Representing Macbeth: A Case Study in Visual RhetoricAuthor(s): Hanno H. J. EhsesSource: Design Issues, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Spring, 1984), pp. 53-63Published by: The MIT PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1511543Accessed: 03/10/2008 05:04

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Hanno H. J. Ehses

Representing Macbeth: A Case Study in Visual Rhetoric

1) Quoted in R. Stacey, The Canadian Poster Book (Toronto: Methuen, 1979), 58.

Introduction The creative process of finding appropriate design solutions to visu- al problems would become more accessible and more probable, and could be enriched if designers were more conscious of the underly- ing system of concept formation. Instead, they seem to use it in-

tuitively. In adapting contemporary semiotic and rhetoric theory, the following study of Macbeth posters endeavours to present an

operational model of concept formation that is often identified with the creative process. Semiotics, the doctrine of signs, explains the

principles that underlie the structure of signs and their utilization within messages, and rhetoric, the art of persuasion, suggests ways to construct appropriate messages.

Speaking out on concept formation and the problems involved in

designing a poster for a theater play, J. Shadbolt, the designer, remarked: "The psychological problem was what slowed down the

process. I would read the actual play, consider carefully its overall

impact, and then try to convey with the totality of my design some-

thing of that precise import. It's easy to make an elegant decoration, but quite another thing to evoke exact implication."1

Shadbolt's remark addresses some fundamental problems in the

design activity, and directs special attention to the following questions: How is meaning created visually in design? What is the

routing that leads from the text of a play (or any other statement) to a concept and its visualization in a poster (or a book cover or

trademark)? What is the nature of the relationship between the

figurative image and the text? These questions are all related to the

process of signification, that is, the coding dimension that precedes all message transfer and communicative interaction.

To find answers to these questions and to illuminate the process of arriving at a design solution, this article will examine the rele- vance of rhetoric to design and explore some of its basic principles. The semiotic structure of coding and the rhetorical characteristic that governs the visual appearance of a poster will also be discussed. In addition, the operational potential of rhetorical procedure for de-

sign in conjunction with the outcome of a recent case study is demonstrated.

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2) Edward P. J. Corbett, Classical Rheto- ric for the Modern Student, 2nd ed.

(New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 625-30.

3) Umberto Eco, A Theory of Semiotics

(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1976), 277.

4) E. R. Curtius, European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1953), 77-78.

5) Renssalaer Wright Lee, Ut Pictura Poesis: The Humanistic Theory of Painting (New York: W. W. Norton, 1967).

6) G. Bonsiepe, "Visual/Verbal Rhetoric," Ulm 14/15/16 (1965).

Design and rhetorical principles Rhetoric, generally speaking, is concerned with the functional organization of verbal discourse or messages. It operates on the basis of logical and esthetic modes to affect interaction in both a ra- tional and emotional way. According to Aristotle, rhetoric is con- cerned with "discovering all the available means of persuasion in any given situation" either to instruct an audience (rational appeal), to please an audience and win it over (ethical appeal), or to move it (emotional appeal). The object of rhetoric is eloquence, which is de- fined as effective speech that makes it possible to determine the atti- tude of people in order to influence their actions. The possibility of influencing and being influenced presupposes the possibility of choice. Choice is a key term in rhetoric as well as design, as both

pertain to making appropriate selections of means to achieve a desired end. Design, as a communication-oriented discipline, is governed by and must pay attention to pragmatic motivations and functional considerations. Inasmuch as the spirit of rhetoric is also pragmatic, this situation gives design a rhetorical dimension.

