard disk is by project.

5. Some guidelines to organizing a disk:

a. The root directory is a map to the rest of the disk.

b. Plan the organization before installing software.





c. Develop and use a naming convention for files and directories.

d. Create as many directories and subdirectories as you need before copying files into

them.

e. Remember that it is safe to work with data files but dangerous to move or rename

program files.

f. Subdirectories should be shallow and wide.

g. Do not place data files in program subdirectories.

h. It is better to have small subdirectories with only a few files.

i. Keep subdirectory names short and descriptive.

j. Create a separate subdirectory for batch files and utility programs.

k. Learn how the install programs work before you install software.

l. Learn how each application program works.

m. Analyze the way you work.

6. If a disk is unorganized, you can organize it by planning it, creating the new organizational

scheme and any necessary subdirectories, copying files to the new subdirectories, and

deleting those files from the old subdirectories.

7. The XCOPY command allows you to copy files and the subdirectories beneath them. You

may choose:

a. to copy subdirectories and the files in them (/S).

b. to keep the read-only attribute (/R).

c. to copy hidden files (/H).

d. to create an empty subdirectory (/E

e. to keep file attributes (/K).

8. The command line editor is a full-screen editor that allows you to modify text files. It is a

menu-driven program.

9. MOVE is used to move files. Although it can rename directories, it is better to use the REN

command to rename objects and the MOVE command to move these objects. You must be

cautious when you use MOVE to ensure you are performing the task that you wish.

10. Utility programs include the ones that come with the operating system, such as the external

command MOVE.

11. CHKDSK will search your drives for errors and give you a statistical report on the integrity

of your drives.

12. You can use CHKDSK to check or repair FAT, FAT32, and NTFS drives but it must not be

the default drive.

13. You must not use CHKDSK /F while on a network drive or on any substituted drives or the

default drive.

14. Disk Defragmenter is a program used to optimize performance of a disk by rewriting files so

the clusters are contiguous. When files are contiguous, computer performance is enhanced.

15. You cannot defragment a floppy disk in Windows XP Professional.

KEY TERMS

chain

cross-linked files

fragmented files

lost clusters

naming convention

utility program





disk optimization

LECTURE NOTES

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Chapter Overview

Learn how to organize a hard disk efficiently and logically to serve your specific needs.

How to determine the best command to use to locate a specific file, or to manage the hard

disk, will be discussed.

Will discuss the purpose and function of the CHKDSK command and then use the command

to accomplish various tasks.

Use the Disk Defragmenter Program to optimize performance of your disk.

WHY ORGANIZE A HARD DISK?

Why Organize a Hard Disk?

Accumulate programs.

Each program generates data files.

Installing WXP creates folders:

Windows (WINNT).

- Used for OS.

Program Files.

Installing programs.

Programs included with Windows

--Outlook Express

Documents and Settings.

- Holds user system preferences.

My Documents.

- Default folder for data files.

Minimum two subfolders (My Music and My Pictures)

Critical files/folders placed in root directory needed by W to boot system.

Files/folders hidden from view.

Integrated programs (suites) provide tools for common types of work.

Word processing program

Spreadsheet program.

Database program.

Presentation software.

Other related tools.

Additional programs must be installed on hard disk before use.

Critical programs that should be purchased/downloaded





Virus checking programs (Norton AntiVirus or McAfee Virus Scan

File compression utility such as WinZip

Other programs meet individual needs.

An installation program

Creates folder/folders for application program being installed.

Copies files from CD-ROM to named folders.

Compressed files need to be uncompressed before installation begins.

Usually makes entries in WXP Registry

Adds program names to menus.

Registers file extensions.

Need to control where programs are installed.

If directions not given to installation program, then program determines names of

folders and where files/folders will be located.

Microsoft programs install program folders under Program Files folder.

Other programs install program folders/files to root directory.

Root directory becomes filled with many files and subdirectory names.

When using DIR (DOS) or Explorer (Windows), it becomes difficult to tell what files

are on the hard disk, or where they are located.

Spend time looking for files not working.

Problem does not change with Windows environment.

Use of long file names on floppy disks on floppies can be a problems

Floppies used as backup for files from hard disk.

Floppies always use FAT

FAT –using 1.44 MB floppy – 224 entries.

If FAT16 is file system on hard disk-

Root directory table capacity (hard disk) is 512 entries.

Get message disk full if all files located in root directory.

