Requirements in Ncm

8/4/2019 Requirements in Ncm

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ALTERNATIVE TREATMENTS OF CANCER: A MODERN

APPROACH IN ONCOLOGY

COLLEGE OF NURSING 1

ANGIOGENESIS INHIBITORS THERAPY

Key Points

Angiogenesis is the formation of new blood vessels and is controlled by chemicals in the body Tumors need blood vessels to grow and spread Angiogenesis inhibitors prevent the formation of new blood vessels so that the tumor cannot grow The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved some angiogenesis inhibitors for the

treatment of cancer

Angiogenesis inhibitors have fewer side effects than many other cancer treatments, but they may onlylimit the growth of the cancer, not cure it

Researchers continue to test new angiogenesis inhibitors and to investigate the way these drugs orchemicals work against different cancers

1. What is angiogenesis?Angiogenesis is the formation of new blood vessels. Angiogenesis is a process controlled by

certain chemicals produced in the body. Some of these chemicals stimulate cells to repair

damaged blood vessels or form new ones. Other chemicals, called angiogenesis inhibitors, signal

the process to stop.

2. Why is angiogenesis important in cancer?Angiogenesis plays an important role in the growth and spread of cancer. New blood vessels

feed the cancer cells with oxygen and nutrients, allowing these cells to grow, invade

nearbytissue, spread to other parts of the body, and form new colonies of cancer cells.

3. How can angiogenesis be stopped in tumors?Because tumors cannot grow or spread without the formation of new blood vessels, scientists

are trying to find ways to stop angiogenesis. They are studying natural and synthetic

angiogenesis inhibitors, also called antiangiogenic agents, in the hope that these chemicals will

prevent or slow down the growth of cancer by blocking the formation of new blood vessels.

4. Are any angiogenesis inhibitors currently being used to treat cancer in humans?Yes. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved bevacizumab (Avastin) for use

with other drugs to treat colorectal cancer that has spread to other parts of the body,some non-small cell lung cancers, and some breast cancers that have spread to other parts of

the body. Bevacizumab was the first angiogenesis inhibitor proven to delay tumor growth and,

more importantly, extend the lives of patients.

The FDA has also approved other drugs with antiangiogenic activity as cancer therapies for

multiple myeloma, mantle cell lymphoma, gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST), and kidney

cancer.

Researchers are also exploring the use of these drugs to treat other cancers.

5. What are the advantages of angiogenesis inhibitors?Angiogenesis inhibitors usually have only mild side effects and are not toxic to most healthy

cells. Tumors do not seem to develop a resistance to angiogenesis inhibitors, even when given

over a long period of time, unlike the resistance seen when chemotherapy drugs are used.

Angiogenesis inhibitors seem to help some chemotherapy drugs and radiation therapy work

more effectively when given in combination.
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6. What are the limitations of angiogenesis inhibitors?Angiogenesis inhibitor therapy may not necessarily kill tumors, but instead may keep tumors

stable. Therefore, this type of therapy may need to be administered over a long period. Because

angiogenesis is important in wound healing and in reproduction, long-term treatment withantiangiogenic agents could cause problems with bleeding, blood clotting, heart function,

theimmune system, and the reproductive system.

7. Does angiogenesis inhibitor therapy have any complications or side effects?A patients immune system may be compromised, making the patient more susceptible

toinfection and causing wounds to heal poorly, if at all. Patients may experience reproductive

problems, and damage to the fetus is likely if a patient becomes pregnant while taking the

antiangiogenic drug. Heart problems and high blood pressure could be made worse and

bleeding or blood clots could increase.

Since angiogenesis inhibitor therapy is still under investigation, all of the possible complications

and side effects are still unknown.

8. What does the future hold for angiogenesis inhibitor therapy?Other angiogenesis inhibitors are currently being tested in clinical trials (research studies) but

have not yet been shown to be effective against cancer in humans. If these angiogenesis

inhibitors are proven to be both safe and effective in treating human cancer, they may be

approved by the FDA and made available for widespread use.

The list below includes cancers that are being studied in active phase III treatment clinical trials

using angiogenesis inhibitors. The clinical trials are in the National Cancer Institutes (NCI)clinical trials database. For information about how to search the database, see Help Using the

NCI Clinical Trials Search Form.

Types of Cancer in Active Phase III Treatment Clinical Trials of Angiogenesis Inhibitors:

Breast cancer Esophageal cancer Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors (GIST) Kidney (renal cell) cancer Leukemia Liver (adult primary) cancer Lymphoma Melanoma Multiple myeloma Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) Ovarian epithelial cancer Pancreatic cancer Prostate cancer Stomach (gastric) cancer

BIOLOGIC THERAPY

What is biological therapy?

