Hindawi Publishing CorporationISRN BotanyVolume 2013 Article ID 829424 11 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552013829424
Research ArticleEthnobotanical Studies of Port Harcourt Metropolis Nigeria
A B Nwauzoma12 and Magdalene S Dappa1
1 Department of Applied amp Environmental Biology Rivers State University of Science amp Technology PMB 5080Port Harcourt 500001 Nigeria
2 Embrapa Agroenergia-PQEB-Final W3 Norte Asa Norte 7077091 Brasilia DF Brazil
Correspondence should be addressed to A B Nwauzoma drnwabarthyahoocom
Received 25 April 2013 Accepted 26 May 2013
Academic Editors F A Culianez-Macia G T Maatooq and T L Weir
Copyright copy 2013 A B Nwauzoma and M S Dappa This is an open access article distributed under the Creative CommonsAttribution License which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work isproperly cited
The objective of this study was to show the different ways medicinal herbs are used by the indigenous people in Port Harcourtmetropolis (07∘ 31015840 E 04∘ 511015840 N) in the Niger Delta region Nigeria One hundred and fifty structured questionnaires wereadministered including oral interviews to herbal practitioners and users located at different parts of the city Also three popularlyknown herbal companiesmdashEmiola naturalist care Yem-Kem international herbal center and Abiola medical herbal centermdashwereincluded as they are healthcare providers especially the medium income group The results showed that a total of 83 plant specieswere recorded and classified according to their family botanical common and local names Also the plant part used mode ofpreparation and type of ailment cured were included The most frequently used plant parts were leaves followed by barks rootsand fruits and with malaria fever as the most treated ailment Deforestation agricultural expansion and fire were noted as themost important factors threatening the availability of these plants The authors are of the opinion that paying special attentionto the medicinal plants found in the area through conservation may help to amplify their role in the healthcare system povertyalleviation and environmental protection
1 Introduction
Herbal or traditional medicine has been a major aspect ofthe sociocultural heritage in Africa for hundreds of yearseven before the advent of conventional medicine It wasonce believed to be primitive and wrongly challenged byforeign religions dating back during the colonial rule inAfrica and subsequently by the conventional or orthodoxmedical practitioners [1] Plant-derived medicines have beenpart of traditional health care in most parts of the world forthousands of years and there is increasing interest in themas sources in the treatment of diseases [2ndash4] The majorityof people in developing countries depend on herbalists fortheir medical care This is so in Port Harcourt metropoliswhich is the hub of oil and gas activities in the NigerDelta region of Nigeria The city comprises of people fromdifferent social and economic strata ranging from the oilcompany executive to the water vendor All these categoriesof people seek medical care and other social services in thecity Therefore most of the people especially the poor resort