If FAT32 is file system.

Root directory table capacity (hard disk) 65,535 entries.

Scrolling through 65,535 entries – difficult to find file.

NTFS file system does not have these limitations.

Most programs install to C:\Program Files subdirectory

Others install directly to C:\

Can choose own installation location.

Problem if asking for technical support – they assume software installed to setup

program’s default directory.

Discuss Figure 8.1 A Typical Hard Disk Organization p. 377

Power Point Presentation

See notes in Teaching Suggestions.

Where should data files be placed?

Do NOT place data files in program folders

Program files do not change

Data files changers as add/delete information





Copying/backing up/moving data files difficult – search folders to find data files.

Rationale for folders – categorize information.

Data files contain information.

Program files contain instructions.

Creating meaningful names for data files part of organizational scheme.

Naming conventions

Help identify what file contains

Requires knowledge of how application program works.

WXP – limits file names to 255 characters

Long file names problematic in WXP

Limitations of root directory table.

File name limited to 255 characters.

Folder name part of file name.

Difficult to browse file in Explorer.

Older applications

Older programs use 8.3 file naming rule.

WXP creates MS-DOS alias for long file name

Give long file names only in Explorer/My Computer

Cannot save long file names.

Errors in keying in names.

Difficult to remember naming strategy.

Many Utility programs will not work with long file names.

Following don’t like spaces (allowed characters)

Some utility programs

Internet

WXP

Similar file names problematic in creating meaningful names.

Discuss Figure 8.2 A Sample Organizational Scheme p. 379.

Power Point Slide

Scheme is inefficient

To locate data file need to know what application created file and where file is

located.

Data file used in conjunction with different programs can be a nightmare.

Data could be in two places (Word-processing/database folders).

Locating data files difficult.

Need organizational scheme with logic behind it.

Organize disk by way you work.

Remember software (programs) are tools.

Organize disk to assist you in saving, retrieving, and backing up data files.

Business.

People work by projects.

Store data by project not application.

Education.





May want to organize by application.

METHODS OF ORGANIZING A HARD DISK

Guidelines for efficient/logical organization of hard disk.

Root directory – map to rest of disk

Plan disk organization.

Done before placing anything on hard disk.

Think about work you do and easiest way to find work files.

Develop a naming convention for files and directories.

Easy to follow

Name should identify data in file.

Create many folders/subfolders prior to copying files into them.

If application software installed on computer, cannot/must not rename/move

program/program support files.

Can create/delete folders for data files

No risk in moving/copying/deleting data files

Create shallow/wide folders NOT compact deep folders.

Data files and program files should not be in same subdirectory.

Data changes, programs do not.

Easier for backup purposes.

Many small directories with few files better than a large subdirectory with many files.

Categorizing data.

If too many files in a subdirectory, break down into two or more subdirectories.

Easier to update and manage subdirectory with limited number of files.

Can always combine few files in many subdirectories into one subdirectory.

Directory names short but descriptive.

Create separate subdirectory for batch files.

Batch files help automate processes that are done often.

Place subdirectory for batch files under root directory.

Call it BATCH.

Create UTILS (utilities) subdirectory.

Create separate subdirectories for each utility program.

Utility software programs provide commonly needed services, i.e., Norton Utilities.

Each utility program does something useful that the OS does not allow you to do.

Often, utility software/shareware packages have similar file names.

Need own separate/identifiable subdirectory.

Learn how to install programs.

Create own organizational scheme.

Do not let installation program put programs anywhere they wish.

Learn how to use application packages and how packages work.

Does application package assigns file extension?

If not can assign extension that will apply to specific work done with application

program's data files.





Learn how application package works with subdirectories.

Analyze way you work.

Usually better to organize disk by project as way most people work.

But if use application program’s default data directory to save/retrieve files – (May

want to create data directories) - organizing around projects will not work.

Analyze your environment.

Educational environment – organize by application package.

Teaching one application package – focus on package.

Business – organize by project.

Program files in one place.

Easy to add new project delete old one.

Know which data files belong to which project by file extension.

Hard disks can be organized in many ways.

Make effective use of hard disk.

If data files organized

Rarely use Start/Programs menu.

Go to directory that holds files you will work on.

Ultimately, organization result of

How does user work?

How do programs work?

ORGANIZING A DISK

Organizing a Disk

Usually start with unorganized disk.

