Reproduction in Yemen

7/29/2019 Reproduction in Yemen

1/15

INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW 29AN ANALYSIS O F RE PRO DU CTIV E HEA LTH

C O M P O N E N T S IN Y E M E NBy T.S. SUN IL an d VIJAYAN K . PI L LA I

IntroductionOver the last five decades, efforts to control global population growth have focused onfamily planning policies and programs. Since the 2004 International Conference onPopulation and Development (ICPD),' demographic studies on understanding fertility-controlling behavior have concentrated on reproductive health. The 2004 ICPD broadened

the narrow view of population control to include individual health by asserting that pop-ulation growth could be managed through the econom ic, political, and social advancementof women.^ This parallels the recent shift in focus of population control studies from lim-iting family size to improving women's health and protecting human rights.^ Despite thischange, fertility-controlling behavior has yet to be thoroughly investigated in many coun-tries. One such example is the People's Republic of Yemen. To be sure, some demograph-ic studies have tried to unravel the complex fertility condition in the Middle East." Butthese studies have neglected several countries in the region primarily due to the lack ofavailability of national data. This study attempts to address this gap in the literature byfocusing on three factors in the continuum of the reproductive process (age at marriage,contraceptive use, and abortion/miscarriage) to understand the fertility-controlling behav-ior of Yemeni wom en.

The impo rtance ofa ge at marriage as a means of population control was first addressedin the late eighteenth century by the political economist Thomas R. Malthus who advo-cated postponement of marriage as a means to balance population size with limitedresources.' Early age at marriage (in some societies, marriage before the age of fifteen)has resulted in early childbearing, greater health risks for both mother and infant, andoften defines the social and economic characteristics of that society.''The use of contraceptives is another major factor that influences the fertility-control-ling behavior of wom en. The use of contraceptives to control population growth affects thehealth of the mother and child, the ability to avoid unwanted births, and the timing andspacing of children. Other factors that influence the use of contraceptives by womeninclude com munication between spou ses,' preferences and perceptions of the attitudes ofher partner," and husband's approval."The third fertility-controlling behavior addressed in this study concerns the use of abor-tion. Availability of abortion as an informed choice of birth control is generally considered ahuman rights issue in many countries. In countries where contraceptives are not easily acces-sible to women, abortion is considered the most viable form of birth control. Abortions have


2/15

30 VOLUME 80, NUMBERS 3 & These three factors represent the major components emphasized in the United Nationsdefinition of reproductive health. They influence a woman's informed ability to engage isexual relationships, her ability to make effective, acceptable, and affordable choiceregarding the use of contraceptives, and her access to safe and appropriate h ealthcare services during pregnancy." In other words, a wom an's reproductive health can be explained bthe extent of control she possesses over decisions regarding age at marriage, timing of sexual unions, pace of childbearing, access to contraceptives, as well as access to informatioconcerning childbirth and the prevention and treatment of reproductive related illness.'^

BackgroundSince the unification of Yemen in 1990, several structural reforms and policy change

have been introduced to control that country's population g rowth. One of the major achievements in this area has been the adoption of a national policy on population control. ThNational Committee for Population and Family Planning tried to reduce Yemen's death ratby at least fifty percent by 2000, reduce its total fertility rate by six births per woman ovethe same period, decrease infant mortality by six deaths per 1,000 live births, and lowematernal m ortality by fifty percent from its 1991 level. Yemen is still in the early stages odemographic transition. Its annual population growth currently stands at 3.3 percent. Thcurrent fertility rate of Yemen is about 7.0. This reflects a high b irthrate, forty-four per 1,00population, and a declining mortality rate, eleven per 1,000 population. Yemen's infant mortality rate, however, still ranks as one of the highest in the world (seventy-five deaths pe1,000 live births). This includes an under age five mortality rate of eighty-five percenrecorded within the last decade.'^ From the late 1980s through the late 1990s, Yemen experienced a high maternal mortality ratio of 351 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births.While this number seems low, maternal deaths represent about forty-two percent of adeaths for Yemeni wom en between th e ages of fifteen and forty-nine. Lastly, by 2002 thaverage life expectancy for the popu lation of Yemen stood at fifty-nine (fifty-seven for m aleand sixty-one for females, respectively). This represents a fourteen year increase since 199but it remains four years below the average for less developed countries."