to herbal medicine because of its affordability accessibilityand acceptabilityThe treatment and control of diseases by theuse of available medicinal plants in a locality will continue toplay significant roles in medical health care implementationin the developing countries of the world [5] The objective ofthis survey was to document the herbal plants used by thepeople in Port Harcourt metropolis the part used how theyare used and the type of ailment they cure Also the needfor the integration of herbal medicine into the formal healthcare system complementary relationship amongst health carepractitioners and delivery of health services especially to thelow income group in both rural and urban areas is discussed
2 Materials and Method
21 Study Area and Data Collection Port Harcourt thecapital of the oil rich Rivers State (Figure 1) is located inSoutheastern Nigeria (07∘ 31015840 E 04∘ 511015840 N and 10m altitudeabove sea level) in the humid forest zone of the Niger
2 ISRN Botany
Figure 1 Map of Rivers State (Nigeria) showing Port Harcourtmetropolis
Delta region Nigeria It is densely populated and home tomultinational oil and gas companies and as such witnessesthe influx of people in search of better livingThis populationincrease often stretches public facilities including hospitals(which are few) leading to alternative sources like herbalmedicine This makes the ethnobotanical studies of the areavery imperative Therefore a structured questionnaire wasadministered to different herbal medicine dealers and usersof herbal medicine located at different points in the citymdashmile 1marketmile 3market flyover area and three popularlyknown herbal companies Emiola naturalist care Yem-Keminternational herbal center and Abiola medical herbal centerall situated in Port Harcourt metropolis The herbal compa-nies selected in this study have been in practice formany yearsin the metropolis and serve as healthcare providers to manypeople in the city and partner with government during tradefair exhibitions They did not sponsor this work research orinfluence the report
The data in this study were derived from the question-naires that were administered and oral interviews grantedby the individual herbal dealers and the companies Therespondents were both men and women from ages 40 yearsand above representing the age group with good knowledgeof herbal remedies The indigenous plants collected duringthe oral interviews were identified with the aid of floras ofthe area using [6 7] and authenticated by Dr B O Green(Taxonomist) Department of Applied and EnvironmentalBiology Rivers State University of Science and TechnologyPort Harcourt Nigeria where the specimen vouchers weredeposited Ethnomedical confirmations were carried outusing [8] and a total of 150 questionnaires were administeredand a total of 83 plants species were identified in the study
3 Results
Table 1 shows the individual plant species their botanicalcommon and local (Yoruba Igbo and Hausa) names as wellas their families the use of each plant and which part(s) ofthe plant that is being used Our study shows that the plantshave different ethnomedical applications by the people asantiseptic laxatives purgative anticonvulsant expectorantsanthelmintic and sedatives in the treatment of malariarheumatism diarrhea infertility jaundice dysentery gonor-rhea fever pains respiratory problem and poultice and soforth