If reorganizing disk want to do it without reformatting or losing files.

VIEWING THE DISK STRUCTURE WITH THE TREE COMMAND

Viewing Disk Structure with TREE Command

Used to see graphical representation of disk.

Syntax. See PowerPoint slide.

TREE [drive:] [path] [/F] [/A]

ACTIVITY: USING THE TREE COMMAND

Activity – Using the TREE command.

Activity steps. Open Command Prompt window.

Make C:\WUGXP default directory

Key in:

TREE

TREE /A

TREE /F

CD \





Activity completed.

ORGANIZING THE DATA DISK

Organizing the DATA Disk

DATA disk has minimal organization.

Looking at structure, not contents, of text files.

Reorganize DATA disk to make it easier to manage.

Need to create directories.

Copy files to correct subdirectories.

Move files.

Will create GAMES subdirectory.

Map to game programs on DATA disk.

ACTIVITY—SETTING UP THE GAMES SUBDIRECTORY

Setting up the PROG Subdirectory

Note: DATA disk in Drive A and C:\> is displayed.

Activity steps.

Key in: A:

MD GAMES

MD GAMES\ARGH

MD GAMES\MLINK

MD GAMES\OTHER

COPY C:\WUGXP\GAMES\MLILNK\*.* GAMES\MLINK

DIR C:\WUGXP\GAMES\MLINK

DIR A:\GAMES\MLINK

CD GAMES\OTHER

CD C:\WUGXP\GAMES

C:

A:

COPY C:LS*.*

DIR C:

COPY C:ML*.*

CD\

TREE GAMES /F

COPY C:ARG*.* GAMES\ARGH

CD C:\

TREE GAMES /F

DIR C:\WUGXP\*.TXT

ATTRIB -S -H -R *.*

DEL *.TXT

XCOPY C:\WUGXP\*.TXT /D:05-31-00

Activity completed.

THE MOVE COMMAND REVISITED

The MOVE Command Revisited

Used to move files to new location or rename subdirectory.





Moving data files and data directories usually safe.

Moving program files and renaming program directories is not done safely

Windows registers program files, their names, and location in Registry.

If files moved/renamed at command prompt, Registry cannot find them.

Programs may no longer work.

Program files.

Not usually copied to location.

Installed in location with a setup program.

Files pertaining to program – placed in many different locations.

Problems can also occur when dealing with small programs contained within one

directory and run under DOS not windows.

If you manipulate program files/directories.

Note which directory program files are in before starting.

ACTIVITY—USING MOVE TO ORGANIZE YOUR DISK

Using MOVE to Organize your Disk

Data disk in Drive A, A:\> displayed.

Activity steps.

Key in: DIR VEN.*

ATTRIB +H STEVEN.FIL

MOVE VEN.* ASTRONOMY\VENUS

DIR VEN*.*

ATTRIB -H STEVEN.FIL

DIR VEN.* then DIR MER.*

DIR JUP.*

MOVE MER.* ASTRONOMY\MERCURY

MOVE JUP.* ASTRONOMY\JUPITER

TREE ASTRONOMY /F

REN ASTONOMY 3PLANETS

DIR ASTRONOMY

DIR 3PLANETS then DIR /W

MD ASTRO

Close the command line window

Open My Computer & double-click Drive A

Click View then Icons then View then Status bar then View button and select List

Size the window so all files are displayed

Hold down <Ctrl> key and without releasing it click following 11 files:

AST.99 ASTRO.NEW PLANETS.TXT AST.BUD GALAXY.NEW

TITAN.TXT ASTROLOGY.FIL ASTRO.TXT AST.TXT ZODIAC.FIL

GALAXY.TXT

Release <Ctrl> key,

Move mouse over any of selected files and right click right mouse button

Click Cut

Double-click ASTRO directory

Right-click in blank area of folder

Click Paste

Deselect the files





Click View then List

Close all open windows

Open Command Line window and make A:\ the default directory

Key in TREE /F

Activity completed.

CHECKING A DISK: FAT and NTFS

Checking a Disk

CHKDSK still viable utility program.

External command.

Stored in C:\WINDOWS\SYSTEM32 subdirectory

Used on disks with any file system supported by WXP Professional.

CHKDSK gets needed disk information.

Reports disk space and usage information (NTFS and FAT file systems).

Status report provided with information specific to file system on drive you checked.

Amount of free space left.

Bad spots.