Based on key social and econ om ic indicators (notably, GNP, expo rts, debt), Yemen rankamong the twenty-five poorest and least developed countries in the world."" According tthe latest Human Development Report, Yemen is ranked 144 out of 173 in the HumaDevelopment Index." Recent national surveys indicate that nearly three-fourths ofthe population live in rural areas. This has a significant impact on the character of Yemen societyMarked differences are observed in educational levels between men and women, with thhighest gender gap oc curring in enrollment rates (thirty-one percent).'* Furtherm ore, w hilnearly ninety percent of urban households have electricity, only thirty percent of rurahouseholds are electrified. Approximately forty-eight percent ofthe population is youngethan fifteen years ofage, and unemployment has reached thirty percent."AGE AT M ARRIAGE: Marriage has been universal in Yemen; few men and wome


3/15

INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW 31Age at marriage is important for understanding both the fertility behavior of Yemeniwomen as w ell as the econom ic and social conditions of that society. ^ Since reproductivelife begins with marriage, early age at marriage, as in many developing societies, signalsthe initiation of early reproductive life and a longer duration of reproductive years thatbegins immediately after marriage.CONTRACEPTIVE USE: The use of contraceptives is another important factor inunderstanding the fertility-controlling behavior of Yemeni women. Though the govern-ment lacks an explicit population policy, policy makers and government officials strong-ly believe that rapid population growth is a hindrance to the country's social and econom-ic development. They support the use of contraception and encourage family planning toimprove maternal and child health.In its efforts to provide better access and knowledge about contraceptives, the govern-

ment, in 1996, established the Yemeni Family Care Association (YF CA ). This agency pro -vides prenatal services to pregnant women, including information on child nutrition andimmunization. The number of centers around the nation increased more than three-fold inthe early 1990s, from 75 in 1991 to 235 in 1995 ." Additionally, family planning servicesare generally offered through the Ministry of Public Health, YFCA, and various pharma-cies throughout the country. Despite such efforts, contraceptive use is still not common inYemen. Yet, improvements in this direction are encouraging given the brief period sincethe unification ofthe country (1990). Indeed, the prevalence of contraceptive use amongmarried women doubled in less than a decade from ten percent in 1991/92 to twenty-onepercent in 1997.'*Aside from the social and econom ic characteristics of wom en, several other factors needto be taken into account when studying the determinants of contraceptive use in Yemen.These variables include the level of education and the occupation of the husband," hus-band-wife communication regarding family planning,^' and the husband's approval of con-traceptive use." Most studies show that the educational level of the wife is more stronglyand inversely correlated with family size than that of the husband.^' An educated husbandand wife are more likely to discuss the timing and number of children and the use of dif-ferent contraceptives. Education beyond the primary level is often associated with an open-ness to new ideas, a higher standard of living, exposure to an urban environment, higheroccupational achievem ent, and more options and interests outside the home. Women's edu-cation is positively related to knowledge and use of contraceptives and negatively related tofamily size in high fertility countries. The use of modem contraceptives in both developingand developed countries thus increases with the number of years of female education.^'

In contrast, fertility differences between rural and urban women are due more tochanges in their marital pattern (increase in age at marriage) than to differences in con-traceptive use.'" The rational process of fertility decision-making involves communicationbetween spouses.^' Studies reveal that limited communication between spouses regardingfamily size and family planning translates into low levels of contraceptive use.^' Like somecountries in sub-Saharan Africa, in Yemen one finds that the husband's disapproval is one


4/15

32 VOLUME 81 , NUMBERS 1 &ers. Differing opinions on abortion in Muslim states are further complicated by religioubeliefs.^" In Muslim communities, the question on use of abortion revolves around the timing of ensoulement which, within many religious schools, varies from 40 to 120 daysWhile these religious schools may disagree on allowing abortions, they all support the usof abortion in specific situations when the health of the mother is in danger."