Despite all the negative connotations, persuasion is not necessar- ily an underhanded device, but rather a socially acceptable form of reasoning. During the past few decades, I. A. Richards and C. Perelman in particular have been influential in freeing rhetoric from articulated prejudices.2

At present, the exponents of the "new rhetoric" contend that even the simplest utterances are pragmatic, that is, functionally de- termined and, therefore, persuasive. According to this school of thought, "Almost all human reasoning about facts, decisions, opinions, beliefs, and values is no longer considered to be based on the authority of Absolute Reason but instead intertwined with emo- tional elements, historical evaluations, and pragmatic motivations. In this sense, the new rhetoric considers the persuasive discourse not as a subtle fraudulent procedure but a technique of 'reasonable' human interaction controlled by doubt and explicitly subject to

many extralogical conditions."3 Because all human communication is, in one way or another, in-

filtrated rhetorically, design for visual or verbal communication cannot be exempt from that fact.

Although rhetoric has developed as a method that deals fun-

damentally with speaking and writing, rhetorical principles have been transferred into various other media, as well. This has been in- dicated by E. R. Curtius4 and R. Lee,5 both of whom refer to rhetoric and its relationship to painting, architecture, and music. The potential value of the rhetorical system within a semiotic framework was also realized by G. Bonsiepe, who published the article "Visual/Verbal Rhetoric" in 1965.6 Essentially concerned with analyzing advertisements, Bonsiepe demonstrated that visual rhetoric is possible on the basis of verbal rhetoric. In 1968, M. Krampen remarked that "a careful study of classical rhetoric could

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lead to a catalog of rhetorical devices that are capable of visual 7) Martin Krampen, "Signs and Symbols duplication."7 In light of these suggestions, ten figures of speech

in Graphic ommunication Design were selected for this case study. The ten that were chosen suggest Quarterly 62 (1968): 18. an obvious potential for visual duplication. What precisely con- stitutes such a rhetorical figure, and what is its position within the rhetorical system?

The system of classical rhetoric formulates precepts for the pro- duction of a message and traditionally is divided into five phases (see Fig. 1).

I Inventio: Discovery of ideas/arguments Concerned with finding and selecting material in support of the subject matter and relevant to the situation.

II Dispositio: Arrangement of ideas/arguments Concerned with organizing the selected material into an effec- tive whole (statement of intent).

III Elocutio: Form of expressing ideas/arguments Stylistic treatment or detailed shaping of the organized materi- al in consideration of the following criteria: * Aptum: appropriateness with reference to subject matter

and context * Puritas: correctness of expression * Perspicuitas: comprehensibility of expression * Ornatus: deliberate adornment of expression

IV Memoria: Memorization of speech

V Pronunciatio: Delivery of speech Concerned with voice and gestures, but also with appropriate

Fig. 1) setting.

The third phase is of particular interest, as it covers the stylistic features that have already been referred to as figures of speech. According to Quintilian, rhetorical figures generate rules that can be looked upon as means of "lending credibility to our arguments" and "exciting the emotions." He also considered the use of these figures as "the art of saying something in a new form" to give a mes- sage greater vitality and impact. The essence of a rhetorical figure is an artful departure from the ordinary and simple method of speaking. It should be added that these figures do not refer to ready-made expressions; rather, they should be viewed as abstract operational terms that can be filled out.

The notion that stylistic devices are simply the "dress of thought" needs to be erased. According to E. Corbett, "Style does provide a vehicle for thought, and style can be ornamental; but style is some- thing more than that. It is another of the available means of per-

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8) Corbett, Classical Rhetoric, 415

9) J. DeMille, The Elements of Rhetoric (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1878).

suasion, another of the means of arousing the appropriate emotional response in the audience, and another of the means of establishing the proper ethical image. If the student adopts this functional no- tion of style... he will begin to regard style in the way Stendhal conceived of it: 'Style is this: to add to a given thought all the cir- cumstances fitted to produce the whole effect that the thought is in- tended to produce.' "8

Rhetorical figures are usually divided into two groups, schemes and tropes. Whereas the former are defined as departures from the ordinary positioning of words in a sentence ("Uncomplicated are young people, sometimes," as opposed to "Young people are some- times uncomplicated"), the latter are defined as departures from the ordinary signification of words or idioms ("The ground thirsts for rain," as opposed to "The ground is very dry and needs rain").