31 Ailment Mode of Preparation Dosage and Administrationof Some of the Common Herbs
311 Skin Diseases Malaria Fever Anaemia Diabetes andBronchitis Fresh leaves and bark of Mangifera indica areboiled together with the leaves of Papaya and neemA glassfulof themixture is taken thrice daily to treat fever anaemia anddiabetes It is also used for bathing early in the morning totreat malarial fever
312 Stomach Ache Skin Infection Diabetes Loss of Memoryand Prostate Cancer The tender part of the stem of Vernoniaamygdalina is used as chewing stick and the bitter water isswallowed daily as remedy for stomach ache Alternativelyfresh leaves are pounded in a mortar and the juice is pressedout and a pinch of salt is added to 3 tablespoons of theundiluted juice and taken as a drink 3 times daily to bringimmediate relief to stomach ache For skin infection such asringworm itching rashes and eczema the pure undilutedextract of bitter leaf is applied to the affected part daily Fordiabetes 10 handfuls of the fresh leaves are squeezed into 10liters of water a glassful is taken 4 times daily for 1 month toreduce sugar level drastically and it also repairs the pancreasIn the case of memory loss take 1 glass twice daily for at least2 months while application of the solution soothes inflamedjoints arthritis and eradicates pains
313 Malaria Fever Diabetes Stomach Ulcer and ConvulsionThe leaves of Papaya are squeezed into one liter of waterand a glassful is taken 3 times daily for 7 days to serve as agood treatment for malaria fever and jaundice Similarly thegreen leaves are squeezed into 1 liter of water one glassful istaken three times daily to treat diabetes and constipation Forintestinal ulcer unripe Papaya fruit is cut into pieces and thepeel and seeds are removed and soaked in five liters of waterfor 4 days It is sieved and 12 glass is taken 3 times daily fortwo weeks The white milky sap of unripe Papaya contains ahigh percentage of papain which is used for chronic woundsor ulcersThe dry fallen Papaya leaves are washed and groundinto powder Two tablespoonfuls of the ground powder areadded into 12 glass of palm kernel oil stirred properly andrubbed over the body to arrest high fever and convulsion
314 Anaemia Intestinal Ulcer and Heart Problem Thedried peels ofMusa paradisiaca are ground into powder one
ISRN Botany 3
Table1Ethn
obotanyof
somec
ommon
plantspecies
inPo
rtHarcourtcityN
igeria
Sno
Com
mon
Botanical
Family
Localn
ames
Use(s)
Part(s)
name
name
name
Yoruba
Ibo
Hausa
used
1Ginger
Zingiberoffi
cinale
(Rose)
Zing
iberaceae
Jinga
Chita
Ata-ile
Detoxify
liverbronchitis
corm
2Ed
ible-stemmed
vine
Cissu
squa
drangularis
(L)
Vitaceae
Ogbakiik
imdash
Daddo
rCa
riesdysm
enorrhoea
urinarydisorders
Tuberste
m
3Hibisc
usHibiscus
acetosella
Malvaceae
Akese
Dysentery
Leaves
4Ch
inesep
urBurweed
Triumfetta
rhom
boidea
(Jacaq)
Tilaceae
Odo
Yank
a-dafi
Molanganrsnako
bolobo
loGon
orrhea
LeafFlower
Fruit
5Bu
shok
raJe
wfib
ertelteria
JewsM
allow
Corchoruso
litorius
