Research ArticleA General Multidimensional Monte Carlo Approach forDynamic Hedging under Stochastic Volatility
Daniel Bonetti,1 Dorival LeΓ£o,2 Alberto Ohashi,3 and VinΓcius Siqueira2
1Departamento de Sistemas de ComputaccΜ§aΜo, Universidade de SaΜo Paulo, 13560-970 SaΜo Carlos, SP, Brazil2Departamento de MatemaΜtica Aplicada e EstatΜΔ±stica, Universidade de SaΜo Paulo, 13560-970 SaΜo Carlos, SP, Brazil3Departamento de MatemaΜtica, Universidade Federal da ParaΔ±Μba, 13560-970 JoaΜo Pessoa, PB, Brazil
Correspondence should be addressed to Alberto Ohashi; [email protected]
Received 22 August 2014; Accepted 14 December 2014
Academic Editor: Enzo Orsingher
Copyright Β© 2015 Daniel Bonetti et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
We propose a feasible and constructive methodology which allows us to compute pure hedging strategies with respect to arbitrarysquare-integrable claims in incomplete markets. In contrast to previous works based on PDE and BSDE methods, the main meritof our approach is the flexibility of quadratic hedging in full generality without a priori smoothness assumptions on the payoff.In particular, the methodology can be applied to multidimensional quadratic hedging-type strategies for fully path-dependentoptions with stochastic volatility and discontinuous payoffs. In order to demonstrate that our methodology is indeed applicable,we provide a Monte Carlo study on generalized FoΜllmer-Schweizer decompositions, locally risk minimizing, and mean variancehedging strategies for vanilla and path-dependent options written on local volatility and stochastic volatility models.
1. Introduction
1.1. Background and Motivation. Let (π, F,P) be a financialmarket composed by a continuous F-semimartingale πwhichrepresents a discounted risky asset price process, F = {F
π‘; 0 β€
π‘ β€ π} is a filtration which encodes the information flowin the market on a finite horizon [0, π], P is a physicalprobability measure, and Mπ is the set of equivalent localmartingale measures. Letπ» be an F
π-measurable contingent
claim describing the net payoff whose trader is faced at timeπ. In order to hedge this claim, the trader has to choose adynamic portfolio strategy.
Under the assumption of an arbitrage-free market, theclassical Galtchouk-Kunita-Watanabe (henceforth abbrevi-ated as GKW) decomposition yields
π» = EQ [π»] + β«π
0 ππ»,Qβ
ππβ+ πΏπ»,Q
π
under Q β Mπ, (1)
where πΏπ»,Q is aQ-local martingale which is strongly orthog-onal to π and ππ»,Q is an adapted process.
The GKW decomposition plays a crucial role in deter-mining optimal hedging strategies in a general Brownian-based market model subject to stochastic volatility π. Forinstance, if π is a one-dimensional ItoΜ risky asset price processwhich is adapted to the information generated by a two-dimensional Brownian motion π = (π(1),π(2)), thenthere exists a two-dimensional adapted process ππ»,Q :=(ππ»,1, ππ»,2) such that
π» = EQ [π»] + β«π
0
ππ»,Qπ‘
πππ‘, (2)
which also realizes
ππ»,Qπ‘
= ππ»,1
π‘[ππ‘ππ‘]β1
, πΏπ»,Qπ‘
= β«π‘
0
ππ»,2
ππ(2)
π ; 0β€ π‘β€ π.
(3)
In the complete market case, there exists a unique Q βMπ and, in this case, πΏπ»,Q = 0, EQ[π»], is the unique fairprice and the hedging replicating strategy is fully described bythe process ππ»,Q. In a general stochastic volatility framework,there are infinitely many GKW orthogonal decompositions
Hindawi Publishing CorporationInternational Journal of Stochastic AnalysisVolume 2015, Article ID 863165, 21 pageshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/863165
2 International Journal of Stochastic Analysis
parameterized by the set Mπ and hence one can ask if itis possible to determine the notion of non-self-financingoptimal hedging strategies solely based on the quantities (3).This type of question was firstly answered by FoΜllmer andSondermann [1] and later on extended by Schweizer [2] andFoΜllmer and Schweizer [3] through the existence of the so-called FoΜllmer-Schweizer decomposition which turns out tobe equivalent to the existence of locally risk minimizinghedging strategies. The GKW decomposition under the so-called minimal martingale measure constitutes the startingpoint to get locally risk minimizing strategies provided thatone is able to check some square-integrability properties ofthe components in (1) under the physical measure. See, forexample, [4, 5] for details and other references therein. Seealso, for example, [6], where FoΜlmer-Schweizer decomposi-tions can be retrieved by solving linear backward stochasticdifferential equations (BSDEs). Orthogonal decompositionswithout square-integrability properties can also be definedin terms of the the so-called generalized FoΜllmer-Schweizerdecomposition (see, e.g., [7]).
In contrast to the local risk minimization approach, onecan insist on working with self-financing hedging strategieswhich give rise to the so-called mean variance hedgingmethodology. In this approach, the spirit is to minimizethe expectation of the squared hedging error over all initialendowments π₯ and all suitable admissible strategies π β Ξ:
infπβΞ,π₯βR
EP
π» β π₯ β β«
π
0
ππ‘πππ‘
2
. (4)
The nature of the optimization problem (4) suggests to workwith the subset Mπ
2:= {Q β Mπ; πQ/πP β πΏ2(P)}.
Rheinlander and Schweizer [9], Gourieroux et al. [10], andSchweizer [11] show that ifMπ
2ΜΈ= 0 andπ» β πΏ2(P), then the
optimal quadratic hedging strategy exists and it is given by(EPΜ[π»], π
PΜ), where
πPΜπ‘:= π
π»,PΜπ‘
βππ‘
ππ‘
(ππ»,PΜπ‘β
β EPΜ [π»] β β«π‘
0
πPΜβππβ) ;
0 β€ π‘ β€ π.
(5)
Here ππ»,PΜ is computed in terms of PΜ; the so-called varianceoptimal martingale measure, π, realizes
ππ‘:= EPΜ [
πPΜ
πP| Fπ‘] = π
0+ β«
π‘
0
πβππβ; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π, (6)
and π.π»,PΜ := EPΜ[π» | Fβ ] is the value option price processunder PΜ. See also CΜernyΜ and Kallsen [12] for the generalsemimartingale case and the works [13β15] for other utility-based hedging strategies based on GKW decompositions.
Concrete representations for the pure hedging strategies{ππ»,Q; Q = PΜ, PΜ} can in principle be obtained by comput-
ing cross-quadratic variations π[ππ»,Q, π]π‘/π[π, π]
π‘for Q β
{PΜ, PΜ}. For instance, in the classical vanilla case, pure hedgingstrategies can be computed by means of the Feynman-Kac
theorem (see, e.g., [4]). In the path-dependent case, theobtention of concrete computationally efficient representa-tions for ππ»,Q is a rather difficult problem. Feynman-Kac-type arguments for fully path-dependent options mixed withstochastic volatility typically face not-well-posed problemson the whole trading period; highly degenerate PDEs arisein this context as well. Generically speaking, one has to workwith non-Markovian versions of the Feynman-Kac theoremin order to get robust dynamic hedging strategies for fullypath-dependent options written on stochastic volatility riskyasset price processes.
In the mean variance case, the only quantity in (5)not related to GKW decomposition is π which can inprinciple be expressed in terms of the so-called fundamentalrepresentation equations given by Hobson [16] and Biagini etal. [17] in the stochastic volatility case. For instance, Hobsonderives closed form expressions for π and also for any typeof π-optimal measure in the Heston model [18]. Recently,semiexplicit formulas for vanilla options based on generalcharacterizations of the variance-optimal hedge in CΜernyΜand Kallsen [12] have been also proposed in the literaturewhich allow for a feasible numerical implementation in affinemodels. See Kallsen and Vierthauer [19] and CΜernyΜ andKallsen [20] for some results in this direction.
A different approach based on linear BSDEs can alsobe used in order to get useful characterizations for theoptimal hedging strategies. In this case, concrete numericalschemes for BSDEs play a key role in applications. In theMarkovian case, there are several efficient methods. See, forexample, Delong [6] and other references therein. In thenon-Markovian case, when the terminal value is allowed todepend on the whole history of a forward diffusion, thedifficulty is notorious. One fundamental issue is the imple-mentation of feasible approximations for the βmartingaleintegrandβ of BSDEs. To the best of our knowledge, allthe existing numerical methods require a priori regularityconditions on the final condition. See, for example, [6, 21β23] and other references therein. Recently, Briand and Labart[24] use Malliavin calculus methods to compute conditionalexpectations based on Wiener chaos expansions under someregularity conditions. See also the recent results announcedby Gobet and Turkedjiev [25, 26] by using regression meth-ods.
1.2. Contribution of the Current Paper. Themain contributionof this paper is the obtention of flexible and computationallyefficient multidimensional non-Markovian representationsfor generic option price processes which allow for a con-crete computation of the associated GKW decomposition(ππ»,Q, πΏπ»,Q) forQ-square-integrable payoffsπ»withQ β Mπ.
We provide a Monte Carlo methodology able to computeoptimal quadratic hedging strategies with respect to generalsquare-integrable claims in a multidimensional Brownian-based market model. In contrast to previous works (see, e.g.,[6] and other references therein), the main contribution ofthis paper is the formulation of a concrete numerical schemefor quadratic hedging (local risk minimization) under fullgenerality, where only square-integrability assumption is
International Journal of Stochastic Analysis 3
imposed. As far as the mean variance hedging is concerned,we are able to compute pure optimal hedging strategiesππ»,PΜ for arbitrary square-integrable payoffs. Hence, ourmethodology also applies to this case provided that one isable to compute the fundamental representation equations inHobson [16] and Biagini et al. [17] which is the case for theclassical Heston model.
