RES701 Research Methodology Lecture 2

DEVAPRAKASAM DEIVASAGAYAMProfessor of Mechanical Engineering

Room:11, LW, 2nd FloorSchool of Mechanical and Building Sciences

Email: [email protected], [email protected]

RES701: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (3:0:0:3)

Devaprakasam D, Email: [email protected], Ph: +91 9786553933

mailto:[email protected],

mailto:[email protected]



History of Scientific Research

Philosophers

Scientists

Inventors

Innovators

Innovations

SocratesPlatoAristotle

NewtonEinstein

EdisonTesla

Steve JobBill Gates

GoogleFacebook


RESEARCH FOUNDATATIONS


Inductive- from number of observations- bottom up Deductive- from whole to part- top down Combined -both bottom up and top down

Non-Contradictory Un falsifiability Correspondence to reality Coherency and Consistency

Logic and Reasoning

Tests for Truth


Sound Reasoning

Exposition Argument

InductionDeduction

Types of Discourse


Logic and Reasoning

Induction — method of reasoning in which a generalization is argued to be true based on individual examples that seem to fit with that generalization. For example, after observing that trees, bacteria, sea anemones, fruit flies, and humans have cells, one might inductively infer that all organisms have cells.

Deduction — method of reasoning in which a conclusion is logically reached from premises. For example, if we know the current relative positions of the moon, sun, and Earth, as well as exactly how these move with respect to one another, we can deduce the date and location of the next solar eclipse.



Philosophy of ScienceLogic is the backbone of critical thinking. Logic is extremely useful for

uncovering error and establishing truth. There are principles of logic and I would like to introduce you to the first three laws of logic. These are very important.The Law of IdentityThe Law of Non-ContradictionThe Law of Excluded Middle1. The law of identity says that A is A, that if something exist it has a

nature, a single nature. It is what it is.2. The law of non-contradiction says that A cannot be both A and not A

at the same time and in the same sense. Truth is not self-contradictory.

3. The law of excluded middle says that a statement is either true or false.



Hypothesis

An hypothesis is a limited statement regarding cause and effect in specific situations.

it also refers to our state of knowledge before experimental work has been performed and perhaps even before new phenomena have been predicted.


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The Role of Hypotheses

Guide the direction of the study

Identify relevant facts

Suggest most appropriate research design

Provide framework for organizing resulting conclusions

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Characteristics of Strong Hypotheses

A Strong

Hypothesis Is

Adequate

Testable

Better than rivals

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Language of Research

Variables

Models

TheoryTheory

Terms usedin research

Constructs

Operationaldefinitions

Propositions/Hypotheses

ConceptualschemesConcepts

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Language of Research

Clear conceptualizationof concepts

Shared understandingof concepts

Success of

Research

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The Scientific Method

Direct observationDirect observation

Clearly defined variablesClearly defined variables

Clearly defined methodsClearly defined methods

Empirically testableEmpirically testable

Elimination of alternativesElimination of alternatives

Statistical justificationStatistical justification

Self-correcting processSelf-correcting process

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Researchers

•Encounter problems•State problems•Propose hypotheses•Deduce outcomes•Formulate rival hypotheses•Devise and conduct empirical tests•Draw conclusions

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Assessrelevant existingknowledge

Formulateconcepts &Propositions

Statementof Hypotheses

Design research

Acquire empiricaldata

Analyze &evaluate data

Provide explanation-state newproblem

The Scientific Method: An Overview


Scientific MethodThe scientific method is the process by which scientists, collectively and over time, endeavor to construct an accurate representation of the world (that is, reliable, consistent and non-arbitrary)

The scientific method has four steps1. Observation and description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena.2. Formulation of an hypothesis to explain the phenomena. In physics, the hypothesis often takes the form of a causal mechanism or a mathematical relation.3. Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations.4. Performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters and properly performed experiments.



Scientific Method



Scientific Method


RESEARCH STEPS


The major steps in conducting research are:Identification of research problemLiterature reviewSpecifying the purpose of researchDetermine specific research questionsSpecification of a Conceptual framework - Usually a set of hypothesesChoice of a methodology (for data collection)Data collectionAnalyzing and interpreting the dataReporting and evaluating researchCommunicating the research findings and, possibly, recommendations


RESEARCH STEPS


Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural process. Though step order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied:Observations and Formation of the topic: Consists of the subject area of ones interest and following that subject area to conduct subject related research. The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the topic.Hypothesis: A testable prediction which designates the relationship between two or more variables.Conceptual definition: Description of a concept by relating it to other concepts.Operational definition: Details in regards to defining the variables and how they will be measured/assessed in the study.