To delineate building blocks of concept formation, this article must concentrate on the tropes. The nature of the trope can be ex- plained by the following example. In "He was a lion in battle," the term lion is the departed substitute referring to the substituted ex- pression "undaunted unconquerable fighter." The person is not a lion in actuality, but only in some transferred sense. Although the substitute word appears only rarely or occasionally, the substituted words represent the ordinary or habitual mode of expression. The occasional departure involves a change in meaning because it results in effects that are different from the ordinary mode of expression.

Different classifications of figures of speech have been adopted by various writers in the past. In adopting a classification for this

study, DeMille's Elements of Rhetoric9 and Corbett's Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student served as guides. The classification is as follows:

Figures of contrast * Antithesis: the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, for example,

"By the time the wallet is empty, life will be full." * Irony: an expression that conveys a meaning opposite to its literal

meaning, for example, "Robbing a widow of her life savings was

certainly a noble act."

Figures of resemblance * Metaphor: a implied comparison between two things of unlike

nature, for example, "The colorful display was a magnet for any- body in the room."

* Personification: a comparison whereby human qualities are assigned to inanimate objects, for example, "The thatch-roofed cottages in the valley seemed to be asleep."

Figures of contiguity * Metonymy: the substitution of terms suggesting an actual

relationship that can be of causal, spatial, or chronological nature

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(cause instead of effect, instrument for agent, author for work, container for contained, and produce for producer), for example, "The White House (President of the United States) reduced her

troops in Europe," or "He had always been a great lover of gold (money)."

* Synecdoche: the substitution of a more inclusive term for one that is less inclusive or vice versa, the nature of which is quantitative, for example, "Canada (Canadian team) won the competition" or "He lived for a week under my roof (house)."

* Periphrasis: circumlocution, the indirect reference by means of well-known attributes or characteristics, for example, "to go to a better world" instead of "to die."

* Puns: a play on words, using words that sound alike but have dif- ferent meanings, for example, "Check in here for the rest of your life (Wandlyn Motel)."

Figures of gradation * Amplification: the expansion of a topic through the assemblage of

relevant particulars, for example, "He used all the means at his

disposal: radio, TV, brochures, posters, advertisements, and so

forth." * Hyperbole: the exaggeration of an object beyond its natural and

proper dimensions, for example, "Jan's friends tracked a ton of mud through the hallway."

Any departure from the ordinary way of expression endows the ex-

pression with a strong dynamic tension directed either toward the

ordinary (making the hallway terribly dirty) or away from it

(tracked a ton of mud through the hallway). The less known the

trope, the longer the tension span. It is a necessary condition for all figures of speech that they pre-

suppose a basic understanding of grammatical forms and lexical content from which departure is possible. Figurative variations can- not ignore the grammar of the language inasmuch as any change for a greater effect must respect grammatical possibilities. Because the basic understanding is determined by the grammar and rhetoric is build upon its fundamentals, rhetorical procedure is also referred to as constituting a secondary grammar.

Furthermore, both grammars participate in successive genera- tions of order. However, in using the aforementioned rhetorical

figures, a lower literal order is transformed into a higher rhetorical order, giving the expression more vitality. The difference is char- acterized by the word money depicting an image of coins and bills

(literal order) as opposed to money being illustrated metonomically by the trademarks of several major Canadian banks (rhetorical order). Thus, the effectiveness of a rhetorical figure always depends on the audience's ability to perceive the difference between the sub- stitute and the substituted way of expression.

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Whether the literal or rhetorical order is used depends on the number of structured relationships that have materialized, which also implies reference to pre-existing cultural knowledge that pre- dates a design. The connection between both orders is one of balancing two oppositional forces, the obvious and the new. Whereas the obvious tends toward satisfying expectations by responding to existing standards, the new moves toward upsetting those standards by way of a novel and atypical approach with lesser relation to existing expectations. This situation may be described as a state of mutual equilibrium between both preservative and

changeable forces. In responding to existing expectations and supplying something unexpected at the same time, a design pro- duces a challenge (a pleasant or unpleasant surprise) in addition to a renewed and extended perspective.