The starting point of this paper is based on weakapproximations developed by LeaΜo and Ohashi [27] forone-dimensional Brownian functionals. They introduced aone-dimensional space-filtration discretization scheme con-structed from suitable waiting times which measure theinstants when the Brownian motion hits some a priori levels.In the present work, we extend [27] in one direction: weprovide a feasible numerical scheme for multidimensionalQ-GKW decompositions under rather weak integrabilityconditions for a given Q β Mπ. In order to apply ourmethodology for hedging, we analyze the convergence ofour approximating hedging strategies to the respective valueprocesses in a Brownian-based incompletemarket setup.Thisallows us to perform quadratic hedging for generic square-integrable payoffs written on stochastic volatility models.Thenumerical scheme of this work can also be viewed as part of amore general theory concerning a weak version of functionalItoΜ calculus (see [28, 29]) as introduced by Ohashi et al.[30]. We implement the multidimensional weak derivativeoperators defined in [30] in the pure martingale case to solvehedging problems in generic stochastic volatility models.
In this paper, themultidimensional numerical scheme formartingale representations lies in the exact simulation of ani.i.d sequence of increments of hitting times
ππ,π
π:= inf {π‘ > ππ,π
πβ1:π(π)
π‘βπ
(π)
ππ,π
πβ1
= ππ} ; π β₯ 1, (7)
where ππ,π0
:= 0 for 1 β€ π β€ π and ππβ 0 as π β β. The
fundamental object which allows us to obtain a numericalscheme for ππ»,Q is the following ratio:
EQ[[
[
EQ [π» | Fπ
ππ,π
1
] β EQ [π» | Fπ
ππ,π
1
]
π(π)
ππ,π
1
]]
]
, π = 1, . . . , π,
(8)
for π β€ π, where ππ,π1
:= max{πππ; πππ< π
π,π
1}, ππ0:= 0, and
ππ
π:= inf1β€πβ€π
πβ₯1
{ππ,π
π; ππ,π
πβ₯ π
π
πβ1} , (9)
for π β₯ 1. Here, there are π asset price processes drivenby a π-dimensional Brownian motion (π(1), . . . ,π(π)). Byapproximating the payoff π» in terms of functionals of therandom walks
π΄π,π
π‘:= π
(π)
ππ,π
π
on {ππ,ππ
β€ π‘ < ππ,π
π+1} , (10)
we will take advantage of the discrete structure of the sigma-algebras in (37) to evaluate (8) by standard Monte Carlo
methods. The information set contained in (Fπππ,π
1
,Fπππ,π
1
) isperfectly implementable by using the algorithm proposedby Burq and Jones [8]. We leave the implementation ofsimulation-regression method for a further study.
In order to demonstrate that our methodology is indeedapplicable, we provide a Monte Carlo study on generalizedFoΜllmer-Schweizer decompositions, locally risk minimizingand mean variance hedging strategies for vanilla and path-dependent options written on local volatility and stochas-tic volatility models. The numerical experiments suggestthat pure hedging strategies based on generalized FoΜllmer-Schweizer decompositions mitigate very well the cost ofhedging of a path-dependent option even if there is no guar-antee of the existence of locally risk minimizing strategies.We also compare hedging errors arising from optimal meanvariance hedging strategies for one-touch options written ona Heston model with nonzero correlation.
Lastly, we want to emphasize the fact that it is our chiefgoal is to provide a feasible numerical method which worksin full generality. In this case, the price we pay is to workwith weak convergence results instead of πΏπ or uniformconvergence in probability. We leave a more refined analysison error estimates and rates of convergence underMarkovianassumptions to a future research.
The remainder of this paper is structured as follows.In Section 2, we fix the notation and we describe the basicunderlying market model. In Section 3, we provide the basicelements of the Monte Carlo methodology proposed in thispaper. In Section 4, we formulate dynamic hedging strategiesstarting from a given GKW decomposition and we translateour results to well-known quadratic hedging strategies. TheMonteCarlo algorithmand the numerical study are describedin Sections 5 and 6, respectively.TheAppendix presentsmorerefined approximations when the martingale representationsadmit additional hypotheses.
2. Preliminaries
Throughout this paper, we assume that we are in the usualBrownian market model with finite time horizon 0 <π < β equipped with the stochastic basis (Ξ©, F,P)generated by a standard π-dimensional Brownian motionπ΅ = {(π΅
(1)
π‘, . . . , π΅
(π)
π‘); 0 β€ π‘ < β} starting from 0. The
filtration F := (Fπ‘)0β€π‘β€π
is the P-augmentation of the naturalfiltration generated by π΅. For a given π-dimensional vectorπ½ = (π½
1, . . . , π½
π), we denote by diag(π½) the π Γ π diagonal
matrix whose βth diagonal term is π½β. In this paper, for
all unexplained terminology concerning general theory ofprocesses, we refer to Dellacherie and Meyer [31].
In view of stochastic volatility models, let us split π΅ intotwo multidimensional Brownian motions as follows: π΅π :=(π΅(1), . . . , π΅(π)) andπ΅πΌ := (π΅(π+1), . . . , π΅(π)). In this section, themarket consists of π+1 assets (π β€ π): one riskless asset givenby
ππ0
π‘= ππ‘π0
π‘ππ‘, π
0
0= 1; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π, (11)
4 International Journal of Stochastic Analysis
and a π-dimensional vector of risky assets π := (π1, . . . , ππ)which satisfies the following stochastic differential equation:
πππ‘= diag (π
π‘) (π
π‘ππ‘ + π
π‘ππ΅π
π‘) , π
0= π₯ β R
π;
0 β€ π‘ β€ π.
(12)
Here, the real-valued interest rate process π = {ππ‘; 0 β€
π‘ β€ π}, the vector of mean rates of return π := {ππ‘=
(π1π‘, . . . , ππ
π‘); 0 β€ π‘ β€ π}, and the volatility matrix π :=
{ππ‘= (π
ππ
π‘); 1 β€ π β€ π, 1 β€ π β€ π, 0 β€ π‘ β€ π}
are assumed to be predictable and they satisfy the standardassumptions in such way that both π0 and π are well-definedpositive semimartingales. We also assume that the volatilitymatrix π is nonsingular for almost all (π‘, π) β [0, π] Γ Ξ©. Thediscounted price π := {π
π:= π
π
/π0; π = 1, . . . , π} follows
πππ‘= diag (π
π‘) [(π
π‘β ππ‘1π) ππ‘ + π
π‘ππ΅π
π‘] ; π
0= π₯ β R
π,
0 β€ π‘ β€ π,
(13)
where 1πis a d-dimensional vector with every component
equal to 1. The market price of risk is given by
ππ‘:= π
β1
π‘[ππ‘β ππ‘1π] , 0 β€ π‘ β€ π, (14)
where we assume
β«π
0
ππ’2
Rπππ’ < β a.s. (15)
In the sequel,Mπ denotes the set of P-equivalent prob-ability measures Q such that, respectively, Radon-Nikodymderivative process is aP-martingale and the discounted priceπ is a Q-local martingale. Throughout this paper, we assumethatMπ ΜΈ= 0. In our setup, it is well known thatMπ is givenby the subset of probability measures with Radon-Nikodymderivatives of the form
πQ
πP:= exp [ββ«
π
0
ππ’ππ΅π
π’β β«
π
0
]π’ππ΅πΌ
π’
β1
2β«π
0
{ππ’
2
Rπ+]π’
2
Rπβπ} ππ’] ,
(16)
for some Rπβπ-valued adapted process ] such thatβ«π
0β]π‘β2Rπβπ
ππ‘ < β a.s.
Example 1. The typical example studied in the literature is thefollowing one-dimensional stochastic volatility model:
πππ‘= ππ‘π (π‘, π
π‘, ππ‘) ππ‘ + π
π‘ππ‘ππ(1)
π‘,
ππ2
π‘= π (π‘, π
π‘, ππ‘) ππ‘ + π (π‘, π
π‘, ππ‘) ππ
(2)
π‘; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π,
(17)
where π(1) and π(2) are correlated Brownian motions withcorrelation π β [β1, 1] and π, π, and π are suitablefunctions such that (π, π2) is a well-defined two-dimensional
Markov process. All continuous stochastic volatility modelscommonly used in practice fit into specification (17). Inthis case, π = 2 > π = 1 and we recall that themarket is incomplete where the set Mπ is infinity. Thedynamic hedging procedure turns out to be quite challengingdue to extrinsic randomness generated by the nontradeablevolatility, specially with respect to to exotic options.
2.1. GKWDecomposition. In the sequel, we takeQ β Mπ andwe setππ := (π(1), . . . ,π(π)) andππΌ := (π(π+1), . . . ,π(π)),where
π(π)
π‘:=
{{{{
{{{{
{
π΅(π)
π‘+ β«
π‘
0
πππ’ππ’, π = 1, . . . , π
π΅(π)
π‘+ β«
π‘
0
]ππ’ππ’, π = π + 1, . . . , π; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π,
(18)
is a standard π-dimensional Brownian motion under themeasure Q and filtration F := {F
π‘; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π} generated by
π = (π(1), . . . ,π(π)). In what follows, we fix a discountedcontingent claim π». Recall that the filtration F is containedin F, but it is not necessarily equal. In the remainder of thispaper, we assume the following hypothesis.
(M)The contingent claimπ» is alsoFπ-measurable.
Remark 2. Assumption (M) is essential for the approachtaken in this work because the whole algorithm is basedon the information generated by the Brownian motion π(defined under themeasureQ and filtration F). As long as theshort rate is deterministic, this hypothesis is satisfied for anystochastic volatility model of form (17) and a payoffΞ¦(π
π‘; 0 β€
π‘ β€ π) where Ξ¦ : Cπβ R is a Borel map and C
πis the
usual space of continuous paths on [0, π]. Hence, (M) holdsfor a very large class of examples founded in practice.
For a given Q-square-integrable claim π», the Brownianmartingale representation (computed in terms of (F ,Q))yields
π» = EQ [π»] + β«π
0
ππ»,Qπ’
πππ’, (19)
where ππ»,Q := (ππ»,Q,1, . . . , ππ»,Q,π) is a π-dimensional F-predictable process. In what follows, we set ππ»,Q,π := (ππ»,Q,1,. . . , ππ»,Q,π), ππ»,Q,πΌ := (ππ»,Q,π+1, . . . , ππ»,Q,π), and
πΏπ»,Qπ‘
:= β«π‘
0
ππ»,Q,πΌπ’
πππΌ
π’, οΏ½ΜοΏ½
π‘:= EQ [π» | Fπ‘] ;
0 β€ π‘ β€ π.