RESEARCH STEPS


Gathering of data: Consists of identifying a population and selecting samples, gathering information from and/or about these samples by using specific research instruments. The instruments used for data collection must be valid and reliable.Analysis of data: Involves breaking down the individual pieces of data in order to draw conclusions about it.Data Interpretation: This can be represented through tables, figures and pictures, and then described in words.Test, revising of hypothesis.Conclusion: reiteration if necessary



Scientific Method: ConclusionThe scientific method is intricately associated with science, the process ofhuman inquiry that pervades the modern era on many levels. While themethod appears simple and logical in description, there is perhaps no morecomplex question than that of knowing how we come to know things. In thisintroduction, we have emphasized that the scientific method distinguishesscience from other forms of explanation because of its requirement ofsystematic experimentation. We have also tried to point out some of thecriteria and practices developed by scientists to reduce the influence ofindividual or social bias on scientific findings. Further investigations of thescientific method and other aspects of scientific practice may be found in thereferences listed below.,



Philosophy of Science

Epistemology — branch of philosophy that deals with what knowledge is, how we come to accept some things as true, and how we justify that acceptance.

Empiricism — set of philosophical approaches to building knowledge that emphasizes the importance of observable evidence from the natural world.



Philosophy of ScienceDefined narrowly, epistemology is the study of knowledge and justified belief. As the study of knowledge, epistemology is concerned with the following questions: I. What are the necessary and sufficient conditions of knowledge?II. What are its sources? III. What is its structure, and what are its limits? As the study of justified belief, epistemology aims to answer questions such as:I. How we are to understand the concept of justification? II. What makes justified beliefs justified? III. Is justification internal or external to one's own mind? Understood more broadly, epistemology is about issues having to do with the creation and dissemination of knowledge in particular areas of inquiry.



Philosophy of Science

Evolutionary epistemology refers to three distinct topics:

(1) the biological evolution of cognitive mechanisms in animals and humans,

(2) a theory that knowledge itself evolves by natural selection, and

(3) the study of the historical discovery of new abstract entities such as abstract number or abstract value that necessarily precede the individual acquisition and usage of such abstractions



Scientific Research

The systematic, rigorous investigation of a situation or problem in order to generate new knowledge or validate existing knowledge.



Quality of Good Research

Systematic- from strong hypothesis to verifiable thesis.

Controlled- Variables can be tested and controlled Logical- Sound logical reasoning Empirical- Real time validation with known

parameters Repeatable- should be reproduced by any

researcher. Self Correcting- open to critical peer review and

accepting and correcting mistakes.



Types of Research

On a broader perspective, all researches can be classified into two groups:

Qualitative research: is research dealing with phenomena that are difficult or impossible to quantify mathematically, such as beliefs, meanings, attributes, and symbols

Quantitative research: refers to the systematic empirical investigation of any phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena



Types of Research

Basic Research Applied ResearchExperimental ResearchConceptual ResearchCorrelational ResearchDescriptive ResearchExploratory Research



Types of Research

Basic Research Basic (aka fundamental or pure ) research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest in a scientific question. The main motivation is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research.

For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as:

• How did the universe begin?• What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?• How do slime moulds reproduce?• What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?



Types of Research Applied Research

Applied research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. Applied research is used to find solutions to everyday problems, cure illness, and develop innovative technologies, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake.

For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:

• Improve agricultural crop production• Treat or cure a specific disease• Improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of

transportation



Types of Research

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research refers to research that provides an accurate portrayal of characteristics of a particular individual, situation, or group. Descriptive research, also known as statistical research.

These studies are a means of discovering new meaning, describing what exists, determining the frequency with which something occurs, and categorizing information.



Types of Research

Experimental Research

Experimental research is an objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the purpose of predicting and controlling phenomena and examining probability and causality among selected variables.



Types of Research

Conceptual Research

Conceptual research is related with abstract idea or theory .Philosophers and Astronomers



Types of Research

Correlational Research

Correlational research refers to the systematic investigation or statistical study of relationships among two or more variables, without necessarily determining cause and effect.



RESEARCH DESIGN



RESEARCH SURVEY


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RES701 Research Methodology Lecture 2

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