Biological therapy) is a type of treatment that works with your immune system. It can help fight cancer

or help control side effects (how your body reacts to the drugs you are taking) from other cancer

treatments like chemotherapy.
http://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?expand=w#woundhttp://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?expand=b#blood%20clotshttp://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?expand=i#immune%20systemhttp://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?expand=r#reproductive%20systemhttp://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?expand=i#infectionhttp://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?expand=f#fetushttp://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?expand=c#clinical%20trialhttp://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/searchhttp://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/searchhttp://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search-form-helphttp://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search-form-helphttp://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search-form-helphttp://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search-form-helphttp://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586362http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586399http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586407http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586416http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586397http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586421http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586451http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586448http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586444http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586453http://www.cancer.gov/search/clinicaltrialslink?id=41730&idtype=5&diagnosis=43701&phase=3&tt=1&format=1http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586434http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586442http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586439http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586439http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586442http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586434http://www.cancer.gov/search/clinicaltrialslink?id=41730&idtype=5&diagnosis=43701&phase=3&tt=1&format=1http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586453http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586444http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586448http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586451http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586421http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586397http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586416http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586407http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586399http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search/results?protocolsearchid=4586362http://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search-form-helphttp://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/search-form-helphttp://www.cancer.gov/clinicaltrials/searchhttp://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?expand=c#clinical%20trialhttp://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?expand=f#fetushttp://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?expand=i#infectionhttp://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?expand=r#reproductive%20systemhttp://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?expand=i#immune%20systemhttp://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?expand=b#blood%20clotshttp://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?expand=w#wound


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What is the difference between biological therapy and chemotherapy?

Biological therapy and chemotherapy are both treatments that fight cancer. While they may seem alike,

they work in different ways. Biological therapy helps your immune system fight cancer. Chemotherapy

attacks the cancer cells directly.

How does biological therapy fight cancer?

Doctors are not sure how biological therapy helps your immune system fight cancer. But they think it

may:

Stop or slow the growth of cancer cells. Make it easier for your immune system to destroy, or get rid of, cancer cells. Keep cancer from spreading to other parts of your body.What is my immune system and how does it work?

Your immune system includes your spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, bone marrow, and white blood cells.

These all help protect you from getting infections and diseases.

When your immune system works the way it should, it can tell the difference between "good" cells that

keep you healthy and "bad" cells that make you sick. But sometimes this doesn't happen. Doctors are

doing research to learn why some immune systems don't fight off

diseases like cancer.

White blood cells are an important part of your immune system. When

your doctor or nurse talks about your white blood cells, he or she mayuse words like:

Monocytes (MON-o-cites) are types of white blood cells. Lymphocytes (LYM-fo-cites) are types of white blood cells. B cells are kinds of lymphocytes. T cells are kinds of lymphocytes. Natural killer cells are kinds of lymphocytes.What are some questions to ask my doctor or nurse about biological

therapy?

Why do you recommend biological therapy for me?Your treatment choices depend on the type of cancer you have, how far your cancer has

spread, and the treatments you have already tried. For some people, biological therapy is the

best treatment choice.

Will biological therapy be my only treatment?Some people only need biological therapy. Others also get chemotherapy and radiation

treatment. Talk with your doctor about the kind of treatment you will be on and how it can

help.

Where do I go to get my treatment?Some biological therapies are pills or shots that you can take at home. Others are given through

an IV, and you must go to the hospital or clinic to get them. If this is the case, find out how long

you will need to stay at the hospital or clinic.

How often will I get my treatment?Treatment schedules vary. Biological therapy may be given once a day or a couple of times a

day. Others are given less often--sometimes once a week, or perhaps just once every month or

two. Your doctor will tell you how often you will get your treatment and how long you will need

to be on it.


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How much will my treatment cost?Talk with your nurse, social worker, or doctor about the cost of your treatment. Make sure to

ask if your insurance company pays for biological therapy.

What side effects can I expect?Just like other forms of cancer treatment, biological therapy sometimes causes side effects.Side effects can include:

o Rashes or swelling where the treatment is injected.o Flu-like symptoms such as fever, chills, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, fatigue,

bone pain, and muscle aches.

o Lowered blood pressure (blood pressure goes down).What are cancer vaccines?

Cancer vaccines are a form of biological therapy. While other vaccines (like ones for measles or mumps)

are given before you get sick, cancer vaccines are given after you have cancer. Cancer vaccines may help

your body fight the cancer and keep it from coming back.

Doctors are learning more all the time about cancer vaccines. They are now doing research about how

cancer vaccines can help people diagnosed with melanoma, lymphoma, and kidney, breast, ovarian,

prostate, colon, and rectal cancers.