As in most M uslim cou ntries in the M iddle E ast, the use of abortion is not a widely discussed topic in Yemen. Prior to unification, abortion was proh ibited exc ept to save the lifof the mother. Differences between theological ideas and political opinions regardinabortion , together with the lack of accurate d em ograph ic data and restrictive abortion lawthat existed before unification, make it difficult to estimate the prevalence of abortion inYemen."* It is also difficult to ascer tain the prev alenc e of abo rtion in Yemen from the fewquestions that try to address the topic in national surveys. These surveys often combinquestions concerning induced and spontaneous abortions which com plicates the si tuatiofurther. C onse que ntly, literature on abortion in Yem en is quite lim ited.

Studies conducted outside the Middle East note several reasons for the use of abortioas a method of fertility control." In countries where contraceptive use is restricted, abortion is viewed as a method to limit family size.'* This trend is also found in societies wh erother contraceptive methods are available. In many societies (particularly in South anSoutheast Asia), sex-selective abortions are performed to maintain the desired number osons and daughters.^' For example, in Bangladesh, where abortion is illegal, most abortions are performed for this reas on.* In addition to sex preference, ag e, parity ofth e m other, marital status, education, place of residence, religion, and ethnicity were other factorthat influenced women who obtained an induced abortion."'

Data and MethodsThis study uses data derived from Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) conducted in1997. The 1997 Yemen Dem ographic and M aternal and Child Health Survey (1997 -YDMCHS) is only the second national survey conducted since the unification of the country (thfirst took place in 1991). In interviews with 10,414 of 11,158 eligible ever-married women

between the ages of fifteen and forty-nine, the survey obtained information concerning fertility, family plann ing, infant and child m ortality, maternal and child health, and n utrition. It alsgathered information on female circumcision as well as the height and weight of mothers tmeasure maternal malnutrition."^ This survey also collected information regarding characteristics of households, living conditions, school enrollment, employment, general mortality, disability, fertility, and child survival rates. The areas covered in the survey of women of reproductive age include demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, marriage and reproductive history, fertility regulation and preferences, antenatal care, breastfeeding, and childcare.The authors of this study employ several additional variables to measure the level o

women's decision-making power in the household, particularly concerning the use of contraceptives and husband-wife communication regarding different aspects of the reproductiv


5/15

INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW 33Women who participated in the study were also asked questions to determine the disparity ingender preferences in children. Specifically, they were asked: "How many of these childrenwould you like to be boys, how many would you like to be girls and for how many would it notmatter?" Studies have shown that women with wide disparity in these indicators are likely toseek out fertility-controlling measures such as contraceptives and/or abortion."The three dependent variables used in this study are age at marriage (AGEM), ever useof contraception (EVERUSE), and ever had abortions or miscarriages (ABORT).Although abortions and miscarriages have different medical and political connotations,the responses are combined in a single question in the original survey. The independentvariables are: region, place of residence, source of drinking water, electricity at home,occupation of women before marriage, education of women, desire for additional children,husband's approval of family planning, wife's approval of family planning, current occu-pation of husband, current occupation of wife, discussion of family planning with one'spartner, children ever born and their current ages. Since AGEM is a continuous variable,a multiple regression analysis has been conducted to understand the influence ofthe inde-pendent variables. A logistic regression analysis is performed on the dummy variables,EVERUSE and ABOR T. Disparity indexes are calculated by taking the difference betweenresponses to ideal number of children and actual number of children. Gender specific dis-parity in children is determined by taking the difference between the reported ideal num-ber of male/female children and the actual number of male/female children.