(20)
The discounted stock price process has the following Q-dynamics:
πππ‘= diag (π
π‘) ππ‘ππ
π
π‘, π
0= π₯, 0 β€ π‘ β€ π, (21)
International Journal of Stochastic Analysis 5
and therefore the Q-GKW decomposition for the pair oflocally square-integrable local martingales (οΏ½ΜοΏ½, π) is given by
οΏ½ΜοΏ½π‘= EQ [π»] + β«
π‘
0
ππ»,Q,ππ’
πππ
π’+ πΏπ»,Qπ‘
= EQ [π»] + β«π‘
0
ππ»,Qπ’
πππ’+ πΏπ»,Qπ‘
; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π,
(22)
where
ππ»,Q
:= ππ»,Q,π
[diag(π)π]β1 . (23)
The π-dimensional process ππ»,Q which constitutes (20) and(23) plays a major role in several types of hedging strategiesin incomplete markets and it will be our main object of study.
Remark 3. If we set ]π = 0 for π = π + 1, . . . , π and the cor-respondent density process is a martingale, then the resultingminimalmartingalemeasure PΜ yields a GKWdecompositionwhere πΏπ»,PΜ is still a P-local martingale orthogonal to themartingale component of π under P. In this case, it is alsonatural to implement a pure hedging strategy based onππ»,PΜ regardless of the existence of the FoΜllmer-Schweizerdecomposition. If this is the case, this hedging strategy can bebased on the generalized FoΜllmer-Schweizer decomposition(see, e.g., Th. 9 in [7]).
3. The Random Skeleton and WeakApproximations for GKW Decompositions
In this section, we provide the fundamentals of the numericalalgorithm of this paper for the obtention of hedging strategiesin complete and incomplete markets.
3.1. The Multidimensional Random Skeleton. At first, we fixonce and for all Q β Mπ and a Q-square-integrablecontingent claim π» satisfying (M). In the remainder of thissection, we are going to fix aQ-Brownianmotionπ andwitha slight abuse of notation all Q-expectations will be denotedby E. The choice of Q β Mπ is dictated by the pricing andhedging method used by the trader.
In the sequel, [β , β ] denotes the usual quadratic variationbetween semimartingales and the usual jump of a process isdenoted by Ξπ
π‘= π
π‘β π
π‘βwhere π
π‘βis the left-hand limit
of a cadlag process π. For a pair (π, π) β R2, we denote π β¨π := max{π, π} and π β§ π := min{π, π}. Moreover, for anytwo stopping times π and π½, we denote the stochastic intervalsβ¦π, π½β¦ := {(π, π‘); π(π) β€ π‘ < π½(π)}, β¦πβ§ := {(π, π‘); π(π) = π‘}and so on.Throughout this article, Leb denotes the Lebesguemeasure on the interval [0, π].
For a fixed positive integer π and for each π = 1, 2, . . . , πwe define ππ,π
0:= 0 a.s. and
ππ,π
π:= inf {ππ,π
πβ1< π‘ < β;
π(π)
π‘βπ
(π)
ππ,π
πβ1
= 2βπ} ,
π β₯ 1,
(24)
where π := (π(1), . . . ,π(π)) is the π-dimensional Q-Brownian motion as defined in (18).
For each π β {1, . . . , π}, the familyTπ,π := {ππ,ππ; π β₯ 0} is
a sequence of F-stopping times where the increments {ππ,ππ
β
ππ,π
πβ1; π β₯ 1} are an i.i.d sequence with the same distribution
asππ,π1. In the sequel, we defineπ΄π := (π΄π,1, . . . , π΄π,π) as theπ-
dimensional step process given in a component-wise mannerby
π΄π,π
π‘:=
β
βπ=1
2βπππ,π
π1{ππ,π
π β€π‘}; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π, (25)
where
ππ,π
π:=
{{{{{
{{{{{
{
1; if π(π)ππ,π
π
βπ(π)
ππ,π
πβ1
= 2βπ, ππ,ππ
< β
β1; if π(π)ππ,π
π
βπ(π)
ππ,π
πβ1
= β2βπ, ππ,ππ
< β
0; if ππ,ππ
= β
(26)
for π, π β₯ 1, and π = 1, . . . , π. We split π΄π into (π΄π,π, π΄πΌ,π)where π΄π,π is the π-dimensional process constituted by thefirst π components of π΄π and π΄πΌ,π and the remainder of theπ β π-dimensional process. Let Fπ,π := {Fπ,π
π‘: 0 β€ π‘ β€ π}
be the natural filtration generated by {π΄π,ππ‘; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π}. One
should notice that Fπ,π is a discrete-type filtration in the sensethat
Fπ,π
π‘=
β
ββ=0
(Fπ,π
ππ,π
β
β© {ππ,π
ββ€ π‘ < π
π,π
β+1}) , 0 β€ π‘ β€ π, (27)
where Fπ,π0
= {Ξ©, 0} and Fπ,πππ,π
π
= π(ππ,π
1, . . . , ππ,π
π, ππ,π
1, . . . ,
ππ,ππ) forπ β₯ 1 and π = 1, . . . , π. In (27),β¨denotes the smallest
sigma-algebra generated by the union. One can easily checkthatFπ,π
ππ,π
π
= π(π΄π,π
π β§ππ,π
π
; π β₯ 0) and hence
Fπ,π
ππ,π
π
= Fπ,π
π‘a.s on {ππ,π
πβ€ π‘ < π
π,π
π+1} . (28)
With a slight abuse of notation, we write Fπ,ππ‘to denote its
Q-augmentation satisfying the usual conditions.Let us now introduce the multidimensional filtration
generated by π΄π. Let us consider Fπ := {Fππ‘; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π}
where Fππ‘:= Fπ,1
π‘β Fπ,2
π‘β β β β β F
π,π
π‘for 0 β€ π‘ β€ π. Let
Tπ := {πππ; π β₯ 0} be the order statistics obtained from the
family of random variables {ππ,πβ; β β₯ 0; π = 1, . . . , π}.That is,
we set ππ0:= 0,
ππ
1:= inf1β€πβ€π
{ππ,π
1} , π
π
π:= inf1β€πβ€π
πβ₯1
{ππ,π
π; ππ,π
πβ₯ π
π
πβ1} (29)
for π β₯ 1. In this case, Tπ is the partition generated byall stopping times defined in (24). The finite-dimensionaldistribution of π(π) is absolutely continuous for each π =1, . . . , π and therefore the elements of Tπ are almost surelydistinct for every π β₯ 1. The following result is an immediateconsequence of our construction.
6 International Journal of Stochastic Analysis
Lemma 4. For every π β₯ 1, the set Tπ is a sequence of Fπ-stopping times such that
Fπ
π‘= F
π
πππ
π.π ππ {ππ
πβ€ π‘ < π
π
π+1} , (30)
for each π β₯ 0 and π β₯ 1.
ItoΜ representation theorem yields
E [π» | Fπ‘] = E [π»] + β«
π‘
0
ππ»
π’ππ
π’; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π, (31)
where ππ» is a π-dimensional F-predictable process such that
Eβ«π
0
ππ»
π‘
2
Rπππ‘ < β. (32)
The payoff π» induces the Q-square-integrable F-martingaleππ‘:= E[π» | F
π‘], 0 β€ π‘ β€ π. We now embed the process π
into the filtration Fπ by means of the following operator:
(πΏππ)π‘:=
β
βπ=0
E [ππππ| F
π
πππ
] 1{πππβ€π‘
International Journal of Stochastic Analysis 7
3.2. Weak Approximation for the Hedging Process. Based on(20), (22), and (23), let us denote
ππ»
π‘:= π
π»,π
π‘[diag(π
π‘)ππ‘]β1
, πΏπ»
π‘:= E [π»] + β«
π‘
0
ππ»,πΌ
βππ
πΌ
β;
0 β€ π‘ β€ π.
(43)
In order to shorten notation, we do not write (ππ»,Q,π, ππ»,Q,πΌ)in (43). The main goal of this section is the obtention ofbounded variation martingale weak approximations for bothgain and cost processes, given, respectively, by
β«π‘
0
ππ»
π’πππ’, πΏ
π»
π‘; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π. (44)
We assume the trader has some knowledge of the underlyingvolatility so that the obtention of ππ»,π will be sufficientto recover ππ». The typical example we have in mind isgeneralized FoΜllmer-Schweizer decompositions and locallyrisk minimizing and mean variance strategies as explainedin the Introduction. The scheme will be very constructive insuch way that all the elements of our approximation will beamenable to a feasible numerical analysis. Under very mildintegrability conditions, theweak approximations for the gainprocess will be translated into the physical measure.
TheWeak Topology. In order to obtain approximation resultsunder full generality, it is important to consider a topologywhich is flexible to deal with nonsmooth hedging strategiesππ» for possibly non-Markovian payoffs π» and at the sametime justifiesMonte Carlo procedures. In the sequel, wemakeuse of the weak topology π(π΅π,ππ) of the Banach spaceπ΅π(F) constituted by F-optional processes π such that
Eπβ
π
π
< β, (45)
where πβπ:= sup
0β€π‘β€π|ππ‘| and 1 β€ π, π < β such that 1/π +
1/π = 1.The subspace of the square-integrable F-martingaleswill be denoted by π»2(F). It will be also useful to work withπ(π΅1, Ξβ)-topology given in [27]. For more details aboutthese topologies, we refer to the works [27, 31, 32]. It turns outthat π(π΅2,π2) and π(π΅1, Ξβ) are very natural notions to dealwith generic square-integrable random variables as describedin [27].
In the sequel, we recall the following notion of covariationintroduced in [27, 30].
Definition 7. Let {ππ; π β₯ 1} be a sequence of square-integrable Fπ-martingales. One says that {ππ; π β₯ 1} has πΏ-covariation with respect to jth component of π΄π if the limit
limπββ
[ππ, π΄π,π]π‘
(46)
exists weakly in πΏ1(Q) for every π‘ β [0, π].
The covariation notion in Definition 7 slightly differsfrom [27, 30] because {ππ; π β₯ 1} is not necessarily a
sequence of pure jump Fπ-adapted process. In fact, since weare in the puremartingale case, we will relax such assumptionas demonstrated by the following Lemma.