What are the names of some biological therapy?

There are many kinds of biological therapy. Here are the names of some common ones with ways to say

them and brief statements about how they are used in cancer care.

Treatments for cancer:

BCG or Bacillus Calmette-Gurin (ba-SIL-us KAL-met gay-RAIN) treats bladder tumors or bladdercancer.

IL-2 or Interleukin-2 (in-ter-LOO-kin 2) treats certain types of cancer. Interferon alpha (in-ter-FEER-on AL-fa) treats certain types of cancer. Rituxan or Rituximab (ri-TUX-i-mab) treats non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Herceptin (her-SEP-tin) or Trastuzumab treats breast cancer. Treatments for controlling side effects: Neupogen (NU-po-jen) or G-CSF increases white blood cell counts and helps prevent infection

in people who are getting chemotherapy.

Procrit, Epogen, or Erythropoietin (e-RITH-ro-po-i-tin) helps make red blood cells in people whohave anemia.

IL-11, Interleukin-11, Oprelvekin (oh-PREL-ve-kin), or Neumega helps make platelets (a type ofblood cell).

BONE MARROW TRANSPLANTATION AND PERIPHERAL BLOOD STEM

CELL TRANSPLANTATION

Key Points

Hematopoietic or blood-forming stem cells are immature cells that can mature into blood cells. Thesestem cells are found in the bone marrow, bloodstream, or umbilical cord blood

Bone marrow transplantation and peripheral blood stem cell transplantation are procedures thatrestore stem cells that were destroyed by high doses of chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy

In general, patients are less likely to develop a complication known as graft-versus-host diseaseif thestem cells of the donor and patient are closely matched

After being treated with high-dose anticancer drugs and/or radiation, the patient receives theharvested stem cells, which travel to the bone marrow and begin to produce new blood cells
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1. What are bone marrow and hematopoietic stem cells? Bone marrow is the soft, sponge-like material found inside bones. It contains immature cells

known as hematopoietic or blood-forming stem cells. (Hematopoietic stem cells are different

from embryonic stem cells. Embryonic stem cells can develop into every type of cell in thebody.) Hematopoietic stem cells divide to form more blood-forming stem cells, or they mature

into one of three types of blood cells: White blood cells, which fight infection; red blood cells,

which carryoxygen; and platelets, which help the blood to clot. Most hematopoietic stem cells

are found in the bone marrow, but some cells, called peripheral blood stem cells (PBSCs), are

found in the bloodstream. Blood in the umbilical cord also contains hematopoietic stem cells.

Cells from any of these sources can be used in transplants.

2. What are bone marrow transplantation and peripheral blood stem cell transplantation? Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) and peripheral blood stem cell transplantation (PBSCT) are

procedures that restore stem cells that have been destroyed by high doses of chemotherapyand/or radiation therapy. There are three types of transplants:

Inautologous transplants, patients receive their own stem cells. Insyngeneic transplants, patients receive stem cells from their identical twin. Inallogeneic transplants, patients receive stem cells from their brother, sister, or

parent. A person who is not related to the patient (an unrelated donor) also may be used.

3. Why are BMT and PBSCT used in cancer treatment?One reason BMT and PBSCT are used in cancer treatment is to make it possible for patients to

receive very high doses of chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy. To understand more aboutwhy BMT and PBSCT are used, it is helpful to understand how chemotherapy and radiation

therapy work.

Chemotherapy and radiation therapy generally affect cells that divide rapidly. They are used to

treat cancer because cancer cells divide more often than most healthy cells. However, because

bone marrow cells also divide frequently, high-dose treatments can severely damage or destroy

the patients bone marrow. Without healthy bone marrow, the patient is no longer able to make

the blood cells needed to carry oxygen, fight infection, and prevent bleeding. BMT and PBSCT

replace stem cells destroyed by treatment. The healthy, transplanted stem cells can restore the

bone marrows ability to produce the blood cells the patient needs.

In some types ofleukemia, the graft-versus-tumor (GVT) effect that occurs after allogeneic BMT

and PBSCT is crucial to the effectiveness of the treatment. GVT occurs when white blood cells

from the donor (the graft) identify the cancer cells that remain in the patients body after the

chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy (the tumor) as foreign and attack them.

4. What types of cancer are treated with BMT and PBSCT?BMT and PBSCT are most commonly used in the treatment of leukemia and lymphoma. They are

most effective when the leukemia or lymphoma is in remission (the signs and symptoms of

cancer have disappeared). BMT and PBSCT are also used to treat other cancers such

asneuroblastoma (cancer that arises in immature nerve cells and affects mostly infants and

children) and multiple myeloma. Researchers are evaluating BMT and PBSCT in clinical trials(research studies) for the treatment of various types of cancer.