Analysis and ResultsThe univaritate d istribution ofthe variables selected in the study is presented in Table 1(see page 34). About 19 percent of ever-married women in both the twenty to twenty-fiveand twenty-five to twenty-nine age groups, and 8.2 percent of women in the forty-five toforty-nine age group responded to the survey. Nearly half of the population lives in theplateau and desert regions of Yemen. About two-thirds of the population lives in ruralareas. This is evident upon examining the source of drinking water and access to electric-ity; more than half of the population (57.6 percent) depends on non-pipe sources of waterand lack electricity in their homes.Results from the survey also indicate a sharp discrepancy in the level of educationbetween husband and wife in Yemen. W hile almost half (48.2 percent) of male adults havesome form of education, less than one-quarter (21.1 percent) of women have attained asimilar level of formal leaming. Similar differences are observed in terms of the occupa-tional status of husbands and wives. About half of the males (45.3 percent) are engaged inprofessional and service-sector jobs, but only 3.5 percent of women work in such occu-pations. Over two-thirds of Yemeni women (73.4 percent) reported that they either do notwork or do not have regular work.With regard to family p lanning , nearly half of the women reported that they do not haveany desire for more children and approve of family planning. Additionally, 58.7 percent


6/15

34 VOLUME 8L NUM BERS 1 & Table 1: Social and Econom ic Characteristics of th e Population in Yemen, 1997

Variable

Age of woman15-1920-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-49RegionCoastal

MountainousPlateau & DesertPlace of residenceRuralUrbanEducation of husbandNo educationSome education

Education of womanNo educationSome educationOccup. of husbandNo work/reg. workAgri. self employedProfessional/ServiceOccup. of womanNo work/reg. workAgri. self employed

Professional/Service

VariableName &ValueAGE1234567REGION012PLACE01EDUCNH01

EDUCNW01OCCUPH012OCCUPW012

Percent-age

10.418.518.916.317.110.68.2

23.927.848.2

71.728.3

48.251.8

78.921.1

29.445.345.3

73.423.13.5

Variable

Water sourceNon-pipePipeElectricity at homeNoYesDesire for more childrenNo m ore childrenWants moreHusband's approval of FPDisapprovesNot sureApprovesWomen's approval of FPDisapprovesNot sureApproves

Ever had abortionNoYesEver use of contraceptionNever usedUsed someAge at marriageLess than 1515-1819 and above

VariableN a m e &ValueWATER01ELECT01DESIRE01HAPPROV012WAPPROV012

ABORT01EVERUSE01AGEM012

Percent-ag e

57.642.4

50.449.6

50.349.7

36.022.741.3

32.613.753.7

69.630.4

60.439.6

26.554.818.8

The percentage of women marrying at an early age (younger than fifteen) decreased from30.7 percent in 1991/92 to 26.5 percent in 1997. This increase in age at marriage is particularly evident in the fifteen to eighteen age group. The average age of Yemeni womewhen they first marry is approximately sixteen. Distribution of ever-married womeaccording to the number of children bom shows that Yemeni women prefer large familiesThe average number of children bom to Yemeni women is about 7.2.Table 2 (see page 35) presents a regression outcome regarding age at marriage. Wome


7/15

INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW 35Table 2: OLS regression" on age at marriage

Variable ^standard ized Standard errorConstant 16.499 0.083RegionMountain -0.142* 0.095Plateau and Dese rt -0.178* 0.078Place of residenceUrban -0.013 0.087Source of drinking waterPipe 0.016 0.072Have electricityYes 0.035 * 0.079Occupation before marriageYes 0.071* 0.067Education of womenSome e d u c a t i o n 0 . 1 7 1 * 0 . 0 8 1