10) Quoted in Eco, Theory of Semiotics, 15.

From concept formation to visual form Visual communication takes place on the basis of more or less con- ventionalized signs belonging to many kinds of codes of disparate languages. A theater poster is seen as a message representing a com-

plex of signs built on the basis of codes, conveying certain meanings that are interpretable on the basis of either those same codes or different ones. Concept formation coincides with the process of

coding insofar as the designer assumes and activates codes by cor-

relating selected graphic devices with selected culturally sanc- tioned meanings, thus binding something present with something absent. The process of coupling these two opposed units is called

signification, an act whose product is a sign. A sign according to C. S. Peirce is "something that stands to somebody for something [else] in some respect or capacity."10 Thus, the possession of codes allows readers to draw relationships, for example, between a poster titled "Macbeth" and an actual play by Shakespeare. Codes can stimulate a variety of interpretations by allowing the designer to draw relationships between the play Macbeth itself and concepts such as "crowned beast," "sinister king," "curse of evil actions," "scene from an actual theatre production," and many more.

Signification operates on the basis of denotative as well as con- notative codes, both of which draw upon different experiences. Anything derived from the visual perception of a literal reading of a theater poster is denotative, while anything derived from additional

experiences and associations or symbolic readings is connotative. Whereas denotation is referential and direct and tends toward

monofunctionality (a theater poster as a vehicle whose sole function is to announce the play), connotation is suggestive and indirect and tends toward polyfunctionality (a theater poster suggests a whole host of shared assumptions and possible functions).

Thus, while the posters shown at the end of this article refer to the play Macbeth and are denotatively interchangeable in announc-

ing the play, they are connotatively quite different. It follows, then,

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11) See Eco, Theory of Semiotics, 51-57.

that any act of signification - in addition to conventionalized de- notations - must consciously take into account the breadth and

complexity of connotations. An inquiry into concept formation and rhetorical coding must

proceed backward from the result toward a hypothetical model that explains the process. To this end, a theater poster is the result of the

interplay of two sign systems - title of play and graphic image - that elucidate and complement each other. This is possible in theater

posters because the signification of the image is assumed to be in- tentional; the signifieds of the message correspond to certain attri- butes or associations of the play that are graphically transmitted in the clearest way. Therefore, the graphic image is seen as a series of signs replacing a statement about the play or about a specific theat- rical interpretation of the play. It represents a concept analogous to a written precis.

Having a more focused object of study, the next step involves

outlining the elementary conditions of graphic signification, which also includes a wider application than that of the design of theater

posters. A visual system such as that of theater posters is the result of two coordinated sets: the set of possible graphic forms and the set of plays to be announced (see Fig. 2). According to a scheme pro- posed by L. Hjelmslev,11 all graphic forms correspond to level of expression; all plays to level of content. On both levels, a form

Graphic encoding Concept formation

King Macbeth Content as human beast Content Play Macbeth Rhetorical

= result of = result of pattern: Expression? (graphic image) Expression? (King Macbeth as Metaphor

human beast)

(play/graphic representation or discourse) is distinguished from a substance (text characteristics/graphic means). The coupling of the two oppositionally structured sets of forms determines the semiotic structure of the visual system. The structure itself becomes semiotic, since each of the two forms involved contains information over and above that pertaining to its own set. The additional charge of information is obtained through the correlation of the signified play and signifying graphic image, thus determining the deliberately fixed signification of a poster.