5. How are the donors stem cells matched to the patients stem cells in allogeneic or syngeneictransplantation?
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To minimize potential side effects, doctors most often use transplanted stem cells that match

the patients own stem cells as closely as possible. People have different sets ofproteins, called

human leukocyte-associated (HLA) antigens, on the surface of their cells. The set of proteins,

called the HLA type, is identified by a special blood test.

In most cases, the success of allogeneic transplantation depends in part on how well the HLA

antigens of the donors stem cells match those of the recipients stem cells. The higher the

number of matching HLA antigens, the greater the chance that the patients body will accept the

donors stem cells. In general, patients are less likely to develop a complication known as graft-

versus-host disease (GVHD) if the stem cells of the donor and patient are closely matched.

Close relatives, especially brothers and sisters, are more likely than unrelated people to be HLA-

matched. However, only 25 to 35 percent of patients have an HLA-matched sibling. The chances

of obtaining HLA-matched stem cells from an unrelated donor are slightly better, approximately

50 percent. Among unrelated donors, HLA-matching is greatly improved when the donor and

recipient have the same ethnic and racial background. Although the number of donors isincreasing overall, individuals from certain ethnic and racial groups still have a lower chance of

finding a matching donor. Large volunteer donor registries can assist in finding an appropriate

unrelated donor.

Because identical twins have the same genes, they have the same set of HLA antigens. As a

result, the patients body will accept a transplant from an identical twin. However, identical

twins represent a small number of all births, so syngeneic transplantation is rare.

6. How is bone marrow obtained for transplantation?The stem cells used in BMT come from the liquid center of the bone, called the marrow. Ingeneral, the procedure for obtaining bone marrow, which is called harvesting, is similar for all

three types of BMTs (autologous, syngeneic, and allogeneic). The donor is given either general

anesthesia, which puts the person to sleep during the procedure, or regional anesthesia, which

causes loss of feeling below the waist. Needles are inserted through the skin over the pelvic

(hip) bone or, in rare cases, the sternum (breastbone), and into the bone marrow to draw the

marrow out of the bone. Harvesting the marrow takes about an hour.

The harvested bone marrow is then processed to remove blood and bone fragments. Harvested

bone marrow can be combined with a preservative and frozen to keep the stem cells alive until

they are needed. This technique is known as cryopreservation. Stem cells can be cryopreserved

for many years.

7. How are PBSCs obtained for transplantation?The stem cells used in PBSCT come from the bloodstream. A process called apheresis or

leukapheresis is used to obtain PBSCs for transplantation. For 4 or 5 days before apheresis, the

donor may be given a medication to increase the number of stem cells released into the

bloodstream. In apheresis, blood is removed through a large vein in the arm or a central venous

catheter (a flexible tube that is placed in a large vein in the neck, chest, or groin area). The blood

goes through a machine that removes the stem cells. The blood is then returned to the donor

and the collected cells are stored. Apheresis typically takes 4 to 6 hours. The stem cells are then

frozen until they are given to the recipient.

8. How are umbilical cord stem cells obtained for transplantation? Stem cells also may be retrieved from umbilical cord blood. For this to occur, the mother must

contact a cord blood bank before the babys birth. The cord blood bank may request that she

complete a questionnaire and give a small blood sample.
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Cord blood banks may be public or commercial. Public cord blood banks accept donations of

cord blood and may provide the donated stem cells to another matched individual in their

network. In contrast, commercial cord blood banks will store the cord blood for the family, in

case it is needed later for the child or another family member.

After the baby is born and the umbilical cord has been cut, blood is retrieved from the umbilical

cord and placenta. This process poses minimal health risk to the mother or the child. If the

mother agrees, the umbilical cord blood is processed and frozen for storage by the cord blood

bank. Only a small amount of blood can be retrieved from the umbilical cord and placenta, so

the collected stem cells are typically used for children or small adults.

9. Are any risks associated with donating bone marrow?Because only a small amount of bone marrow is removed, donating usually does not pose any

significant problems for the donor. The most serious risk associated with donating bone marrow

involves the use ofanesthesia during the procedure.

The area where the bone marrow was taken out may feel stiff or sore for a few days, and the

donor may feel tired. Within a few weeks, the donors body replaces the donated marrow;

however, the time required for a donor to recover varies. Some people are back to their usual

routine within 2 or 3 days, while others may take up to 3 to 4 weeks to fully recover their

strength.