A logistic regression*' which measures ever use of contraception is presented in Table 3(see page 36). In addition to social and economic variables, other variables such as hus-band-wife communication, approval of the use of contraceptives by the husband, approvalofthe use of contraceptives by the wife, and children ever bom are found to be statistical-ly significant in explaining ever use of contraceptives among Yemeni women. The chancesof using contraceptives increase 1.61 times among women living in the mountain regioncompared to those living in the coastal region. The odds are also higher (1.38 times) amongwomen living in the plateau and desert regions. Use of contraceptives is also 1.75 timesgreater among women living in the urban areas as compared to their rural counterparts.Econom ic conditions, such as having pipe water (1.13 times) and electricity (1.44 times) intheir hom es, also increase the chances of Yemeni women ever using contraceptives.Education and occupation levels of husbands and wives are significant factors of con-traceptive use am ong Yemeni w omen. The chances of a Yemeni woman ever using contra-ceptives are 1.39 times higher among women who have a husband with some education,and 1.55 times higher for women possessing some level of education. Similar results are


8/15

36 VOLUME 8 1, NUMBERS 1 & Table 3: Logistic regression on ever use of contraception.

VariablesRegion

MountainPlateau and DesertPlace of residence

UrbanSource of drinking waterPiped waterHave electricityYesEducation of husbandSome educationEducation of wifeSome educationDesire for more childrenYesHusband approval of FP

Not sureApproves

Exp(P)

1.61***1.38***

1.75***

1.13**

1.44***

1.39***

1.55***

0.98

0.85*5.53***

Std.Error0.0890.072

0.076

0.062

0.068

0.069

0.077

0.064

0.0930.069

VariablesWife approval or FPNot sureApprovesOccupation of husbandAgri. Self-employedProfessional/ServicesOccupation of wifeAgri. Self-employedProfessional/ServicesDiscuss FP with partnerAt least onceAge of marriageChildren ever bornCurrent ageConstant

Exp(P)

0.952.00***

0.911.11*

0.941.51***

1.49***

0.991.28***

1.000.029***

Std.Error0.1120.072

0.0790.064

0.0710.154

0.0650.0090.0180.0180.233

*p


9/15

INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW 37the difference between actual number of children (male/female) and ideal num ber of chil-dren. A logistic regression on the use of abortion is presented in Table 4.

Table 4: Logistic regression on the use of abortionVariablesRegionMountainPlateau and DesertPlace of residenceUrbanSource of drinking water

Piped waterHave electricityYesEducation of husbandSome educationEducation of wifeSome educationDesire for more childrenYesHusband approval of FPNot sureApprovesWife approval of FPNot sureApproves

Exp(p)

1.081.16

1.34***

0.84**1.15**

1.08

1.01

1.09

1.06.084

0.841.01

Std.Error0.1010.083

0.087

0.0690.078

0.074

0.085

0.075

0.1000.084

0.1240.083

VariablesOccupation of husbandAgri. Self-employedProfessional/ServicesOccupation of wifeAgri. Self-employedProfessional/ServicesDiscuss FP with partnerAt least onceAge of marriageChildren ever bornEver use of contraceptionYesCurrent ageDisparity; male childrenDisparity: female childrenDisparity: Total childrenConstant

Exp(P)

1.061.02

1.051.38**

1.14*0.95**1.14***

1.111.06***0.981.02*0.95**0.085***

Std.Error0.0850.071

0.0770.158

0.0740.0100.027

0.0710.0060.0160.0170.0210.252

*p


10/15

38 VOLUME 81 , NUMBERS I &num ber of female children have higher odds of having an abortion than those who did nChances for an abortion decrease among women who reported a discrepancy in male number of children but it was not significant. A decrease in odds for an abortion is alobserved among women who reported a discrepancy in total number of children.

Summary and ConclusionAlthough the issue of women's reproductive health has aroused intemational concem recent years, particularly in developing countries, the theoretical approaches used to explalevels of reproductive health are few and far between. While one might assume that undestanding the fertility-controlling behavior of women is a significant factor in promotiimproved reproductive health, many countries fail to do so. This study suggests that thrreproductive components (age at marriage, use of contraceptives, and use of abortion) c