Lemma 8. Let {ππ,π = β«β 0π»π,ππ ππ΄π,π; π β₯ 1, π = 1, . . . , π} be
a sequence of stochastic integrals and ππ := βππ=1
ππ,π. Assumethat
supπβ₯1
E [ππ, ππ]π< β. (47)
Then ππ := limπββ
ππ,π exists weakly in π΅2(F) for each π =1, . . . , π with ππ β π»2(F) if and only if {ππ; π β₯ 1} admitsπΏ-covariation with respect to jth component of π΄π. In this case,
limπββ
[ππ, π΄π,π]π‘
= limπββ
[ππ,π, π΄π,π]π‘
= [ππ,π(π)]π‘
π€πππππ¦ ππ πΏ1(Q) ; π‘ β [0, π] ,
(48)
for π = 1, . . . , π.
Proof. Let πππ‘:= E[ππ
π‘| F
π‘], 0 β€ π‘ β€ π, be a sequence
of F-square-integrable martingales. Similar to Lemma 4.2in [30] or Lemma 3.2 in [27], one can easily check thatassumption (47) implies that {ππ; π β₯ 1} is π΅2(F)-weaklyrelatively sequentially compact where all limit points areF-square-integrable martingales. Moreover, since ππ is asquare-integrable Fπ-martingale, we will repeat the sameargument given in Lemma 3.5 in [27] to safely state that
limπββ
[πππ , π΄
ππ ,π]π‘= [π,π
π]π‘
weakly in πΏ1 (Q) ; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π,(49)
for any π΅2(F)-weakly convergent subsequence wherelimπββ
πππ = π β H2(F). The multidimensional version ofthe Brownian motion martingale representation theoremallows us to conclude the proof.
In the sequel, wemake use of the following notion of weakfunctional derivative introduced in [27, 30].
Definition 9. Let π» be a Q-square-integrable contingentclaim satisfying (M) and one setsπ
π‘= E[π» | F
π‘], 0 β€ π‘ β€ π.
We say thatπ is weakly differentiable if
Dππ := lim
πββ
Dπ,ππ exists weakly in πΏ2 (Q Γ Leb) (50)
for each π = 1, . . . , π. In this case, we set Dπ :=(D1π, . . . ,Dππ).
In LeaΜo and Ohashi [27] and Ohashi et al. [30], theauthors introduce this notion of differential calculus whichproves to be a weak version of the pathwise functional ItoΜcalculus developed by Dupire [28] and further studied by
8 International Journal of Stochastic Analysis
Cont and FournieΜ [29]. We refer the reader to these worksfor further details. The following result is an immediateconsequence of Proposition 3.1 in [30]. See alsoTh. 4.1 in [27]for the one-dimensional case.
Lemma 10. Let π» be a Q-square-integrable contingent claimsatisfying (M). Then the F-martingale π
π‘= E[π» | F
π‘], 0 β€
π‘ β€ π, is weakly differentiable and
Dπ = (ππ»,1
, . . . , ππ»,π
) . (51)
In particular,
limπββ
π
βπ=1
β«β
0
Dπ,πππ ππ΄π,π
π =
π
βπ=1
β«β
0
ππ»,π
π’ππ
(π)
π’= β«
β
0
ππ»
π’πππ’
π€πππππ¦ ππ π΅2(F) .
(52)
The result in Lemma 10 in not sufficient to implementdynamic hedging strategies based on Dπ,ππ, π = 1, . . . , π.In order to ensure that our hedging strategies are nonantic-ipative, we need to study the limiting behavior of Dπ,ππ asπ β β. It turns out that they share the same asymptoticbehavior as follows. In the sequel, β«Dπ,ππ
π ππ΄π,ππ denotes the
usual stochastic integral with respect to the square-integrableFπ-martingale π΄π,π.
Theorem 11. Letπ» be aQ-square-integrable contingent claimsatisfying (M). Then
limπββ
π
βπ=1
β«β
0
Dπ,πππ ππ΄π,π
π =
π
βπ=1
β«β
0
ππ»,π
π’ππ
(π)
π’= β«
β
0
ππ»
π’πππ’,
πΏπ»= limπββ
π
βπ=π+1
β«β
0
Dπ,πππ ππ΄π,π
π
(53)
weakly in π΅2(F). In particular,
limπββ
Dπ,ππ = ππ»,π, (54)
weakly in πΏ2(Q Γ πΏππ) for each π = 1, . . . , π.
Proof. We divide the proof into two steps. Throughout thisproof πΆ is a generic constant which may defer from line toline.
Step 1. In the sequel, let π,π(β ) and π,π(β ) be the optional andpredictable projections with respect to Fπ, respectively. See,for example, [31, 33] for further details. Let us consider theFπ-martingales given by
ππ
π‘:=
π
βπ=1
ππ,π
π‘; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π, (55)
where
ππ,π
π‘:= β«
π‘
0
Dπ,πππ ππ΄π,π
π ; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π, π = 1, . . . , π. (56)
We claim that supπβ₯1
E[ππ,ππ]π
< β. By the verydefinition,
{(π‘, π) β [0, π] Γ Ξ©; Ξ [π΄π,π, π΄π,π]π‘(π) ΜΈ= 0}
=
β
βπ=1
β¦ππ,π
π, ππ,π
πβ§ .
(57)
Therefore, Jensen inequality yields
E [ππ,ππ]π= E
π
βπ=1
β«π
0
Dπ,ππ
π
2
π [π΄π,π, π΄π,π]π
β€
π
βπ=1
Eβ
βπ=1
E [(Dπ,ππππ,π
π
)2
| Fπ
ππ,π
πβ1
]
Γ 2β2π
l{ππ,π
π β€π}=: π½
π.
(58)
We will write π½π in a slightly different manner as follows. Inthe sequel, for each π‘ β (0, π], we set ππ,π
π‘β:= max{ππ,π
π; ππ,ππ
β€
π‘} and ππ,ππ‘+
:= min{ππ,ππ; ππ,ππ
> π‘}. Then, we will write
π½π= E
{
{
{
π
βπ=1
β
βπ=1
E [(Dπ,ππππ,π
π
)2
| Fπ
ππ,π
πβ1
] 2β2π
1{ππ,π
πβ1β€π}
β
π
βπ=1
E [(Dπ,ππππ,π
π+
)2
| Fπ
ππ,π
πβ
] 2β2π
1{ππ,π
πββ€π
International Journal of Stochastic Analysis 9
In order to prove (61), let us check that
limπββ
Eβ«π‘
0
π,π(π)π (Dπ,ππ
π β D
π,πππ ) π [π΄
π,π, π΄π,π]π = 0,
(63)
limπββ
Eβ«π‘
0
(π,π(π)π βπ,π(π)π ) (Dπ,ππ
π β D
π,πππ )
Γ π [π΄π,π, π΄π,π]π = 0.
(64)
The same trick we did in (59) together with (57) yields
Eβ«π‘
0
π,π(π)π (Dπ,ππ
π β D
π,πππ ) π [π΄
π,π, π΄π,π]π
= E [π,π(π)ππ,π
π‘+
Dπ,ππππ,π
π‘+
] 2β2π
1{ππ,π
π‘ββ€π‘
10 International Journal of Stochastic Analysis
Corollary 12. For a given Q β Mπ, let π» be a Q-square-integrable claim satisfying (π). Let
π» = E [π»] + β«π
0
ππ»
π‘πππ‘+ πΏπ»
π(72)
be the correspondent GKW decomposition under Q. If πP/πQ β πΏ1(P) and
EP sup0β€π‘β€π
β«π‘
0
ππ»
π’πππ’
< β, (73)
thenβ
βπ=1
ππ,π»
ππ,1
πβ1
(πππ,1π
β πππ,1
πβ1
) 1{ππ,1π β€β }
β β«β
0
ππ»
π‘πππ‘
ππ π β β,
(74)
in the π(π΅1, Ξβ)-topology under P.
Proof. We have E|πP/πQ|2 = EP|πP/πQ|2(πQ/πP) = EP(πP/πQ) < β. To shorten notation, let ππ
π‘:= β«
π‘
0Dπ,1π πππ΄π,1
π
and ππ‘:= β«
π‘
0ππ»βππβfor 0 β€ π‘ β€ π. Let πΊ be an arbitrary
F-stopping time bounded by π and let π β πΏβ(P) be anessentiallyP-bounded random variable andF
πΊ-measurable.
Let π½ β π2 be a continuous linear functional given by thepurely discontinuous F-optional bounded variation process
π½π‘:= πE [
πP
πQ| F
πΊ] 1{πΊβ€π‘}
; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π, (75)
where the duality action (β , β ) is given by (π½,π) = Eβ«π0ππ ππ½π ,
π β π΅2(F). See Section 3.1 in [27] for more details. ThenTheorem 11 and the fact that πP/πQ β πΏ2(Q) yield
EPπππ
πΊ= Eπ
π
πΊππP
πQ= (π½, π
π) β (π½, π)
= EππΊππP
πQ= EPπππΊ
(76)
as π β β. By the very definition,
β«π‘
0
Dπ,1ππ ππ΄π,1
π
=
β
βπ=1
E [Dπ,1πππ,1π
| Fπ
ππ,1
πβ1
] Ξπ΄π,1
ππ,1π
1{ππ,1π β€π‘}
=
β
βπ=1
ππ,π»
ππ,1
πβ1
πππ,1
πβ1
πππ,1
πβ1
(π(1)
ππ,1π
βπ(1)
ππ,1
πβ1
) 1{ππ,1π β€π‘}
=
β
βπ=1
ππ,π»
ππ,1
πβ1
(πππ,1π
β πππ,1
πβ1
) 1{ππ,1π β€π‘}
; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π.
(77)
Then from the definition of the π(π΅1, Ξβ)-topology based onthe physical measure P, we will conclude the proof.
Remark 13. Corollary 12 provides a nonantecipative Riem-man-sum approximation for the gain process β«β
0ππ»π‘πππ‘in a
multidimensional filtration setting where no path regularityof the pure hedging strategy ππ» is imposed. The price we payis a weak-type convergence instead of uniform convergencein probability. However, from the financial point of view thistype of convergence is sufficient for the implementation ofMonte Carlo methods in hedging. More importantly, we willsee that ππ,π» can be fairly simulated and hence the resultingMonte Carlo hedging strategy can be calibrated from marketdata.