File fragmentation.

Problems with logical structure.

CHKDSK use with FAT file system.

Analyzes:

File Allocation Tables.

Directory table for root directory.

Directory structure.

Integrity of files.

Validity of any long file name.

Checking FAT includes tracing out chain of data for each file.

Do directory entries match location and lengths of files with FAT on specified

drive?

Are all directories readable?

After checking disk – (gives statistical information).

Reports # of files on disk.

How much space taken.

Establishes amount of space left on disk.

NTFS uses MFT to track files on disk not FAT.

CHKDSK with NTFS (three stages).

Stage 1.

Looks for consistency.

Identifies which file segments and clusters are currently being used.

Then compares collected information against information NTFS keeps on disk.

Looking for discrepancies or problems.

Stage 2.

Verifies “indexes” (directories).

Checks for internal consistency.





Ensures every file belongs to at least one directory.

Reference to file in MFT is valid.

Verifies file times/dates/size.

This stage is most time consuming.

Stage 3.

Checks and verifies security for each directory and file.

Info includes file’s owner, permission granted to users/groups, and auditing

that is to occur for file or directory.

CHKDSK syntax. See PowerPoint slide #52.

Right-side column – syntax explanation.

/I or /C switch reduces amount of time required to run CHKDSK by stripping certain

checks of volume.

Some parameters valid only with FAT file system.

Some parameters valid only with NTFS drives.

On hard disk need to have administrator privileges to run CHKDSK.

ACTIVITY—USING CHKDSK ON HARD AND FLOPPY DRIVES

Using CHKDSK on Hard and Floppy Drives

DATA disk in Drive A with A:\> displayed.

Activity steps.

Key in: C:

CD \WINDOWS\SYSTEM32

DIR CHKDSK.*

CHKDSK

CD \

CHKDSK E:

A:

CHKDSK

Activity completed.

THE VERBOSE PARAMETER WITH THE CHKDSK COMMAND

The Verbose Parameter with the CHKDSK Command

Using /V on FAT drive.

Running in verbose mode.

Gives status report.

Lists every file on disk, including hidden ones.

Using /V on NTFS drive.

Displays clean-up messages.

Parameters are associated with specific commands and perform specific tasks for those

commands.

/V switch with FORMAT – puts volume label on disk.

/V with CHKDSK - see above.





ACTIVITY—USING THE /V PARAMETER AND USING DIR PARAMETERS

Using the /V Parameter and DIR Parameters

DATA disk in drive A, A:\> displayed.

Files may appear in different order.

To facilitate mouse usage, disable QuickEdit Mode.

Activity steps.

Key in: CHKDSK /V

CHKDSK /V > CHKDSK.TXT

EDIT CHKDSK.TXT

Move scroll bar halfway down screen and then to bottom of file.

Click File then Exit

Key in: DIR /S then DIR *.NEW /S then DIR /AD

Activity completed.

USING CHKDSK TO REPAIR DISK PROBLEMS

Using CHKDSK to Repair Disk Problems

FAT disk.

FAT and directory work together.

Each file has entry in directory table.

Entry points to starting cluster in FAT.

If file longer than one cluster, FAT has pointer to next cluster.

Pointers chain all data together in a file.

Lost clusters.

Occur when chain broken (lost pointer).

No entry in root directory.

Marked as used in FAT.

Not available for new data.

Do not belong to specific file.

Cannot be retrieved.

Lose space on the disk.

Why lost clusters occur.

User does not exit a program properly.

Power failures or power surges.

NTFS disk.

In Stage 2 CHKDSK looks for orphaned files.

Has entry in MFT but not listed in any directory.

Similar to lost cluster in FAT file system.

If lost or orphaned files occur may not be able to boot back into Windows.

Boot using Windows boot disks and use Automated System Recovery Disk to try to

repair damage or use System Restore.

Will be covered in Chapter 13.

When WXP running cannot use CHKDSK with /F to try to repair disk errors.

See PowerPoint slide # showing message at beginning of CHKDSK display.





Can schedule CHKDSK /F to run when computer starts up next time.

Utility will run before most of system loads – eliminates problem of other processes

running.

Can use /F and /R with CHKDSK on a floppy.

With multiple hard drives can run CHKDSK on drive that is not default.

On active partition may report erroneous error messages.

/F – repairs logical errors.

/R – locates bad sectors and recovers readable information.