Titia
ceae
Ewedu
Arir
aaulogburu
Lalo
Vegetablebloo
dpu
rifier
Leaf
6African
stara
pple
Chrysophyllum
albidu
m(G
Don
)Sapo
taceae
Odaraudala
Agbalum
oAgw
aliba
Delicacyantin
ausea
Fruit
7Fruitedgourd
Cocciniabarteri
Cucurbita
ceae
Ewe-oju
Venerealdiseasesskin
infectionsearache
Who
leplant
8To
matoes
Solanu
mlyc
opersicum
Solanaceae
Tomati
Tomato
Tomati
VegetableVitamin
CFruit
9Pepp
erC
hili
Capsicu
mannu
umL
Solanaceae
Ataw
ewe
Ose
Tatashi
Delicacyseason
ing
Fruit
10Cu
rryleaf
Thym
usvulga
risLamiaceae
Efinrin
wew
eNch-anw
uAntibioticcarminative
Leaves
11OrangeSw
eet
Citru
ssinensis
(Linn)
Rutaceae
Osan
Or-om
aLm
u
Dysenteryfeverheadache
antim
icrobialagent
anthelmintic
stoothache
antiscorbutic
Twigsste
mbarkfruits
peel
12Brim
stone
tree
Morinda
lucid
a(Benth)
Rubiaceae
Oruwo
Eze-ogu
mdashFever
Leaves
13African
copaiba
balsa
mtre
eniger-op
alm
aaje
Daniellia
oliveri
Leguminosae
Iya
Kadaura
Ozabw
aMaje
Dysenterydiarrho
ea
toothacheurinaryinfection
astringenttoo
thache
Gum
bark
14Water
leaf
Talin
umtriangulare
(Willd)
Portulacaceae
Gbu
reNte-okain
ene
Alenyruw-a
Vegetable
Leaf
15Lemon
grass
Cymbopogoncitratus
Poaceae
Korik
o-ob
aNch-anw
umdash
Malaria
Leaf
16Hog
plum
Spondias
mom
binL
Anacardiaceae
Iyeye
Ngu-lu
ng-w
uIsada
Infertility
Fruit
17Ca
shew
nut
Anacardium
occid
entaleL
Anacardiaceae
Kaju
Sas-hu
Kanju
Cou
ghBa
rkFruit
18Mango
Mangifer
aindica
LAnacardiaceae
Mon
gora
Mango
Malaria
Leafbark
19Cocoyam
Wild
taro
Colocasia
esculen
tum
(L)Scho
ttAraceae
Kokokokof-un
kokoibile
Ede
Gwam
baAnaem
iaw
ound
srheumatism
poisonantid
ote
Tuberleaves
4 ISRN Botany
Table1Con
tinued
Sno
Com
mon
Botanical
Family
Localn
ames
Use(s)
Part(s)
name
name
name
Yoruba
Ibo
Hausa
used
20Giant
milk
weedsodo
mapple
Calotro
pisp
rocera
Ascle
peceae
Bom-ubo
mu
Tumifafiya
Measle
sLeaf
21Bitte
rleaf
Vernoniaam
ygdalin
a(D
el)
Asteraceae
Ewuro
Onu
-gbu
olug-bu
Shiwaka
Pile
lower
sugarvegetable
Leaf
22Goatw
eedflo
ssflo
wer
Ageratum
conyzoides
LCom
positae
Imi-e
suula
ujula
Ahenh
en
Wou
ndsulcerscraw-craw
digestived
isturbance
diarrhoeaem
eticskin
diseasesantipyretic
gono
rrho
easleeping
sickn
esseyew
ash
Who
leplant
leavesroo
t
23Siam
weed
Chromolaena
odorata
(Linn)
Com
positae
Akintola
Awo-lowo
Obiarakara
Antim
icrobialdysentery
headachem
alaria
fevertoothachehaem
ostatic
skin
diseases
Leaves
stem-tw
igs
24Cocon
utCo
cosn
ucifera
Arecaceae
Agbon
Aku
-beke
Mosara
Thew
ater
neutralizes
poiso
ndrug
Nut
25Pepp
erfruit
Dennettiatripetala
Ann
onaceae
Igbere
Nmi-m
imdash
Insectrepellantfevercou
gh
toothachestimulant
Fruitleaves
stemtwigs
False
thistle
leop
ardrsquos
tong
ueBe
arrsquosbreech
whitersquosg
inger
Acanthus
montanu
sAc
anthaceae
Aho
n-ekun
iru
nmuarugbo
Nyin-yiog-w
u
Syph
iliscoug
hem
etic
urethraldischarge
purgativebo
ilsanaem
ia
anthelmintic
s
Stem
-twig
leavesroo
ts
26Re
surrectio
nplant
lifep
lant
Bryophyllum
pinn
atum
Crassulaceae
Eru-od
undu
nmdash
Abom
oda
Cou
ghdiarrho
eadysentery
wou
ndsfeversedativ
es
diureticabsc-esses
antifun
galepilepsy
antim
icrobialanticancer
Leavesroo
tsleafsap
27Fertilitytre
etre
eof
life
Newb
ouldialaevis
Bign
oniaceae
Akoko
Ogiris
iAd
uruk
u
Roun
dwormsele
phantia
sis
dysenterymalaria
convulsio
ns
migrainecoug
hyello
wfever