Remark 14. If one is interested only in convergence at theterminal time 0 < π < β, then assumption (73) can beweakened to EP| β«
π
0ππ»
π‘πππ‘| < β. Assumption EP(πP/πQ) <
β is essential to change theQ-convergence into the physicalmeasure P. One should notice that the associated densityprocess is no longer a P-local-martingale and in generalsuch integrability assumption must be checked case by case.Such assumption holds locally for every underlying ItoΜ riskyasset price process. Our numerical results suggest that thisproperty behaves well for a variety of spot price models.
Of course, in practice both the spot prices and the tradingdates are not observable at the stopping times so we need totranslate our results to a given deterministic set of rebalancinghedging dates.
4.1. Hedging Strategies. In this section, we provide a dynamichedging strategy based on a refined set of hedging datesΞ :=0 = π
0< β β β < π
πβ1< π π= π for a fixed integer π. For this,
we need to introduce some objects. For a given π πβ Ξ , we set
π(π)
π π ,π‘:= π
(π)
π π+π‘β π(π)
π π, 0 β€ π‘ β€ π β π
π, for π = 1, 2. Of course,
by the strong Markov property of the Brownian motion, weknow thatπ(π)
π π ,β is an (Fπ
π π ,π‘)0β€π‘β€πβπ π
-Brownianmotion for eachπ = 1, 2 and is independent ofFπ
π π, whereFπ
π π ,π‘:= F
π
π π+π‘for
0 β€ π‘ β€ π β π π. Similar to Section 3.1, we set ππ,1
π π ,0:= 0 and
ππ,π
π π ,π:= inf {π‘ > ππ,π
π π ,πβ1;π(π)
π π ,π‘βπ
(π)
π π ,ππ,π
π π ,πβ1
= 2βπ} ;
π β₯ 1, π = 1, 2.
(78)
For a given π β₯ 1 and π = 1, 2, we defineHπ,ππ π ,πas the sigma-
algebra generated by {ππ,ππ π ,β; 1 β€ β β€ π} andπ(π)
π π ,ππ,π
π π ,β
βπ(π)
π π ,ππ,π
π π ,ββ1
,
1 β€ β β€ π. We then define the following discrete jumpingfiltration:
Fπ,π
π π ,π‘:= H
π,π
π π ,πa.s on {ππ,π
π π ,πβ€ π‘ < π
π,π
π π ,π+1} . (79)
In order to deal with fully path-dependent options, it isconvenient to introduce the following augmented filtration:
Gπ,π
π π ,π‘:= F
π
π πβ¨F
π,π
π π ,π‘; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π β π
π, (80)
for π = 1, 2. The bidimensional information flows are definedbyF
π π ,π‘:= F1
π π ,π‘βF2
π π ,π‘and Gπ
π π ,π‘:= Gπ,1
π π ,π‘β Gπ,2
π π ,π‘for 0 β€ π‘ β€
International Journal of Stochastic Analysis 11
π β π π. We set Gπ
π π:= {Gπ
π π ,π‘; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π β π
π}. We will assume
that they satisfy the usual conditions. The piecewise constantmartingale projection π΄π,π
π πbased onπ(π)
π πis given by
π΄π,π
π π ,π‘:= E [π
(π)
π π ,πβπ π| Gπ,π
π π ,π‘] ; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π β π
π. (81)
We set {πππ π ,π; π β₯ 0} as the order statistic generated by the
stopping times {ππ,ππ π ,π; π = 1, 2, π β₯ 0} similar to (29).
If π» β πΏ2(Q) and ππ‘= E[π» | F
π‘], 0 β€ π‘ β€ π, then we
define
πΏπ
π πππ‘:= E [π» | G
π
π π ,π‘] ; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π β π
π, (82)
so that the related derivative operators are given by
Dπ,π
π ππ :=
β
βπ=1
Dπ
ππ,π
π π ,π
πΏπ
π ππ1
β¦ππ,π
π π ,π,ππ,π
π π ,π+1β¦, (83)
where
DππΏπ
π ππ :=
β
βπ=1
ΞπΏππ ππππ,π
π π ,π
Ξπ΄π,π
ππ,π
π π ,π
1β¦ππ,π
π π ,π,ππ,π
π π ,πβ§; π = 1, 2, π β₯ 1. (84)
A Gππ π-predictable version of Dπ,π
π ππ is given by
Dπ,ππ ππ := 01β¦0β§ +
β
βπ=1
E [Dπ,π
π ππππ,π
π π ,π
| Gπ
π π ,ππ,π
π π ,πβ1
] 1β§ππ,π
π π ,πβ1,ππ,π
π π ,πβ§;
π = 1, 2.
(85)
In the sequel, we denote
ππ,π»
π π:=
β
βπ=1
Dπ,1π ππππ,1π π ,π
ππ π ,ππ,1
π π ,πβ1
ππ π ,ππ,1
π π ,πβ1
1β¦ππ,1
π π ,πβ1,ππ,π
π π ,πβ¦; π
πβ Ξ , (86)
where ππ π ,β is the volatility process driven by the shifted
filtration {Fπ π ,π‘; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π β π
π} and π
π π ,β is the risky asset
price process driven by the shifted Brownian motionπ(1)π π.
We are now able to present the main result of this section.
Corollary 15. For a given Q β Mπ, let π» be a Q-square-integrable claim satisfying (π). Let
π» = E [π»] + β«π
0
ππ»
π‘πππ‘+ πΏπ»
π(87)
be the correspondent GKW decomposition under Q. IfπP/πQ β πΏ1(P) and
EP
β«π
0
ππ»
π’πππ’
< β. (88)
Then, for any set of trading dates Ξ = {(π π)π
π=0}, we have
limπββ
βπ πβΞ
β
βπ=1
ππ,π»
π π ,ππ,1
π π ,πβ1
(ππ π ,ππ,1π π ,π
β ππ π ,ππ,1
π π ,πβ1
) 1{ππ,1π π ,πβ€π π+1βπ π}
= β«π
0
ππ»
π‘πππ‘
(89)
weakly in πΏ1 under P.
Proof. Let Ξ = {(π π)π
π=0} be any set of trading dates where π is
a fixed positive integer. To shorten notation, let us define
π (ππ,π»
, Ξ , π)
:= βπ πβΞ
β
βπ=1
ππ,π»
π π ,ππ,1
π π ,πβ1
(ππ π ,ππ,1π π ,π
β ππ π ,ππ,1
π π ,πβ1
) 1{ππ,1π π ,πβ€π π+1βπ π}
(90)
for π β₯ 1 and Ξ . At first, we recall that {ππ,1π π ,π
β ππ,1π π ,πβ1
; π β₯
1, π πβ Ξ } is an i.i.d sequence with absolutely continuous
distribution. In this one-dimensional case, the probability ofthe set {ππ,1
π π ,πβ€ π π+1
β π π} is always strictly positive for every Ξ
and π, π β₯ 1. Hence, π (ππ,π», Ξ , π) is a nondegenerate subsetof random variables. By making a change of variable on theItoΜ integral, we will write
β«π
0
ππ»
π‘πππ‘= β«
π
0
ππ»,1
π‘ππ
(1)
π‘= βπ πβΞ
β«π π+1
π π
ππ»,1
π‘ππ
(1)
π‘
= βπ πβΞ
β«π π+1βπ π
0
ππ»,1
π π+π‘ππ
(1)
π π ,π‘.
(91)
Let us fixQ β Mπ. By the very definition,
π (ππ,π»
, Ξ , π) = βπ πβΞ
β«π π+1βπ π
0
Dπ,1π ππβππ΄π,1
π π ,βunder Q. (92)
Now we notice that Theorem 11 holds for the two-dimensional Brownian motion (π(1)
π π,π(2)π π), for each
π πβ Ξ with the discretization of the Brownian motion given
by π΄π,1π π. Moreover, using the fact that E|πP/πQ|2 < β
and repeating the argument given by (77) restricted to theinterval [π
π, π π+1), we have
limπββ
π (ππ,π»
, Ξ , π) = βπ πβΞ
limπββ
β«π π+1βπ π
0
Dπ,1π ππβππ΄π,1
π π ,β
= β«π
0
ππ»
π‘πππ‘,
(93)
weakly in πΏ1(P) for each Ξ . This concludes the proof.
Remark 16. In practice, one may approximate the gain pro-cess by a nonantecipative strategy as follows. Let Ξ be agiven set of trading dates on the interval [0, π] so that |Ξ | =max
0β€πβ€π|π πβ π πβ1| is small. We take a large π and we perform
a nonantecipative buy-and-hold-type strategy among thetrading dates [π
π, π π+1); π πβ Ξ , in the full approximation (90)
which results in
βπ πβΞ
ππ,π»
π π ,0(ππ π ,π π+1βπ π
β ππ π ,0) where
ππ,π»
π π ,0=
E [Dπ,1π ππππ,1
π π ,1
| Fπ π]
ππ π ,0ππ π ,0
; π πβ Ξ .
(94)
Convergence (89) implies that approximation (94) results inunavoidable hedging errors with respect to the gain process
12 International Journal of Stochastic Analysis
due to the discretization of the dynamic hedging, but we donot expect large hedging errors provided that π is large and|Ξ | is small. Hedging errors arising from discrete hedgingin complete markets are widely studied in the literature. Wedo not know optimal rebalancing dates in this incompletemarket setting, but simulation results presented in Section 6suggest that homogeneous hedging dates work very well fora variety of models with and without stochastic volatility. Amore detailed study is needed in order to get more preciserelations betweenΞ and the stopping times, a topicwhichwillbe further explored in a future work.
Let us now briefly explain how the results of this sectioncan be applied to well-known quadratic hedging methodolo-gies.
Generalized FoΜllmer-Schweizer. If one takes the minimalmartingalemeasure PΜ, then πΏπ» in (70) is aP-localmartingaleand is orthogonal to the martingale component of π. Duethis orthogonality and the zero mean behavior of the costπΏπ», it is still reasonable to work with generalized FoΜllmer-Schweizer decompositions underPwithout knowing a priorithe existence of locally risk minimizing hedging strategies.
Local Risk Minimization. One should notice that if β« ππ»ππ βπ΅2(F), πΏπ» β π΅2(F) under P and πPΜ/πP β πΏ2(P), then ππ»is the locally risk minimizing trading strategy and (70) is theFoΜllmer-Schweizer decomposition under P.