help one understand the fertility behavior of women in Yemen. Assu m ing that controlling ftility behavior is only one oft he ma ny agents that provide for better reproductive h ealth, thethree factors take into account the major components involved in the reproductive proceThe results of this study provide an opportunity to revisit some widely held assum ptions abo"Islamic doctrine" that are deemed incompatible with the concept of population control.While this study addresses the importance of understanding ferti l i ty-controlling fators , its limitations need to be recognized. First, it suffers from the non-availability of seeral theore tically im portan t variab les in the Yemen data set. It is restricted to available vaables in the data set to measure the components of reproductive health. Tbis is reflected the R-squared values reported in the analysis. Another limitation of this study is that tauthors did not use any weights to account for the variation in the socioeconomic leveof the population living in North and South Yemen.These limitations notwithstanding, results from this study correspond with general acceptnotions found in existing demo graphic literature concerning age at marriage, contraceptive usand abortion. Consequently, this study has several policy implications. Fertility-controllibehavior is considered an elitist phenom enon in Yemen. W omen w ho are living unde r the besocial and econom ic conditions are more likely to adopt norm s and values associated w ith smfamilies and em brace family plann ing. For exam ple, educated wom en are more likely to m arlater and they are more likely to use contraceptives. Fertility-controlling behavior is also higest am ong w omen living in urban areas and those wh o live in households w ith better economconditions (i.e., having electricity and use of pipe water). Husband-wife communication coeem ing family planning and hu sband's approval of family planning are also found to be signicant factors that contribute to contraceptive use in Yemen. These can be viewed as a welcoing gesture to the adaptability of birth control and a breakthrough from the barriers outlined religious doctrine. One can argue that contrary to the belief among social and demographresearchers that Islam is a major hindrance to the practice of birth control and the idea of smfamily size, religious doctrines do not appear to influence at least a portion o f Yemen's popu ltion. Diffusion of these ideas into the rural population is the next major challenge the g ovem


11/15

INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW 39may be one way to spread this message to the rural population. These programs are moreeffective in societies such as Yemen where the persistent influence of traditional normsand dominance of patriarchal beliefs exist."'

Another major component that needs further attention is the political commitment towardsstrengthening and spreading the message of the use of family planning. Many countries in theMiddle East have lowered their fertility levels significantly and are now moving towards the nextstage of demographic transition. In the case of Yemen, one observes that despite the dominanceand practice of traditional beliefs, knowledge of contraceptives is widespread. Yet, such knowl-edge is not reflected in the prevalence of contraceptive use. Narrowing the gap between knowl-edge of contraceptives and their use can be achieved through cooperation between religious andpolitical leaders. Many countries in the region, such as Egypt and han, have undertaken a strongcommitment to adopt policy changes to limit population growth through the support of both polit-ical and religious leaders."" Given the existing poor infrastructural conditions in Yemen, however,any future progress in fertility control can only be realized with the aid of intemational agencies.ENDNOTES

'The ICPD was held in Cairo, Egypt from September 5-13, 2004. This was the thirdintemational population conference organized by the Population Division of the UnitedNations Department for Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis and theUnited Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA). M ore than 10,000 registered par-ticipants from 180 countries attended the conference. Participants included governmentofficials, members from UN specialized agencies, and non-governmental organizations.They took part in negotiations to finalize a Program of Action regarding population anddevelopment for the next twenty years which emphasizes the importance of introducingdevelopmental programs to meet the needs of individual men and women.

^United Nations, Report o f the International Conference on Population andDevelopment, 1995 (New York: United Nations, 1995), 5.^Sandra D. Lane, "From Population Control to Reproductive Health: An EmergingPolicy Agenda," Social Science and Medicine 39:9 (November 1994):1304."Philippe Fargues, "The Decline of Arab Fertility," Population 44:1 (September1989): 173-74; Hoda Rashad, "Demographic Transition in Arab Countries: A NewPerspective," Journal of Population Research 17:1 (May 2000):83-85.^Thomas R. Malthus, An Essay on the Principle ofPopulation: A View ofIts Past and PresenEffects on Human Happiness with an Inquiry into Our Projects Respecting the Future Removor Mitigation of the Evils Which It Occasions, 7th ed. (London: Reeves and Turner, 1872).'Charles Hirschman, "Premarital Socioeconomic Roles and the Timing of FamilyFormation," Demography 22:1 (February 1985):52; Anju Malhotra and Amy Ong Tsui,"Marriage Timing in Sri Lanka: The Role of Modern Norms and Ideas," Journal of

Ma rriage and the Fam ily 58:2 (May 1996):488-89. Social and economic characteristics ofthe population include education level, income, occupation, and religion.