The next step of analysis must be to identify the plot or chosen visual concept that is equivalent to the meaning nucleus of a given graphic image. In decoding the meaning of the Macbeth poster in terms of ideas conveyed or suggested, feelings expressed and con- noted, a summarizing statement could read "King Macbeth, a hu- man beast" (see Fig. 3). This graphically encoded statement should

DESIGN ISSUES

Fig. 2)

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be seen as the designer's chosen visual concept that was skillfully and clearly encoded. It should be pointed out that the identified vi- sual concept is not only the result of a literal reading of the percept- ible units (crown, face, fangs), but also the result of denotative and connotative reading which, in turn, is influenced by a familiarity with this particular play and by a certain visual literacy.

The remaining question concerns the designer's method of arriv-

ing at such a concept. The text of the play itself contains a large stock of suitable material for conceptualization, such as references to certain locations and events, key objects and scenes, main

characters, cause-effect relations, and so forth. However, in the text

Substance: Text characteristics and associations

"Design a poster for Content Form: Play Macbeth the play k II Macbeth" Expression Form: Graphic discourse

Substance: Graphic means and associations

Fig. 4)

of the play, there is no direct reference to King Macbeth as a human beast. But there are enough indications to constitute an image of Macbeth as a despot. In the example, the designer went one step further in reaching a solution that clearly mirrors the dialectic of

comprehensibility and attractiveness to stimulate interest and to

represent a high degree of information, the full extent of which can

only be discerned by the attentive reader. Referring back to the

process that led to the concept, the initial interpretation of Macbeth

Fig. 3) as a despot has been replaced and dramatized by a visual concept that displays King Macbeth as a human beast.

__1^H- - ^The relation of the form of expression to the form of content is

regulated by specific figures of speech. To reveal the rhetorical fig- _ (c '

/ ) q _ l ure that governs the concept formation, it is necessary to look at the

relationship "title of play = Macbeth" and the concept "King Macbeth, a human beast." In this particular poster, the relation fol-

$cff fj_ lows a metaphorical structure. A metaphor is defined as an implied comparison between two things of unlike nature, which in this case is Macbeth being implicitly compared to a beast.

Fig. 4 indicates that the signification process in visual design in- volves two major operations: formation of the visual concept, as well as its graphic encoding. Although in the former, the central

problem of design involves finding an idea that expresses the play in some respect or capacity, the concern of the latter is in the visual

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translation of this concept. Both operations are equally important. Although graphic encoding is beyond this study, it is likewise

governed by rhetorical figures. This point can be illustrated by looking at the visual treatment of the poster previously discussed. To express the concept of the human beast graphically, the designer omitted certain features of a human face and replaced them with fea- tures of a particular predatory animal. This graphic manipulation, the departure from a common face-human or animal- adds con-

siderably to the graphic interpretation of beastness. The underlying rhetorical figure at work here is called oxymoron, defined as the

yoking of two terms that are ordinarily contradictory. Transferred to this example, it is the yoking of the facial features of a human

being with those of an animal. By combining contradictory elements, the designer produced a startling effect, especially as the

figure is used in such an obviously fresh and apt way. Finally, in addition to a clear expression of the concept, the designer's com- mand of different media and techniques of visual treatment also al- lows for modification of the degree of human beastness, which is similar to the use of adjectives to modify nouns or adverbs to mod-

ify verbs in a sentence.

12) Kenneth Burke, Counter-Statement (Los Altos, CA: Hermes Publi- cations, 1953), 143.

Visual duplication of rhetorical figures From a design viewpoint, rhetoric has classified numerous patterns of signification. However, rhetoric does not say metonymy exists when a king is represented by a crown. Instead, it formulates a kind of equation by saying that metonymy is a substitution for one an- other of terms suggesting an actual relationship that can be of causal, spatial, or chronological nature.