10.Are any risks associated with donating PBSCs?Apheresis usually causes minimal discomfort. During apheresis, the person may feel

lightheadedness, chills, numbness around the lips, and cramping in the hands. Unlike bonemarrow donation, PBSC donation does not require anesthesia. The medication that is given to

stimulate the mobilization (release) of stem cells from the marrow into the bloodstream may

cause bone and muscle aches, headaches, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and/or difficulty sleeping.

These side effects generally stop within 2 to 3 days of the last dose of the medication.

11.How does the patient receive the stem cells during the transplant? After being treated with high-dose anticancer drugs and/or radiation, the patient receives the

stem cells through an intravenous (IV) line just like a blood transfusion. This part of the

transplant takes 1 to 5 hours.

12.Are any special measures taken when the cancer patient is also the donor (autologoustransplant)?

The stem cells used for autologous transplantation must be relatively free of cancer cells. The

harvested cells can sometimes be treated before transplantation in a process known as

purging to get rid of cancer cells. This process can remove some cancer cells from the

harvested cells and minimize the chance that cancer will come back. Because purging may

damage some healthy stem cells, more cells are obtained from the patient before the transplant

so that enough healthy stem cells will remain after purging.

13.What happens after the stem cells have been transplanted to the patient? After entering the bloodstream, the stem cells travel to the bone marrow, where they begin to

produce new white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets in a process known as

engraftment. Engraftment usually occurs within about 2 to 4 weeks after transplantation.

Doctors monitor it by checking blood counts on a frequent basis. Complete recovery ofimmune

functiontakes much longer, howeverup to several months for autologous transplant recipients

and 1 to 2 years for patients receiving allogeneic or syngeneic transplants. Doctors evaluate the
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results of various blood tests to confirm that new blood cells are being produced and that the

cancer has not returned. Bone marrow aspiration (the removal of a small sample of bone

marrow through a needle for examination under a microscope) can also help doctors determine

how well the new marrow is working.

14.What are the possible side effects of BMT and PBSCT?The major risk of both treatments is an increased susceptibility to infection and bleeding as a

result of the high-dose cancer treatment. Doctors may give the patient antibiotics to prevent or

treat infection. They may also give the patient transfusions of platelets to prevent bleeding and

red blood cells to treat anemia. Patients who undergo BMT and PBSCT may experience short-

term side effects such as nausea, vomiting, fatigue, loss of appetite, mouth sores, hair loss, and

skin reactions.

Potential long-term risks include complications of the pretransplant chemotherapy and radiation

therapy, such as infertility (the inability to produce children); cataracts (clouding of the lens ofthe eye, which causes loss of vision); secondary (new) cancers; and damage to

the liver, kidneys,lungs, and/or heart.

With allogeneic transplants, GVHD sometimes develops when white blood cells from the donor

(the graft) identify cells in the patients body (the host) as foreign and attack them. The most

commonly damaged organs are the skin, liver, and intestines. This complication can develop

within a few weeks of the transplant (acute GVHD) or much later (chronic GVHD). To prevent

this complication, the patient may receive medications that suppress the immune system.

Additionally, the donated stem cells can be treated to remove the white blood cells that cause

GVHD in a process called T-cell depletion. If GVHD develops, it can be very serious and is

treated with steroids or other immunosuppressive agents. GVHD can be difficult to treat, but

some studies suggest that patients with leukemia who develop GVHD are less likely to have the

cancer come back. Clinical trials are being conducted to find ways to prevent and treat GVHD.

The likelihood and severity of complications are specific to the patients treatment and should

be discussed with the patients doctor.

HYPERTHERMIA IN CANCER TREATMENT

Key Points

Hyperthermia is a type of cancer treatment in which body tissue is exposed to high temperatures (up to113F) to damage and kill cancer cells

Hyperthermia is almost always used with other forms of cancer therapy, such as radiationtherapy and chemotherapy

Several methods of hyperthermia are currently under study, including local, regional, and whole-bodyhyperthermia

Many clinical trials (research studies) are being conducted to evaluate the effectiveness ofhyperthermia

1. What is hyperthermia?Hyperthermia (also called thermal therapy or thermotherapy) is a type of cancer treatment in

which body tissue is exposed to high temperatures (up to 113F). Research has shown that high

temperatures can damage and kill cancer cells, usually with minimal injury to normal tissues. By

killing cancer cells and damaging proteins and structures within cells, hyperthermia may

shrink tumors.

Hyperthermia is under study in clinical trials (research studies with people) and is not widely

available.
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2. How is hyperthermia used to treat cancer?Hyperthermia is almost always used with other forms of cancer therapy, such as radiation

therapy and chemotherapy. Hyperthermia may make some cancer cells more sensitive to

radiation or harm other cancer cells that radiation cannot damage. When hyperthermia andradiation therapy are combined, they are often given within an hour of each other.