stomachachehernia
infertilityearache
Barkleaves
root
28African
tulip
Spathodea
campanu
lata
(P
Beauv)
Bign
oniaceae
Akoko
Ogili-si
ogirisi
Aduruk
uAsth
ma
Leaves
29Pineapple
Ananas
comosus
Brom
eliaceae
Ope
oyinbo
Nkw
-aba
mdashAntihypertensionconstip
ation
Unripefruit
ISRN Botany 5
Table1Con
tinued
Sno
Com
mon
Botanical
Family
Localn
ames
Use(s)
Part(s)
name
name
name
Yoruba
Ibo
Hausa
used
30Cockrsquos
comb
Heliotrope
Heliotropium
indicum
LBo
raginaceae
Agogo-ig
unA
pari-
Igun
Ogb-eria
-kuk
oKa
lkashinkorama
Con
vulsion
scancerw
orms
rectalenem
amou
th-w
ash
Who
leplant
31African
cucumber
bitte
rgou
rdbalsam
pear
Mom
ordica
charantia
LCu
curbita
ceae
Ejinrin
wAlo-ose
Kakayi
Diabetespilesconvulsio
ns
jaun
dicesorenervou
sdisordersdiabeticrecipe
emeticn
ight
blindn
essaphrod
isiac
dysm
enorrhoeaanthelmintic
antim
icrobials
Who
leplant
seedsfruit
root
32Fluted
pumpk
inTelfaria
occid
entalis
Hoo
kF
Cucurbita
ceae
Ugu
Antianaem
icblood
tonic
Leaf
33Colocynthw
ildgourd
Citru
lluscolocynthis
(L)
Cucurbita
ceae
Egun
siEliliegw
usi
Egbsig
una
Laxativ
edigestio
nFruit
34Pawpaw
Caric
apapaya
(Linn)
Caric
aceae
Ibepe
Okw
oro-gbogbo
Gwanda
Boilpu
rgative
Latexfruit
35Ve
lvetblack
tamarid
tumbletree
Dialiu
mguineense
(Wild
)Leguminosae
Awin
Icheku
Tsam
iyar
kurm
iFevercoug
hsbronchitis
toothacheastringentdiuretic
Leavesfruit
barktwigs
36Whiteyam
Dioscoreae
cayenn
ensis
Dioscoreaceae
danzaria
Ako
isuJi-ocha
Doya
Antidiarrhea
Tubers
37Ph
ysicnu
tJatro
phacurcas
LEu
phorbiaceae
Botuje
Olulu-id
ulapalapaZ
uguOl
Ring
wormeczem
ascabies
feverguinea
wormsherpes
rectal
enem
ablacktong
uew
hitlo
wim
potenceirr
egular
mensesconvulsio
nsm
allpox
Seedleaves
stem
rootssap
38Caper
bush
Capparisthonningii
Capp
araceae
Eka-nawod
iew
onekiri
Feverheadachem
ental
disorderaph
rodisia
ccoug
hRo
ot
39African
Walnu
tTetra
carpidium
conophorum
Euop
horbiaceae
Awusaasal
Ukp
aHaw
uusa
Aphrod
isiac
Fruit
40Soya
bean
Glycinem
axLeguminosae
Ewa
Laxativ
eSeeds
41Gr
ewiasp
Tiliaceae
Ila-okolakolako
Religious
purposemystic
soup
with
okra-like
taste
Fruits
42AfricanN
ativeBu
shmango
Irvingiagabonensis
Irving
iaceae
Oro
mop
aOgb-ono
Mam
ujigoro
Con
diment
Seed
43Garlic
Alliu
msativ
umL
Alliaceae
Aayu
Ayo-ish
iTafarunu
aAntibiotic
antid
iabetic
Anti-h
ypertension
Bulb
6 ISRN Botany
Table1Con
tinued
Sno
Com
mon
Botanical
Family
Localn
ames
Use(s)
Part(s)
name
name
name
Yoruba
Ibo
Hausa
used
44Onion
Alliu
mcepa
Alabasa
Alliaceae
Alubo
saAlu-bosa
Yabasi
Antidiabetic
Bulb
45AloeWestA
frican
aloe
Aloe
barteri
Liliaceae
Aloe
Ring
wormanthelm
intic
saphrod
isiacamenorrhoea
coug
hskin
infections
astringentantitu
mou
rpile
fruitsforp
reventingsnakeb
ite
Leaves
46Scentleafmint
Ocim
umgratissim
umLamiaceae
Efinrin
nla
Nchanwu
Dadoya
Stom
achache
Leaf
47Az
adira
chta
indica
(A
Juss)
Neem
tree
Meliaceae
Don
goyaro
Og-wuakom
Maina
Boilsantim
alaria
Leaf
bark
48Moringa
oleiferaLam
Horse
radish
tree
Moringa
treeldquoN
ever
Dierdquodrum
stick
tree
Moringaceae
Ewe-ileE
weigbale
Okw
eoyeibe
zogale
Bagaaruw
armakka
Inflammatorydiseases
asthmaantip
yreticcou
gh
earacheliver
andpancreas
diseasesvenereald
iseases
anthelmintic
hysteria
diarrhoeadiureticdiseases
Leavesroo
tsste
mbark
fruit
49Persea
america
na(M
ill)
Avocadopear