12/15

40 VOLUME 81, NUMBERS 1 &'Alex C. Ezeh, "Gender Differences in Reproductive Orientation in Ghana: A NeApproach to Understanding Fertility and Family Planning Issues in sub-Saharan Africain Dem ographic and Hea lth Surveys Wo rld Conference: Proceedings, eds. Institute fResearch Development (IRD) and Macro International (MI) (Columbia, MD: IRD/M

1991), 29.'"Vijayan K. Pillai and Guang-zhen W ang, Women s Reproductive Rights in DevelopiCountries (London: Ashgate Publishers, 1999), 186."United Nations, Report of the International Conference on Population anDevelopment, 1995, 5.'Tillai and Wang, Women s Reproductive Rights in Developing Countries, 117-37."Population Reference Bureau, World Population Data Sheet, 2002 (Washington, D.CPopulation Reference Bureau, 2002), 2. For Yemen's current fertility rate, see UniteNations Development Program, Human Development Report, 2003 (New York: OxforUniversity P ress, 2003), 252.'"Central Statistical Organization (CSO) and Macro International, Inc. (MI), YemeDemographic and Maternal and Child Health Survey, 1997 (Calverton, MD: CSO anM I, 1998) ,151."Population Reference Bureau, World Population Data Sheet, 2002, 2."United Nations Development Program, Human Development Report, 2002, 236."HD I is a sutnmary measure of human development. It measures the average achievements in a country in three basic dimensions of human development: a long and health

life, as measured by life expectancy at birth; knowledge, as measured by the adult literacy rate; and, a decent standard of living, as measured by GDP per capita. United NationDevelopment Program, Hum an Development Report, 2002, 341 .'*CSO and MI, Yemen Demographic and Maternal and Child Health Survey, 1997, 1"Central Intelligence Agency, The World Fact Book, http://www.cia.gov/cia/publictions/factbook/geos/ym.html#People (accessed Decem ber 18 , 2003), 15.^"CSO and MI, Yemen Demographic and Maternal and Child Health Survey, 1997, 7^'Ibid., 23. This rise in age of marriage has occurred in spite ofthe government's faileeffort in 1998 to raise the minimum age of marriage to eighteen."Susheela Singh and Renee Samara, "Early Marriage Among Women in DevelopinCountries," International Fam ily Planning Perspectives 22:4 (December 1996):148 ."Eltigani E. Eltigani, "Childbearing in Five Arab Countries," Studies in FamilPlanning 32:1 (March 2001): 19.^'CSO and MI, Yemen Demographic and Maternal and Child Health Survey, 1997, 4"Anne Helene Gauthier and Jan Hatzius, "Family Benefits and Fertility: AEconom etric Analysis," Pcpw /afen Studies 51:3 (November 1997):299.^'Paula E. Hollerbach, "Fertility Decision-Making Process: A Critical Essay," iDeterminan ts of Fertility in Developing Coun tries, eds., Bulatao and Lee, 368 ."Ezeh, "Gender Differences in Reproductive Orientation in Ghana," in IRD and MIDemographic and H ealth Surveys World Conference: Proceedings, 15.