Hyperthermia can also enhance the effects of certain anticancer drugs.

Numerous clinical trials have studied hyperthermia in combination with radiation therapy

and/or chemotherapy. These studies have focused on the treatment of many types of cancer,

includingsarcoma, melanoma, and cancers of the head and neck,

brain, lung, esophagus, breast, bladder,rectum, liver, appendix, cervix, and peritoneal lining

(mesothelioma). Many of these studies, but not all, have shown a significant reduction in tumor

size when hyperthermia is combined with other treatments. However, not all of these studies

have shown increased survival in patients receiving the combined treatments.

3. What are the different methods of hyperthermia?Several methods of hyperthermia are currently under study, including local, regional, and

whole-body hyperthermia.

o In local hyperthermia, heat is applied to a small area, such as a tumor, using various techniquesthat deliver energy to heat the tumor. Different types of energy may be used to apply heat,

including microwave, radiofrequency, and ultrasound. Depending on the tumor location, there

are several approaches to local hyperthermia:

o External approaches are used to treat tumors that are in or just below the skin. Externalapplicators are positioned around or near the appropriate region, and energy is focused on the

tumor to raise its temperature.

o Intraluminal or endocavitary methods may be used to treat tumors within or near bodycavities, such as the esophagus or rectum. Probes are placed inside the cavity and inserted

into the tumor to deliver energy and heat the area directly.

o Interstitial techniques are used to treat tumors deep within the body, such as brain tumors.This technique allows the tumor to be heated to higher temperatures than external

techniques. Under anesthesia, probes or needles are inserted into the

tumor. Imaging techniques, such as ultrasound, may be used to make sure the probe is

properly positioned within the tumor. The heat source is then inserted into theprobe. Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) is a type of interstitial hyperthermia that uses radio

waves to heat and kill cancer cells.

o In regional hyperthermia, various approaches may be used to heat large areas of tissue, suchas a body cavity, organ, or limb.

o Deep tissue approaches may be used to treat cancers within the body, such ascervical orbladder cancer. External applicators are positioned around the body cavity or organ to be

treated, and microwave or radiofrequency energy is focused on the area to raise its

temperature.

o Regional perfusiontechniques can be used to treat cancers in the arms and legs, such asmelanoma, or cancer in some organs, such as the liver or lung. In this procedure, some of the

patients blood is removed, heated, and then pumped (perfused) back into the limb or organ.

Anticancer drugs are commonly given during this treatment.

o Continuous hyperthermic peritoneal perfusion (CHPP) is a technique used to treat cancerswithin the peritoneal cavity (the space within the abdomen that contains
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hhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=sarcoma&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=drug&version=Patient&language=English


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theintestines, stomach, and liver), including primary peritoneal mesothelioma and stomach

cancer. During surgery, heated anticancer drugs flow from a warming device through the

peritoneal cavity. The peritoneal cavity temperature reaches 106108F.

o Whole-body hyperthermia is used to treat metastatic cancer that has spread throughout thebody. This can be accomplished by several techniques that raise the body temperature to 107

108F, including the use of thermal chambers (similar to large incubators) or hot water

blankets.

The effectiveness of hyperthermia treatment is related to the temperature achieved during the

treatment, as well as the length of treatment and cell and tissue characteristics. To ensure that

the desired temperature is reached, but not exceeded, the temperature of the tumor and

surrounding tissue is monitored throughout hyperthermia treatment. Using local anesthesia, the

doctor inserts small needles or tubes with tiny thermometers into the treatment area to

monitor the temperature. Imaging techniques, such as CT (computed tomography), may be used

to make sure the probes are properly positioned.

4. Does hyperthermia have any complications or side effects?Most normal tissues are not damaged during hyperthermia if the temperature remains under

111F. However, due to regional differences in tissue characteristics, higher temperatures may

occur in various spots. This can result in burns, blisters, discomfort, or pain. Perfusion

techniques can cause tissue swelling, blood clots, bleeding, and other damage to the normal

tissues in the perfused area; however, most of these side effects are temporary. Whole-body

hyperthermia can cause more serious side effects, including cardiac and vascular disorders, but

these effects are uncommon. Diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting are commonly observed after

whole-body hyperthermia.