Lauraceae
Igbaapo
kaUbe-beke
Antihypertension
stomachulcer
Fruit
50Plantain
Musaparadisia
caL
Musaceae
Ogede
agagba
Abrik
aOkirim
aOkamuayaba
Potent
astringent
high
iron
Unripe
fruit
51Guava
Psidium
guajavaL
Myrtaceae
Gurofa
Gova
Gwaabaa
Malaria
Leaf
52Groun
dnutpeanu
tArachish
ypogaea
Fabaceae
Egpa
Gedda
Oilas
solventantim
icrobials
insomnia
Nuts
53Cr
abrsquoseye
Abrusp
recatoriu
sPapilio
naceae
Iwerejejeojuo
logbo
Anyan
nunu
Dam
arzaya
Cou
ghLeaf
54Cam
woo
dBa
phianitid
aSterculiaceae
Uri
Decoration
Latex
55Ba
mbo
oBa
mbu
savulga
risL
Poaceae
Oparun
Atosi
Gon
orrhoeaabortifacient
anthelmintic
sem
menagogue
skin
rashes
ofHIV
AID
S
Leavesyou
ngshoo
ts
56Water
willow
Dein
bolliapinn
ata
Sapind
aceae
Ogiri-
egba
Ekusi-O
loko
Cou
ghbronchialasthma
aphrod
isiac
Leavesroo
t
57Lemon
grass
Cymbopogoncitratus
Poaceae
Korik
o-ob
aNchea
wula
Malaria
Leaf
58Water
leaf
Talin
umtriangulare
Portulacaceae
Gbu
reNte-okain
ene
Alenyruwa
Ratp
oison
vegetable
Root
Leaf
59Pepp
erchili
Capsicu
mannu
umL
Solanaceae
Ataw
ewe
Oseto
tashi
Barkon
oStim
ulant
Fruit
60Soursop
Annona
murica
taAnn
onaceae
Sawam
sop
Relaxing
nerves
Leaf
61Wild
Cassava
Jatro
phagossy
pifolia
Euph
orbiaceae
Botujepu
paB
inidi
zugu
Ake
mbo
gho
Ring
wormascaris
antitum
ourmalaria
dysenterydysm
enorrhoea
Stem
latex
ISRN Botany 7Ta
ble1Con
tinued
Sno
Com
mon
Botanical
Family
Localn
ames
Use(s)
Part(s)
name
name
name
Yoruba
Ibo
Hausa
used
62BlackMangrove
Avice
nniaafric
ana
Avicenniaceae
Ogbun
Ofun
Abortifacientdetergent
Leavesstem
twigs
63Ba
obab
Adan
soniadigitata
Bombacaceae
Ose
Igiose
kukaaku
lambali
Malariaasth
madiarrhoea
kidn
eyandbladderd
iseases
demulcentproph
ylactic
antih
istam
inicskin
diseasescariesantim
icrobial
Leavesfruit
pulpbark
64Morning
glory
Ipom
oeamauritiana
Con
volvulaceae
Atew
ogbaTanpo
poRh
eumatism
asthm
adrop
sy
Who
leplant
65Bh
adramcherula
Aervalanata
Amaranthaceae
AjeEfun
ileEw
eowo
AlhajiFu
rfurata
fatumi
Ulce
rsw
ound
ssnakeb
ite
diureticpurgativ
eanthelmintic
sore
throatkidneyandbladder
stones
Who
leplant
66Ac
alypha
Acalypha
fimbriata
Euph
orbiaceae
Jinwinini
kand
iri
Syph
ilisasthma
anthelmintic
sulcers
rheumatism
antim
icrobial
andantifun
gal
Leaves
67Ac
alypha
Acalypha
godseffi
ana
Euph
orbiaceae
Jinwinini
Skin
infection
Antim
icrobials
Leavestwigs
68Hennaplant
Laws
oniainermis
Lythraceae
Lali
Laali
Lallee
Spermatorrhoeajaun
dice
gono
rrho
ealeucorrho
ea
ulcers
menorrhagiaastr
ingentskin
diseasesm
alaria
Leaves
flowersbark
69Wild
lettu
ceLa
unaeataraxacifolia
Com
positae
Yanrin
Yamurin
Non
anbarya
Yawsfracture
managem
ent
Leaves
70Stinging
bean
Mucun
aslo
anei
Leguminosae
Ewe-ina
yerepe
werepe
Kakaraosese
Haemorrhoidsdiuretics
micturitionprob
lemsin
child
ren
skin
diseases
Seedsroots
71Cow
-hagecow-itch
plantvelvetbean
Mucun
aprurien
sLegu
minosae
Esisi
Werepe
AbbalaK
akara
Intestinalw
orms
genitourinarydiseases
Hairson
the
pods
72Devilrsquos
gutparasitic
vine
Cassy
thafiliform
isLauraceae
Omon
iginigini
omon
igelegele
sulunw
ahi
Anthelm
intic
santim
icrobials
antifun
gal
Stem
twigs
73Morinda
Morinda
morindoides
Rubiaceae
Oju-O
logbo
Feverjaun
diceasthm
adysenterycolic
emmenagoguevermifu
ge
constip
ation
Rootbark
leavesfruit
74Millet
Millettia
thonningii