Using /R implies /F.

Be careful when running CHKSDK.

Back up data files in case “fix” behaves improperly.

Using /F on hard disk with large number of files (millions) CHKDSK can take a long

time (days) to complete.

Will not have access to drive you are repairing – command does not give up

control of disk until it is finished.

If drive (system volume) being checked during startup process – computer not

available to you until CHKDSK process is complete.

Cross-linked files.

Usually occurs on FAT disks.

Two files claim same cluster in FAT.

See PowerPoint slide #72 Figure 8.7 Cross Linked Files.

Edit – MY.FIL – file contains own data as well as part of HIS.FIL.

Delete MY.FIL will be deleting part of HIS.FIL.

To recover data from cross-linked files:

Copy each file to new location so they are no longer linked.

One of files is usually bad – but have one file that is good.

ACTIVITY—USING CHKDSK TO REPAIR DISK PROBLEMS

Using CHKDSK to Repair Disk Problems

DATA disk in drive A with A:\> displayed.

Activity steps.

Key in: CHKDSK /R

CD /D C:\

CHKDSK A: /R

CHKDSK E:

Activity completed.

CHECKING DISK WITH SYSTEM TOOLS

Checking Disks with System Tools

Can use System Tools (found in GUI) to check a disk.

Error-checking (CHKDSK).

Backup.





Defragmentation.

ACTIVITY—CHECKING DISKS WITH SYSTEM TOOLS

Checking Disks with System Tools

DATA disk in drive A.

Activity steps.

Key in: EXIT

Open My Computer. Right-click A drive.

Click Properties/Tools/Check Now.

Click Automatically fix file system errors

Click Start Close all open windows.

Activity completed.

CONTIGUOUS AND NONCONTIGUOUS FILES

Contiguous and Noncontiguous Files

To OS data is string of bytes that it keeps track of by grouping data into file.

To store/retrieve files disk divided into numbered blocks called sectors.

Contiguous sectors grouped into clusters.

Files usually take up more space than one sector.

OS keeps track of location of all parts of file by means of directory and FAT.

NTFS – keeps track of files by means of MFT.

Original W95 used standard FAT – 16-bit version.

B W95 – Millennium version.

Can use 16-bit FAT or 32-bit FAT (FAT 32)

Uses 32-bit FAT

Beginning with W2K supports NTFS.

NTFS

Previously supported only by Windows NT.

Allows local security.

Access to areas of partition can be blocked to some users – allowed to others.

Useful in environment where two or more users have access to same computer.

Can block access to OS files.

Decision on which file system to use made when disk volume originally partitioned.

FAT keeps record of cluster numbers each file occupies.

As OS writes files to new disk – makes entry in disk’s directory.

Updates FAT with cluster numbers used to store that file.

Files are written to disk in adjacent clusters whenever possible.

Easier to retrieve/store information.

See right side for explanation of the PowerPoint Slides showing contiguous and

noncontiguous files.

Contiguous files are written to adjacent clusters on a disk.





Non-contiguous (fragmented) files are spread out on the disk.

Fragmented disk - disk with fragmented files.

Causes system to slow down.

Takes longer to read as read/write heads move around disk to find all parts of a file.

Use parameter with CHKDSK to see if files are contiguous or noncontiguous.

Fragmented disk - disk with fragmented files.

Only works on FAT volumes.

ACTIVITY—USING CHKDSK TO SEE IF FILES ARE CONTIGUOUS

Using CHKDSK to See if Files are Contiguous

DATA disk in Drive A with A:\> displayed.

Activity steps.

Key in: CHKDSK BORN.TXT

CHKDSK *.TXT

CHKDSK *.*

CHKDSK CLASS\*.*

Activity completed.

DEFRAGMENTING YOUR HARD DISK

Defragmenting your Hard Disk

Perform disk maintenance to make programs run faster/better.

Run Defragmenter program.

Program moves data on disks so files are contiguous and rewrites directory table

and FAT.

Can run Disk Defragmenter without closing all programs.

Better/faster/safer to close all open programs you have running.

Include screen savers or virus-protection programs.

ACTIVITY—USING DISK DEFRAGMENTER

Using Disk Defragmenter

Can this activity be done in your lab?

Activity steps. Click Start/All Programs/Accessories/System Tools/Disk Defragmenter

Highlight Drive C

Click Analyze/View Report/Close

Close all open windows

Activity completed.

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