Mean Variance Hedging. If one takes PΜ, then the meanvariance hedging strategy is not completely determined bytheGKWdecomposition under PΜ. Nevertheless, Corollary 15still can be used to approximate the optimal hedging strategyby computing the density process π based on the so-calledfundamental equations derived by Hobson [16]. See (5)and (6) for details. For instance, in the classical Hestonmodel, Hobson derives analytical formulas for π. See (110) inSection 6.
Hedging of Fully Path-Dependent Options. The most interest-ing application of our results is the hedging of fully path-dependent options under stochastic volatility. For instance,if π» = Ξ¦({π
π‘; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π}), then Corollary 15 and
Remark 16 jointly with the above hedging methodologiesallow us to dynamically hedge the payoff π» based on (94).The conditioning on the information flow {F
π π; π πβ Ξ } in
the hedging strategy ππ,π»hedg := {ππ,π»
π π; π πβ Ξ } encodes the
continuous monitoring of a path-dependent option. For eachhedging date π
π, one has to incorporate the whole history
of the price and volatility until such date in order to getan accurate description of the hedging. If π» is not path-dependent, then the information encoded by {F
π π; π πβ Ξ }
in ππ,π»hedg is only crucial at time π π.Next, we provide the details of the Monte Carlo algo-
rithm for the approximating pure hedging strategy ππ,π»hedg ={ππ,π»π π ,0
; π πβ Ξ }.
5. The Algorithm
In this section we present the basic algorithm to evaluate thehedging strategy for a given European-type contingent claimπ» β πΏ2(Q) satisfying assumption (M) for a fixed Q β Mπ ata terminal time 0 < π < β. The core of the algorithm is thesimulation of the stochastic derivativeDπ,ππ
E[[
[
E [π» | Fπππ,π
1
] β E [π» | Fπππ,π
1
]
π΄π,π
ππ,π
1
]]
]
, π = 1, . . . , π, (95)
for π β€ π. Recall that Fπ is a discrete jumping filtrationgenerated by the i.i.d families of Bernoulli and absolutelycontinuous random variables given, respectively, by {ππ,π
π; π β₯
1, 1 β€ π β€ π} and {ππ,ππ
β ππ,π
πβ1; π β₯ 1, 1 β€ π β€ π} which are
amenable to an exact simulation by using Burq and Jones [8].By considering the payoffπ» as a functional of π΄π,1, . . . , π΄π,π,this section explains how to perform a concrete and feasibleMonte Carlo method to obtain the hedging strategies ππ».
In the sequel, we fix the discretization level π β₯ 1.
Step 1 (simulation of the stopping times {ππ,πβ; π = 1, . . . , π;
β β₯ 1} and the step processes {π΄π,π; π = 1, . . . , π})
(1) One generates the increments {ππ,πβ
β ππ,π
ββ1; β β₯ 1}
according to the algorithm described by Burq andJones [8] and, consequently, the Fπ,π-stopping times{ππ,π
β; β β₯ 1} for every π = 1, . . . , π, such that all the
Fπ,π-stopping times ππ,πβ
β€ π.
(2) One simulates the i.i.d family ππ,π = {ππ,πβ; β β₯ 1}
independently of {ππ,πβ; β β₯ 1}, according to the
Bernoulli random variable ππ,π1with parameter 1/2 for
π = β1, 1. This simulates the step process π΄π,π forπ = 1, . . . , π.
In the next step we need to simulate π» based onapproximations of the discounted price process {ππ
π‘; 0 β€ π‘ β€
π; π = 1, . . . , π} as follows.
Step 2 (simulation of the discounted stock price process{ππ; π = 1, . . . , π}). Suppose that, using Step 1, we have the
partitionsTπ,π, the family ππ,π, and the step processesπ΄π,π forπ = 1, . . . , π, π + 1, . . . , π. The following steps show how tocompute approximations to the discounted stock price pricesππ, π = 1, . . . , π, and the payoff functionπ».
(1) We consider the order statistics Tπ generated by allstopping times as defined by (29). This is the finestpartition generated by all partitionsTπ,π.
(2) We apply some appropriate method to evaluate anapproximation ππ,π of the discounted price ππ for π =1, . . . , π, where ππ,π is a functional of the noisy π΄π =(π΄π,1, . . . , π΄π,π). Generally speaking, we work withsome ItoΜ-Taylor expansion method driven by π΄π.
International Journal of Stochastic Analysis 13
(3) Based on the approximation for ππ, we calculate theapproximation for the payoff οΏ½ΜοΏ½ as follows: οΏ½ΜοΏ½π =Ξ¦(ππ,π; 1 β€ π β€ π).
Next, we describe the crucial step in the algorithm: thesimulation of the stochastic derivative described by (41).
Step 3 (simulation of the stochastic derivative Dπ,ππππ,π
1
).Werecall that
Dπ,ππππ,π
1
= E[[
[
E [π» | Fπππ,π
1
] β E [π» | Fπππ,π
1
]
π΄π,π
ππ,π
1
]]
]
, (96)
where ππ,π1
= max{πππ; πππ< π
π,π
1}, andFπ
ππ,π
1
is given by
Fπ
ππ,π
1
= Fπ
ππ,π
1
β¨ π (ππ,π
1, ππ,π
1) . (97)
In the sequel, π‘π,πβdenotes the realization of ππ,π
βby means
of Step 1 and π‘πβdenotes the realization of ππ
βbased on the
finest random partition Tπ. Moreover, any sequence (π‘π1<
π‘π2
< β β β < π‘π,π
1) encodes the information generated by
the realization of Tπ until the first hitting time of the πthpartition. In addition, we denote π‘π,π
1βas the last time in the
finest partition before π‘π,π1. For each (π, π) β N Γ N, let
(]π1,π, ]π2,π) β {1, . . . , π} Γ N be the unique random pair which
realizes
ππ
π= π
π,]π1,π
]π2,π
a.s, π, π β₯ 1. (98)
Based on these quantities, we define πππ‘ππ
as the realization of
the random variable ππ,]π
1,π
]π2,π
, where {ππ,ππ; 1 β€ π β€ π, π β₯ 1} is
given by (26).In the sequel, EΜ denotes the conditional expectation
computed in terms of the Monte Carlo method.
(1) For every π = 1, . . . , π we compute
DΜπ,ππππ,π
1
:=1
2βπππ,π
1
{EΜ [π» | Fπ
ππ,π
1
] β EΜ [π» | Fπ
ππ,π
1
]}
=1
2βπππ,π
1
{EΜ [π» | (π‘π
1, ππ
π‘π
1
) , . . . , (π‘π,π
1, ππ
π‘π,π
1
)]
β EΜ [π» | (π‘π
1, ππ
π‘π
1
) , . . . , (π‘π,π
1β, ππ
π‘π,π
1β
)]} ,
(99)
where ππ,π1in (99) denotes the realization of the Bernoulli
variable ππ,π1.
(2) We define the stochastic derivative
ππ»,π
0:= (DΜ
π,1πππ,1
1
, . . . , DΜπ,ππππ,π
1
) . (100)
(3) We compute ππ»
0as
ππ»
0:= (π
π»,π
0)β€
[diag(π0)π0]β1
. (101)
(4) Repeat these steps several times and calculate the purehedging strategy as the mean of all π
π»
0. Consider
ππ»
0:= mean of π
π»
0. (102)
Quantity (102) is a Monte Carlo estimate of ππ»0.
Remark 17. TheMonte Carlo simulation of (99) is performedby considering the payoff π» = Ξ¦(ππ; 1 β€ π β€ π) asa functional Ξ¦(ππ,π; 1 β€ π β€ π) of the noisy π΄π =(π΄π,1, . . . , π΄
π,π) in terms of any ItoΜ-Taylor/Euler-Maruyama
scheme.
Remark 18. In order to compute the hedging strategy ππ» overa trading period {π
π; π = 0, . . . , π}, one performs Algorithms 1,
2 and 3 (see Appendix) but based on the shifted filtration andthe Brownian motionsπ(π)
π πfor π = 1, . . . , π as described in
Section 4.1.
Remark 19. In practice, one has to calibrate the parametersof a given stochastic volatility model based on liquid instru-ments such as vanilla options and volatility surfaces. Withthose parameters at hand, the trader must follow steps (99)and (102). The hedging strategy is then given by calibrationand the computation of quantity (102) over a trading period.
6. Numerical Analysis andDiscussion of the Methods
In this section, we provide a detailed analysis of the numericalscheme proposed in this work.
6.1. Multidimensional Black-Scholes Model. At first, we con-sider the classical multidimensional Black-Scholes modelwith asmany risky stocks as underlying independent randomfactors to be hedged (π = π). In this case, there is only oneequivalent local martingale measure, the hedging strategy ππ»is given by (43), and the cost is just the option price. Toillustrate our method, we study a very special type of exoticoption: a BLAC (Basket Lock Active Coupon) down-and-outbarrier option whose payoff is given by
π» =βπ ΜΈ=π
1{minπ β[0,π]Sππ β¨minπ β[0,π]π
π
π >πΏ}. (103)
It is well known that, for this type of option, there exists aclosed formula for the hedging strategy. Moreover, it satisfiesthe assumptions of Theorem A.2. See, for example, Bernis etal. [34] for some formulas.
For comparison purposes with Bernis et al. [34], weconsider π = 5 underlying assets, π = 0% for the interest rate,and π = 1 year for the maturity time. For each asset, we setinitial values ππ
0= 100, 1 β€ π β€ 5, andwe compute the hedging
14 International Journal of Stochastic Analysis
5000 10000 15000 20000
BLAC option
Hed
ge
00.000
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
True value
k = 3
k = 4
k = 5
k = 6
Figure 1: Monte Carlo hedging strategy of a BLAC down-and-outoption for a 5-dimensional Black-Scholes model.
strategy with respect to the first asset π1 with discretizationlevel π = 3, 4, 5, 6 and 20000 simulations.
Following thework [34], we consider the volatilities of theassets given by βπ1β = 35%, βπ2β = 35%, βπ3β = 38%, βπ4β =35%, and βπ5β = 40% and the correlation matrix defined byπππ= 0, 4 for π ΜΈ= π, where ππ = (π
π1, . . . , π
π5)β€, and we use
the barrier level πΏ = 76. In Table 1, we present the numericalresults based on the Algorithms 1, 2 and 3 for the pointwisehedging strategy ππ» at time π‘ = 0.