Leguminosae
Ito
okeokp
aTu
burkuAjuk
wu
Fevercoug
hrespira
tory
ailm
entanthelm
intic
op
hthalm
iaRo
otsbark
75African
Lind
enMitragynainermis
Rubiaceae
Okobo
Giyeya
Dysenteryleprosyantipyretic
diureticgon
orrhoea
Bark
8 ISRN Botany
Table1Con
tinued
Sno
Com
mon
Botanical
Family
Localn
ames
Use(s)
Part(s)
name
name
name
Yoruba
Ibo
Hausa
used
76Sensitive
plant
Mim
osapu
dica
Mim
osaceae
aluro
Patanm
oGuineaw
ormsp
ileskidn
eydiseasefistulaboils
Leaves
77Bu
lletw
ood
Mim
usopsk
ummel
Sapo
taceae
Uku
Emido
Antipyreticastr
ingentm
outh
washsto
machic
Stem
bark
seeds
78Sw
ordbeanhorse
bean
Canavalia
ensiformis
Leguminosae
Ponp
ondo
sese-nla
Antibiotic
antise
ptic
Seed
79Celo
siaCe
losia
laxa
Amaranthaceae
Marugbo
sanyantan
Ajem
awofo
Mannafaa
sanyantan
Antisc
orbu
ticpurgativ
eLeaves
80Indian
chrysanthemum
Chrysanthellum
indicum
Com
positae
AbilereO
yigi
Boilsfevergon
orrhoea
jaun
diceheart-tr
ouble
insecticide
Who
leplant
81Ra
ttleb
oxrattle
pea
Crotalariaretusa
Leguminosae
Koropo
Akidimuo
saworoYara
Fevercirrho
sisliver
lesio
ns
dysenterycolicvermifu
ge
Rootseeds
juiceo
fpo
dsleaves
82Melo
n-pu
mpk
inCu
curbita
maxim
aCu
curbita
ceae
Elegede
Apala
Kabeew
aaTapewormdiuretic
taenicide
otitisutensils
Seedsfruits
83Flam
eofthe
forest
Delo
nixregia
Leguminosae
Seke
seke
ayin
Diureticanthelm
intic
sastringentleucorrho
eaLeavesbark
seedsflo
wer
ISRN Botany 9
tablespoon of the powder is mixed with four tablespoons ofhoney and licked three times daily for twoweeks for intestinalulcer Some quantity of the root and fresh leaves are boiledseparately 12 and a full glass is drank daily for 1 week tointestinal ulcer and anaemia respectively Eating of unripefruit either roasted boiled pounded or processed into flouris a good treatment for diabetes
315 Cough Malaria Fever and Repellant Decoction fromleaves of Cymbopogon citratewith onion and honey is used tocure cough taken 3 times daily for 3 days The leaf is boiledalong with other herbs to treat malaria fever by bathing withit every night for 2 days The leaf is burnt in homes to serveas repellant for mosquitoes
316 Fever and Lactation Thebark root and leaf ofMorindalucida are used in infusion or decoction for the treatment ofyellow fever and other forms of fever to be taken 12 glass 2times daily and also bathing for 3 days The very bitter leafdecoction is applied to the breast of women at weaning oftheir infants to improve lactation Twigs are used as chewingstick
317 Malaria Diabetes Dysentery MouthThrush Toothacheand Sore Gums The twig of Anacardium occidentale is usedas chewing stick for mouth thrush tooth ache and soregum Decoction of the bark is a remedy for malaria fever bydrinking 12 glass 3 times dailyThebark and leaves are boiledand a glass is taken twice daily for dysentery
318 Fibroids Cataract Gonorrhea Aphrodisiac CoughInflammatory Symptoms Toothache and Sore Throat Seedof Spondias mombin is boiled together with immature palm-nuts and 12 glass is taken thrice daily for 2 months forfibroid Fresh leaves are ground and the juice is squeezedand mixed with one teaspoonful of lime juice and applied aseye drop twice daily for cataract Fresh leaves are boiled andone glassful is drank thrice daily for gonorrhea Decoction ofleaves is used as an aphrodisiacDecoction of the bark is takenfor severe cough toothache and sore throat