LASER THERAPY

Key Points

Laser light is a light of such high intensity and narrow beam that it can be used to do precisesurgery toremove cancer or precancerous growths or to relieve symptoms of cancer. It is used most often to treat

cancers on the surface of the body or the lining of internal organs

Laser therapy is often given through a thin tube called an endoscope. An endoscope can be inserted inopenings in the body to treat cancer or precancerous growths inside

the trachea(windpipe), esophagus, stomach, or colon

Laser therapy causes less bleeding and damage to normal tissue than standard surgical tools, and thereis a lower risk ofinfection

However, laser therapy is extremely expensive and the effects of the surgery may not be permanent, sothe surgery may have to be repeated

1. What is laser light?The term laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission ofradiation. Ordinary

light, such as that from a light bulb, has many wavelengths and spreads in all directions. Laser

light, on the other hand, has a specific wavelength. It is focused in a narrow beam and creates a

very high-intensity light. This powerful beam of light may be used to cut through steel or to

shape diamonds. Because lasers can focus very accurately on tiny areas, they can also be used

for very precise surgical work or for cutting through tissue (in place of a scalpel).

2. What is laser therapy, and how is it used in cancer treatment? Laser therapy uses high-intensity light to treat cancer and other illnesses. Lasers can be used to

shrink or destroy tumors. Lasers are most commonly used to treat superficial cancers (cancers
http://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=intestine&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=stomach&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=surgery&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=metastatic&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=local%20anesthesia&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=tomography&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=side%20effect&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=cardiac&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=diarrhea&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=laser&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=surgery&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=precancerous&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=symptom&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=organ&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=laser%20therapy&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=endoscope&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=trachea&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=windpipe&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=esophagus&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=stomach&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=colon&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=tissue&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=infection&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=radiation&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=scalpel&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=tumor&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=superficial&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=superficial&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=tumor&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=scalpel&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=radiation&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=infection&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=tissue&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=colon&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=stomach&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=esophagus&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=windpipe&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=trachea&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=endoscope&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=laser%20therapy&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=organ&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=symptom&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=precancerous&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=surgery&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=laser&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=diarrhea&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=cardiac&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=side%20effect&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=tomography&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=local%20anesthesia&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=metastatic&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=surgery&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=stomach&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=intestine&version=Patient&language=English


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on the surface of the body or the lining of internal organs) such as basal cell skin cancer and the

very early stages of some cancers, such as cervical, penile, vaginal, vulvar, and non-small cell

lung cancer.

Lasers also may be used to relieve certain symptoms of cancer, such as bleeding or obstruction.For example, lasers can be used to shrink or destroy a tumor that is blocking a patients trachea

(windpipe) or esophagus. Lasers also can be used to remove colon polyps or tumors that are

blocking the colon or stomach.

Laser therapy can be used alone, but most often it is combined with other treatments, such as

surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy. In addition, lasers can seal nerve endings to

reduce pain after surgery and seal lymph vessels to reduce swelling and limit the spread of

tumor cells.

3. How is laser therapy given to the patient? Laser therapy is often given through a flexible endoscope (a thin, lighted tube used to look at

tissues inside the body). The endoscope is fitted with optical fibers (thin fibers that transmit

light). It is inserted through an opening in the body, such as the mouth, nose, anus, or vagina.

Laser light is then precisely aimed to cut or destroy a tumor.

Laser-induced interstitial thermotherapy (LITT) (or interstitial laser photocoagulation) also uses

lasers to treat some cancers. LITT is similar to a cancer treatment called hyperthermia, which

uses heat to shrink tumors by damaging or killing cancer cells. (More information about

hyperthermia is available in the National Cancer Institute (NCI) fact sheetHyperthermia in

Cancer Treatment.) During LITT, an optical fiber is inserted into a tumor. Laser light at the tip of

the fiber raises the temperature of the tumor cells and damages or destroys them. LITT issometimes used to shrink tumors in the liver.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is another type of cancer treatment that uses lasers. In PDT, a

certain drug, called a photosensitizer or photosensitizing agent, is injected into a patient and

absorbed by cells all over the patients body. After a couple of days, the agent is found mostly in

cancer cells. Laser light is then used to activate the agent and destroy cancer cells. Because the

photosensitizer makes the skin and eyes sensitive to light for approximately 6 weeks, patients

are advised to avoid direct sunlight and bright indoor light during that time. (More information

about PDT is available in the NCI fact sheetPhotodynamic Therapy for Cancer.)

4. What types of lasers are used in cancer treatment?Three types of lasers are used to treat cancer: carbon dioxide (CO2) lasers, argon lasers, and

neodymium:yttrium-aluminum-garnet (Nd:YAG) lasers. Each of these can shrink or destroy

tumors and can be used with endoscopes. CO2 and argon lasers can cut the skins surface

without going into deeper layers. Thus, they can be used to remove superficial cancers, such as

skin cancer. In contrast, the Nd:YAG laser is more commonly applied through an endoscope to

treat internal organs, such as the uterus, esophagus, and colon. Nd:YAG laser light can also

travel through optical fibers into specific areas of the body during LITT. Argon lasers are often

used to activate the drugs used in PDT.