Table 1 reports the difference between the true andthe estimated hedging value, the standard error =standard deviation/(number of simulations)1/2, the %error = difference/true valor, and the lower (LL) andupper limits (UL) of the 95% confidence interval for theempirical mean of the estimated pointwise hedging strategiesat time π‘ = 0. Due to Theorem A.2, we expect that whenthe discretization level π increases, we obtain results closerto the true value and this is what we find in Monte Carloexperiments, confirmed by the small % error when usingπ = 6. We also emphasize that when π = 6, the confidenceinterval contains the true value 0.00338, and we can reallyassume the convergence of the algorithm.
In Figure 1, we plot the average hedging estimates withrespect to the number of simulations. One should notice thatwhen π increases, the standard error also increases, whichsuggests more simulations for higher values of π.
6.2. Average Hedging Errors. Next, we present some aver-age hedging error results for two well-known nonconstantvolatility models: the constant elasticity of variance (CEV)model and the classical Heston stochastic volatility model[18].The typical exampleswe have inmind are the generalizedFoΜllmer-Schweizer, local risk minimization, and mean vari-ance hedging strategies, where the optimal hedging strategiesare computed by means of the minimal martingale measureand the variance optimal martingale measure, respectively.
We analyze the one-touch one-dimensional European-typecontingent claims as follows:
One-touch option: π» = 1{maxπ‘β[0,π]ππ‘>105}. (104)
By using the Algorithms 1, 2 and 3, we compute theerror committed by approximating the payoffπ» by EΜQ[π»] +βπβ1
π=0ππ,π»π‘π ,0
(ππ‘π ,π‘π+1βπ‘π
β ππ‘π ,0). This error will be called hedging
error. The computation of this error is summarized in thefollowing steps.
Computation of the Average Hedging Error(1) We first simulate paths under the physical measureand compute the payoffπ».
(2) Then, we consider some deterministic partition of theinterval [0, π] into π (number of hedging strategies inthe period) points π‘
0, π‘1, . . . , π‘
πβ1such that π‘
π+1β π‘π=
π/π, for π = 0, . . . , π β 1.(3) One simulates, at time π‘
0= 0, the option price EΜQ[π»]
and the initial hedging estimate ππ,π»0,0
through (100),(101), and (102) under a fixed Q β Mπ. We follow theAlgorithms 1, 2 and 3.
(4) We simulate ππ,π»π‘π ,0
by means of the shifting argumentbased on the strongMarkov property of the Brownianmotion as described in Section 4.1.
(5) We compute οΏ½ΜοΏ½ by
οΏ½ΜοΏ½ := EΜQ [π»] +πβ1
βπ=0
ππ,π»
π‘π ,0(ππ‘π ,π‘π+1βπ‘π
β ππ‘π ,0) . (105)
(6) We compute the hedging error estimate πΎ given byπΎ := |π» β οΏ½ΜοΏ½|.
(7) We compute the average hedging error given by AV :=(1/π)β
π
β=1πΎβwhere πΎ
βis the hedging error at the βth
scenario andπ is the total number of scenarios usedin the experiment.
(8) We compute πΈ(AV) := 100 Γ AV/EΜQ[π»].
Remark 20. When no locally risk minimizing strategy isavailable, we also expect to obtain low average hedging errorswhen dealing with generalized FoΜllmer-Schweizer decom-positions due to the orthogonal martingale decomposition.In the mean variance hedging case, two terms appear inthe optimal hedging strategy: the pure hedging componentππ»,PΜ of the GKW decomposition under the optimal variancemartingale measures PΜ and π as described by (5) and (6).For the Heston model, π was explicitly calculated by Hobson[16]. We have used his formula in our numerical simulationsjointly with ππ,π» under PΜ in the calculation of the meanvariance hedging errors. See expression (110) for details.
6.2.1. Constant Elasticity of Variance (CEV) Model. The dis-counted risky asset price process described by theCEVmodelunder the physical measure is given by
πππ‘= ππ‘[(ππ‘β ππ‘) ππ‘ + ππ
(π½β2)/2
π‘ππ΅π‘] , π
0= π , (106)
International Journal of Stochastic Analysis 15
Table 1: Monte Carlo hedging strategy of a BLAC down-and-out option for a 5-dimensional Black-Scholes model.
π Hedging St. error LL UL True value Difference % error3 0.00376 2.37 Γ 10β5 0.00371 0.00380 0.00338 0.00038 11.15%4 0.00365 4.80 Γ 10β5 0.00356 0.00374 0.00338 0.00027 8.03%5 0.00366 9.31 Γ 10β5 0.00348 0.00384 0.00338 0.00028 8.35%6 0.00342 1.82 Γ 10β4 0.00306 0.00378 0.00338 0.00004 1.29%
where π΅ is a P-Brownian motion. The instantaneous Sharperatio is π
π‘= (π
π‘β ππ‘)/(ππ
(π½β2)/2
π‘) such that the model can be
rewritten as
πππ‘= ππ‘ππ½/2
π‘ππ
π‘, (107)
where π is a Q-Brownian motion and Q is the equivalentlocal martingale measure. In this Monte Carlo experiment,we consider a total number of scenarios π equal to 1000with the following parameters: the barrier for the one-touchoption in (104) is 105, π = 0 for the interest rate, π = 0.01,π = 1 (month) for the maturity time, π = 0.2, π
0=
100, and π½ = 1.6 such that the constant of elasticity isβ0.4. We simulate the average hedging errors by consideringdiscretization levels π = 3, 4, 5. We perform 11, 16, 22, and44 hedging strategies along the interval [0, π]. We observethat, supposing 22 business days per month, we can assumethat 11, 22, and 44 hedging strategies on the interval [0, 1]correspond to one hedging strategy for every two days, onehedging strategy per day, and two hedging strategies per day,respectively. From Corollary 15, we know that this procedureis consistent.
Table 2 reports the average hedging errors for the one-touch option. It provides the standard error = standard devi-ation of {πΎ
π; 1 β€ π β€ π}/(total number of scenarios π)1/2,
the % error = πΈ(AV), the lower (LL) and upper limits (UL)of the 95% confidence interval for AV, and the price of theoption. It is important to notice that when π increases, thepercentage error πΈ(AV) decreases, which is expected due tothe weak convergence results of this paper. We also pointout that for π = 5 all the 95% confidence intervals containthe zero. Moreover, we notice that as the number of hedgingstrategies increases, the standard error becomes smaller.
6.2.2. Hestonβs Stochastic Volatility Model. Here we considertwo types of hedging methodologies: local risk minimizationand mean variance hedging strategies as described in theIntroduction and Remark 20. The Heston dynamics of thediscounted price under the physical measure is given by
πππ‘= ππ‘(ππ‘β ππ‘) Ξ£π‘ππ‘ + π
π‘βΞ£π‘ππ΅(1)
π‘,
πΞ£π‘= 2π (π β Ξ£
π‘) ππ‘ + 2πβΞ£
π‘πππ‘, 0 β€ π‘ β€ π,
(108)
where π = ππ΅(1) + ππ΅(2)π‘, π = β1 β π2, (π΅(1), π΅(2)) is a pair
of two independent P-Brownian motions, and π ,π, π½0, π are
suitable constants in order to have a well-defined Markov
process (see, e.g., [16, 18]). Alternatively, we can rewrite thedynamics as
πππ‘= ππ‘π2
π‘(ππ‘β ππ‘) ππ‘ + π
π‘ππ‘ππ΅(1)
π‘,
πππ‘= π (
π
ππ‘
β ππ‘)ππ‘ + πππ
π‘, 0 β€ π‘ β€ π,
(109)
where π = βΞ£π‘andπ = π β (π2/2π ).
Local Risk Minimization. For comparison purposes withHeath et al. [4], we consider the hedging of a Europeanput option π» written on a Heston model with correlationparameter π = 0. We set π
0= 100, strike price πΎ = 100, and
π = 1 (month) andwe use discretization levels π = 3, 4, and 5.We set the parameters π = 2.5, π = 0.04, π = 0, π = 0.3, π = 0,and π
0= 0.02. The hedging strategy ππ»,PΜ based on the local
risk minimization methodology is bounded with continuouspaths so that Theorem A.2 applies to this case. Moreover, asdescribed by Heath et al. [4], ππ»,PΜ can be obtained by a PDEnumerical analysis.
Table 3 presents the results of the hedging strategy ππ,π»0,0
by using Algorithms 1, 2 and 3. Figure 2 provides the MonteCarlo hedging strategy with respect to the number of simula-tions of order 10000. We notice that our results agree withthe results obtained by Heath et al. [4] by PDE methods.In this case, the true value of the hedging at time π‘ = 0is approximately β0.44. Table 3 provides the standard errorsrelated to the computed hedging strategy and the MonteCarlo prices.
Hedging with Generalized FoΜllmer-Schweizer Decompositionfor One-Touch Option. Based on Corollary 15, we also presentthe averaging hedging error associated with one-touchoptions written on a Heston model with nonzero correlation.We consider a total number of scenarios π = 1000 andwe set π = 3.63, π = 0.04, π = β0.53, π = 0.3, π = 0,π = 0.01, π
0= 0.3, and π
0= 100 where the barrier is
105. We simulate the average hedging error along the interval[0, 1] with discretization levels π = 3, 4. We compute 22 and44 hedging strategies in the period (which corresponds toone and two hedging strategies per day, resp.). The averagehedging error results are summarized in Table 4. It providesthe standard error (St. error) = standard deviation of {πΎ
β; 1 β€
β β€ π}/(total number of scenarios π = 1000)1/2, the priceof the option, the lower (LL) and upper (UL) limits of the 95%confidence interval of AV, and the percentage error πΈ(AV)related to AV.
To the best of our knowledge, there is no result con-cerning the existence of locally risk minimizing hedging
16 International Journal of Stochastic Analysis
Table 2: Average hedging error of the one-touch option written on the CEV model.