13/15

INTERNATIONAL SOCIAL SCIENCE REVIEW 41^"Susheela Singh, J.B. Casterline, and J.G. Cleland, "The Proximate Determinants ofFertility: Sub-national Variations," Population Studies 39:1 (March 1985): 114.^'Hollerbach, "Fertility Decision-Making Process," in Determinants of Fertility inDeveloping Countries, eds. Bulatao and Lee, 362-63, 370-73."Linda J. Beckman, "Communication, Power, and the Influence of Social Networks onCouple Decisions on Fertility," in Determinan ts o f Fertility in Developing Countries, eds.,Bulatao and Lee, 415-16; Terence H. Hull, "Cultural Influences on Fertility DecisionStyles," in Determinan ts of Fertility in Developing Coun tries, eds., Bulatao and L ee, 386-90; Mott and Mott, "Household Fertility Decisions in West Africa," 98; Ashraf Lasee andStan Becker, "Husband-wife Communication about Family Planning and ContraceptiveUse in Kenya," International Fam ily Planning P erspectives 23:1 (March 1997): 19-20."Ezeh, "Gender Differences in Reproductive Orientation in Ghana," in IRD and MI,Demographic and H ealth Surveys World Conference: Proceedings, 29.^"Donna Lee Bowen, "Abortion, Islam, and the 1994 Cairo Population Conference,"International Journal of Middle East Studies 29:2 (May 1997): 179-81.''Ibid., 164."^Malcolm Potts and Saba W. Masho, "Sterilization, Contraception, and Abortion:Global Issues for Women," Sexual and Marital Therapy 10:2 (August 1995):145."Radheshyam Bairagi, "Effects of Sex Preference on Contraceptive Use, Abortion andFertility in Matlab, Bangladesh," International Family Planning Perspectives 27:3(September 2001): 137; Akinrinola Bankole, Susheela Singh, and Taylor Hass,

"Characteristics of Women Who Obtain Induced Abortion: A Worldwide View,"International Family Planning Perspectives 25:2 (June 1999):68; Stanley K. Henshaw,Susheela Singh, and Taylar Haas, "Recent Trends in Abortion Rates Worldwide,"International Fam ily Planning Perspectives 25:1 (March 1999): 44.^'Eugenia Georges, "Abortion Policy and Practice in Greece," Social Science andMedicine 42:4 (February 1996): 509-10, 515; Brooke R. Johnson, Mihai Horga, andLaurentia Andronache, "Women's Perspective on Abortion in Romania," Social Scienceand M edicine 42:4 (February 1996):528.^'Baochang Gu and Krishna Roy, "Sex Ratio at Birth in China with Reference to OtherAreas in East Asia: What We Know," Asia Pacific Population Journal 10:3 (September1995):41; S. Sudha and S. Irudaya Rajan, "Female Demographic Disadvantage in India,1981-1991: Sex Selective Abortions and Female Infanticide," Development and Change30:3 (July 1999):586-87.

""Bairagi, "Effects of Sex Preference on Contraceptive Use, Abortion and Fertility inMatlab, Bangladesh," 141-42."'Bankole, Singh, and H ass, "Characteristics of Women W ho Obtain Induced Abortion," 76."^CSO and MI, Yemen Demographic and Maternal and Child Health Survey, 1997, 8."Tred Arnold, Minja Kim Choe, and T.K. Roy, "Son Preference, the Family-buildingProcess and Child Mortality in India," Population Studies 52:3 (November 1998):309; PetraLofstedt, Luo Shusheng, and Annika Johansson, "Abortion Patterns and Reported Sex Ratios


14/15

42 VOLUME 81, NUMBERS 1 &""United Nations Fund for Population Activities, Developing Information, Educatioand Com munication Strategies for Population Programs, TechnicalPaper Number 1 (NYork: United Nations Fund for Population Activities, 1993)."Homa Hoodfar and Samad Assadpour, "The Politics of Population Policy in thIslamic Republic of Iran," Studies in Family Planning 31:1 (March 2000):20; Muhamm aFaour, "Fertility Policy and Family Planning in Arab Countries," Studies in FamiPlanning 20:5 (September/October 1989):256.


15/15

Date post:	03-Apr-2018
Category:	Documents
Upload:	thalia-sanders
View:	235 times
Download:	0 times

Reproduction in Yemen

Documents