A common criticism that arises when dealing with rhetorical fig- ures is that discourse manifests itself as concrete, particular, and in- dividual, whereas these terms are abstract, general, and universal. How then can they be useful for the study of design? Their usefulness, according to K. Burke, resides in the fact that they can be re-individuated into different subject matter, that is, a particular figure can be filled out with a completely different subject. As Burke explains it: "A metaphor is a concept, an abstraction, but a specific metaphor, exemplified by specific images, is an in- dividuation. Its appeal as form resides in the fact that its particular subject matter enables the mind to follow a metaphor-process."12

Thus, from a pragmatic viewpoint, rhetorical figures manifest themselves in vividly concrete ways, for example, Macbeth as a hu- man beast. From a logical viewpoint, however, they represent only different abstract terms, for example, a metaphor that can be revital- ized in numerous ways. Rhetorical figures should be viewed as con- struction principles that can assist designers in their search for visual concepts.

To conduct the case study, second-year graphic design students at the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design were introduced to

DESIGN ISSUES 61

rhetorical methodology. They were encouraged to adopt and test rhetorical figures in conjunction with the designing of a Macbeth poster for the local theater company. It was anticipated that this approach would help to shed more light on the process of concept formation, sparking a greater diversity of interpretations, and, therefore, a greater range of original poster designs. They read the play, viewed the movie Macbeth directed by Roman Polanski, and formed study groups around ten listed rhetorical figures. With the construction principle of a specific rhetorical figure as a guideline, each group looked for potential themes that fit the term and had vi- sual potential. Finally, a theme was selected and visually executed; the results then were compared. The feedback from the students was enthusiastic; several mentioned that, for the first time, they felt as if they had produced something that deserved to be labeled "creative." The posters show the visual duplication of one specific rhetorical figure together with the concept statement (see Figs. 5-14).

Rhetorical figures do not by any means represent specific recipes. They are exploration tools that can spur lateral thinking, giving designers the awareness of possibilities to make the best choice. However, the creative process will not become mechanized, be- cause each concrete task requires a different solution. The real problem continues to be that of bringing together the abstract construction principles with original ideas within the confines of a specific task. Concerning design curricula, it would be worth- while to consider consciously once again the surprising adaptability of rhetoric, especially in light of the new rhetoric movement and in the context of contemporary society, for this society is informed by visual discourse through a wide variety of media to a degree incomparable with any other time.

Fig. 5) Antithesis: Juxtaposition of Macbeth, the loyal e general, with Macbeth, the vitciously evil king (oseph McDonald). Fib. 6) Irony: The amiable couple, Her Highness Lady Macbeth and His Highness King Macbeth (Marilyn Dyke).

MACBETH Nq,t,*ina 1 i tui .e; ! ,: E> -.. %,.:. . ;%. =, . i .-

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Fig. 7) Metaphor: Comparison between events in the play Macbeth and contemporary events of a similar nature portrayed as we would learn of them today, for example, in a

newspaper (Nat Connacher). Fig. 8) Personification: Human qualities are assigned to ani- mate and inanimate objects bearing historical significance, bleeding armour (Ian Mason).

wi.ED... . ENr ) Tli

.....

..... h,.; L:l ? ,r?ll.l ll,~il -: :-

MACBETH LIVES.

D.. . . . . . .. .

Oin O f wor explode elon9 Ni*rtague-l north border

nK ? 1 m55 0 . .

_R_ a I _~ .

Fig. 9) Metonymy: The crown and the blood suggest an actual relationship with the tragic theme of the play (Julien LeBlanc). Fig. 10) Synecdoche: Substitution of a part for the whole, a

portrayal of Macbeth's sinister char- acter through concentration on the eyes (Cynthia Henry).

Fig. 11) Periphrases: Macbeth's fatal strategy to attain power and crown is indirectly referred to by a "baited trap" (Siuw Ying Soo). Fig. 12) Pun: A play on the three witches, who

spur Macbeth's ambition to attain the crown, and the crown itself (Steve Durning).

Fig. 13) Amplification: Selection of key elements of the play to enhance its nature (Dave Roe). Fig. 14) Hyperbole: Exaggeration of the crown, which turns out to be an unbearable burden for Macbeth (ohn Murphy).

DESIGN ISSUES

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