π Hedging strategies AV St. error LL UL Price πΈ(AV)3 11 0.0449 0.0073 0.0305 0.0592 0.4803 9.34%3 16 0.0446 0.0063 0.0323 0.0569 0.4804 9.28%3 22 0.0441 0.0056 0.0332 0.0550 0.4804 9.18%3 44 0.0431 0.0044 0.0345 0.0516 0.4803 8.96%4 11 0.0213 0.0071 0.0017 0.0295 0.5062 4.22%4 16 0.0203 0.0064 0.0078 0.0327 0.5060 4.00%4 22 0.0167 0.0053 0.0062 0.0271 0.5061 3.29%4 44 0.0158 0.0038 0.0084 0.0232 0.5057 3.12%5 11 0.0067 0.0072 β0.0074 0.0209 0.5205 1.30%5 16 0.0056 0.0065 β0.0186 0.0073 0.5196 1.08%5 22 0.0050 0.0055 β0.0057 0.0157 0.5187 0.97%5 44 0.0044 0.0040 β0.0034 0.0122 0.5204 0.85%
Table 3: Monte Carlo local risk minimization hedging strategy of a European put option with Heston model.
π Hedging Standard error Monte Carlo price Standard error3 β0.4480 6.57 Γ 10β4 10.417 5.00 Γ 10β3
4 β0.4506 1.28 Γ 10β3 10.422 3.35 Γ 10β3
5 β0.4453 2.54 Γ 10β3 10.409 2.75 Γ 10β3
10000
Hed
ge
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
β0.50
β0.48
β0.46
β0.44
β0.42
β0.40
k = 3
k = 4
k = 5
Put option-average hedging
Figure 2: Monte Carlo local risk minimization hedging strategy ofa European put option with Heston model.
strategies for one-touch options written on a Heston modelwith nonzero correlation. Nevertheless, as pointed out inRemark 20, it is expected that pure hedging strategies basedon the generalized FoΜllmer-Schweizer decomposition miti-gate very well the average hedging error. This is what we getin the simulation results. In Table 4, we see that as π increases,the percentage errorπΈ(AV) decreases. For π = 3, we also havea decrease in the standard error, but when π = 4, the standarderror is almost the same (with a small increase).
Mean Variance Hedging Strategy.Here we present the averagehedging errors associated with one-touch options written
on a Heston model with nonzero correlation under themean variance methodology. Again, we simulate the averagehedging error along the interval [0, 1] by using π = 3, 4 asdiscretization levels of the Brownianmotions.We perform 22and 44 hedging strategies in the period (which correspondsto one and two hedging strategies per day, resp.) withparameters π = 0, π = 0.01, π = 3.63, π = 0.04, π = β0.53,π = 0.3, π
0= 0.3, and π
0= 100. The barrier of the one-touch
option (104) is 105. There are some quantities which are notrelated to the GKW decomposition that must be computed(see Remark 20). The quantity π is not related to the GKWdecomposition but it is described by Theorem 1.1 in Hobson[16] as follows.The process π appearing in (5) and (6) is givenby
ππ‘= π
0πππΉ (π β π‘) β π
0π; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π, (110)
where πΉ is given by (see case 2 of Prop. 5.1 in [16])
πΉ (π‘) =πΆ
π΄tanh(π΄πΆπ‘ + tanhβ1 (π΄π΅
πΆ)) β π΅; 0 β€ π‘ β€ π,
(111)
with π΄ = β|1 β 2π2|π2, π΅ = (π + 2πππ)/π2|1 β 2π2|, andπΆ = β|π·| where π· = 2π2 + (π + 2πππ)2/π2(1 β 2π2). Theinitial condition π
0is given by
π0=π20
2πΉ (π) + π πβ«
π
0
πΉ (π ) ππ . (112)
The average hedging error results are summarized inTable 5. It reports the standard error (St. error) = stan-dard deviation of {πΎ
β; 1 β€ β β€ π}/(total number of
scenarios π = 1000)1/2, the price of the option, the lower
International Journal of Stochastic Analysis 17
Table 4: Average hedging error with generalized Follmer-Schweizer decomposition: one-touch option with Heston model.
π Hedging strategies AV St. error LL UL Price πΈ(AV)3 22 0.0422 0.0084 0.0258 0.0586 0.7399 5.70%3 44 0.0382 0.0067 0.0250 0.0515 0.7397 5.17%4 22 0.0210 0.0080 0.0053 0.0366 0.7733 2.71%4 44 0.0198 0.0082 0.0036 0.0360 0.7737 2.56%
(LL) and upper (UL) limits of the 95% confidence interval ofAV, and the percentage errorπΈ(AV) related to AV. Comparedto the local risk minimization methodology, the results showsmaller percentage errors for π = 4. Also, in all the cases,the results show smaller values of the standard errors whichsuggests the mean variance methodology provides moreaccurate values of the hedging strategy. Again, for a fixedvalue π, when the number of hedging strategies increases, thestandard error decreases.
Appendix
This appendix provides a deeper understanding of the MonteCarlo algorithm proposed in this work when the represen-tation (ππ»,π, ππ»,πΌ) in (43) admits additional integrability andpath smoothness assumptions. We present stronger approx-imations which complement the asymptotic result givenin Theorem 11. Uniform-type weak and strong pointwiseapproximations for ππ» are presented and they validate thenumerical experiments in Tables 1 and 4 in Section 6. At first,we need some technical lemmas.
Lemma A.1. Suppose that ππ» = (ππ»,1, . . . , ππ»,π) is a π-dimensional progressive process such that Esup
0β€π‘β€πβππ»π‘β2Rπ <
β. Then, the following identity holds:
ΞπΏππππ,π
1
= E [β«ππ,π
1
0ππ»,ππ ππ(π)
π | Fπ
ππ,π
1
]
a.s; π = 1, . . . , π; π β₯ 1.(A.1)
Proof. It is sufficient to prove for π = 2 since the argumentfor π > 2 easily follows from this case. LetH be the linearspace constituted by the bounded R2-valued F-progressiveprocesses π = (π1, π2) such that (A.1) holds with π = π
0+
β«β
0π1π ππ(1)
π + β«
β
0π2π ππ(2)
π where π
0β F
0. Let U be the class
of stochastic intervals of the form β¦π, +ββ¦ where π is a F-stopping time. We claim that π = (1β¦π,+ββ¦, 1β¦π½,+ββ¦) β H forevery F-stopping times π and π½. In order to check (A.1) forsuch π, we only need to show for π = 1 since the argumentfor π = 2 is the same. With a slight abuse of notation, anysubsigma-algebra ofF
πof the form Ξ©β
1βG will be denoted
by G where Ξ©β1is the trivial sigma-algebra on the first copy
Ξ©1.
At first, we split Ξ© = ββπ=1
{πππ= ππ,1
1} and we make the
argument on the sets {πππ= ππ,1
1}, π β₯ 1. In this case, we know
thatFπππ,1
1
= Fπ,1ππ,1
1
βFπ,2ππ,2
πβ1
a.s and
ΞπΏππππ,π
1
= ΞπΏπ(π
(1)
ππ,1
1
βπ(1)
π) 1{π
18 International Journal of Stochastic Analysis
Table 5: Average hedging error in the mean variance hedging methodology for one-touch option with Heston model.
π Hedging strategies AV St. error LL UL Price πΈ(AV)3 22 0.0674 0.0052 0.0572 0.0777 0.7339 9.19%3 44 0.0577 0.0044 0.0490 0.0663 0.7340 7.86%4 22 0.0143 0.0056 0.0034 0.0252 0.7767 1.84%4 44 0.0134 0.0038 0.0060 0.0209 0.7765 1.73%
on the set {π½ < πππβ1
}. By constructionFπππ,1
1
= Fπ,1ππ,1
1
βFπ,2ππ,2
πβ1
a.s and again the independence betweenπ(1) andπ(2) yields
ΞπΏπ(π
(1)
ππ,1
1
βπ(1)
π)
= E(π(1)
ππ,1
1
βπ(1)
π| F
π
ππ,1
1
) β E(π(1)
ππ,1
1
βπ(1)
π| F
π
ππ
πβ1
)
= E(π(1)
ππ,1
1
βπ(1)
π| F
π
ππ,1
1
)
(A.5)
on {πππβ1
β€ π < πππ= ππ,1
1}. Similarly,
ΞπΏπ(π
(1)
ππ,1
1
βπ(1)
π)
= E(π(1)
ππ,1
1
βπ(1)
π| F
π
ππ,1
1
) β E(π(1)
ππ,1
1
βπ(1)
π| F
π
ππ
πβ1
)
= E(π(1)
ππ,1
1
βπ(1)
π| F
π
ππ,1
1
) β E (π(1)
ππ
πβ1
βπ(1)
π| F
π,2
ππ
πβ1
)
= E(π(1)
ππ,1
1
βπ(1)
π| F
π
ππ,1
1
) β E (π(1)
ππ
πβ1
| Fπ,2
ππ
πβ1
)
+ E (π(1)
π| F
π,2
ππ
πβ1
)
= E(π(1)
ππ,1
1
βπ(1)
π| F
π
ππ,1
1
) + E (π(1)
π| F
π,2
ππ
πβ1
)
(A.6)
on {π < πππβ1
}. By assumption π is an F-stopping time, whereF is a product filtration. Hence, E(π(1)
π| Fπ,2
ππ
πβ1
) = 0 a.s on
{π < πππβ1
}.Summing up the above identities, we will conclude
(1β¦π,+ββ¦, 1β¦π½,+ββ¦) β H. In particular, the constant process(1, 1) β H and if ππ is a sequence inH such that ππ β πa.s Leb Γ Q with π bounded, then a routine application ofBurkhoΜlder inequality shows that π β H. Since U generatesthe optional sigma-algebra, we will apply the monotone classtheorem and, by localization, wemay conclude the proof.
Strong Convergence under Mild Regularity. In this section,we provide a pointwise strong convergence result for GKWprojectors under rather weak path regularity conditions. Letus consider the stopping times
ππ:= inf {π‘ > 0;
π(π)
π‘
= 1} ; π = 1, . . . , π, (A.7)
and we set
ππ»,π
(π’) := Eππ»,π
πππ’β ππ»,π
0
2
, for π’ β₯ 0, π = 1, . . . , π.(A.8)
Here, if π’ satisfies πππ’ β₯ π, we set ππ»,ππππ’
:= ππ»,π
πand for
simplicity we assume that ππ»,π(0β) = 0.
Theorem A.2. Ifπ» is a Q-square-integrable contingent claimsatisfying (M) and there exists a representation ππ» =(ππ»,1, . . . , ππ»,π) of π» such that