5. What are the advantages of laser therapy?Lasers are more precise than standard surgical tools (scalpels), so they do less damage to normal

tissues. As a result, patients usually have less pain, bleeding, swelling, and scarring. With laser

therapy, operations are usually shorter. In fact, laser therapy can often be done on

anoutpatient basis. It takes less time for patients to heal after laser surgery, and they are less

likely to get infections. Patients should consult with their health care provider about whether

laser therapy is appropriate for them.
http://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=cell&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=stage&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=cervical&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=vaginal&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=non-small%20cell%20lung%20cancer&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=non-small%20cell%20lung%20cancer&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=obstruction&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=colon%20polyp&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=chemotherapy&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=radiation%20therapy&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=lymph%20vessel&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=fiber&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=anus&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=vagina&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=hyperthermia%20therapy&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/hyperthermiahttp://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/hyperthermiahttp://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/hyperthermiahttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=liver&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=photodynamic%20therapy&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=drug&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=photosensitizer&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=activate&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/photodynamichttp://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/photodynamichttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=yttrium&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=uterus&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=outpatient&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=laser%20surgery&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=laser%20surgery&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=outpatient&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=uterus&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=yttrium&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/photodynamichttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=activate&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=photosensitizer&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=drug&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=photodynamic%20therapy&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=liver&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/hyperthermiahttp://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/hyperthermiahttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=hyperthermia%20therapy&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=vagina&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=anus&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=fiber&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=lymph%20vessel&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=radiation%20therapy&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=chemotherapy&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=colon%20polyp&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=obstruction&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=non-small%20cell%20lung%20cancer&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=non-small%20cell%20lung%20cancer&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=vaginal&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=cervical&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=stage&version=Patient&language=Englishhttp://www.cancer.gov/Common/PopUps/popDefinition.aspx?term=cell&version=Patient&language=English


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6. What are the disadvantages of laser therapy? Laser therapy also has several limitations. Surgeons must have specialized training before they

can do laser therapy, and strict safety precautions must be followed. Also, laser therapy is

expensive and requires bulky equipment. In addition, the effects of laser therapy may not lastlong, so doctors may have to repeat the treatment for a patient to get the full benefit.

PHOTODYNAMIC THERAPY

Key Points

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) combines a drug (called a photosensitizer or photosensitizing agent) witha specific type of light to kill cancer cells

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has approved the photosensitizing agent calledporfimersodium, or Photofrin, for use in PDT to treat or relieve the symptoms of certain cancers

Patients treated with porfimer sodium should avoid direct sunlight and bright indoor light for at least 6weeks after treatment

Researchers continue to study ways to improve the effectiveness of PDT and expand its use to othercancers

1. What is photodynamic therapy?Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a treatment that uses a drug, called a photosensitizer or

photosensitizing agent, and a particular type of light. When photosensitizers are exposed to a

specific wavelength of light, they produce a form of oxygen that kills nearby cells.

Each photosensitizer is activated by light of a specific wavelength. This wavelength determineshow far the light can travel into the body. Thus, doctors use specific photosensitizers and

wavelengths of light to treat different areas of the body with PDT.

2. How is PDT used to treat cancer?In the first step of PDT for cancer treatment, a photosensitizing agent is injected into the

bloodstream. The agent is absorbed by cells all over the body but stays in cancer cells longer

than it does in normal cells. Approximately 24 to 72 hours after injection, when most of the

agent has left normal cells but remains in cancer cells, the tumor is exposed to light. The

photosensitizer in the tumor absorbs the light and produces an active form of oxygen that

destroys nearby cancer cells.

In addition to directly killing cancer cells, PDT appears to shrink or destroy tumors in two other

ways. The photosensitizer can damage blood vessels in the tumor, thereby preventing the

cancer from receiving necessary nutrients. In addition, PDT may activate the immune systemto

attack the tumor cells.

The light used for PDT can come from a laser or other sources of light. Laser light can be directed

through fiber optic cables (thin fibers that transmit light) to deliver light to areas inside the body

(2). For example, a fiber optic cable can be inserted through an endoscope (a thin, lighted tube

used to look at tissues inside the body) into the lungs or esophagus to treat cancer in

theseorgans. Other light sources include light-emitting diodes (LEDs), which may be used for

surface tumors, such as skin cancer.

PDT is usually performed as an outpatient procedure. PDT may also be repeated and may be

used with other therapies, such as surgery, radiation, or chemotherapy.

3. What types of cancer are currently treated with PDT?
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