319 Abdominal Pains Ulcers Skin Disease Dressing ofWound and Prophylactic Decoction of the whole plant ofAgeratum conyzoides is a remedy for abdominal pains Leafjuice is used for dressing wounds ulcers and other skindiseases Leaves are used as tonic to aid fertility because itprevents early miscarriage It is also used as prophylactic andcure for trachoma in cattle
3110 Threatened Abortion Convulsion Epilepsy Skin Infec-tions Conjunctivitis Migraine and Earache Amedium size-pot is filled with the fresh bark of Newbouldia laevis andboiled water for a long time The preparation is then used towash face and head every morning and night oral taking of12 glass of preparation twice daily for 6 days cures migraineand also stops vaginal bleeding in threatened abortion Leavesand roots are boiled together and administered for feverconvulsion and epilepsy Stem bark is used for treating skin
infections Decoction of leaves is used as an eye wash inconjunctivitis Boiled leaves extract is used to treat generalmalaria
3111 Typhoid Fever Menstrual Flow Healthy Skin PurgativeDiuretic Anthelmintic Expectorant and Abortifacient Thefruit ofAnanas comosus is cut cooked and drank for typhoidfever The unripe fruit can be used as a purgative diureticantihelmintic expectorant and abortifacient and is alsotaken to regulate and enhance menstrual flow Fruit peelis used topically for healthy skin The ripped fruit is takenregularly to recover from typhoid fever
3112 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Stomach TroublesPurgative and Fungal Infection Fruits of Citrullus colocyn-this are recommended for the treatment of stomach troublesand sexually transmitted diseases Fruit and leaf decoction isused as a purgative in man and animal Seed shell powderedand mixed with palm oil is rubbed on skin to treat fungalinfections
3113 Ringworm Scabies Eczema Sexually Transmitted Dis-eases Thrush Bleeding Wounds Toothache and Skin DiseaseThe latex of Jatropha curcas is used to treat skin disease suchas ring worm scabies and eczema Twigs are used as chewingstick to prevent tooth decay oral thrush bleeding woundsand tooth ache Roots are used to treat sexually transmitteddiseases Leaves are added to hasten fermentation of cassavaDecoction of leaves is used to sterilize umbilicus of new bornbabies
3114 Fibroid Improves Sperm Count Fertility and MenstrualFlow Seed of Tetracarpidium conophorum is used in thetreatment of fibroid Boiled seeds are eaten to improve spermcount inmen Leaf juice is used to improve fertility in womenand to regulate menstrual flow
3115 As Food Leaves of Telfairia occidentalis are of highlynutritive value as vegetable for soup and other local dishesLeaves are washed and the juice squeeze is mixed with milkand taken as a blood tonic The boiled seeds are eaten asdelicacy and source of oil Some of the plants are used as herbsfood and other uses
The knowledge of the indigenous people about contra-ceptives was one of the informal innovative discoveries inthis work In this context Ageratum conyzoides Tetracar-pidium conophorum Rhaphiostylis beninensis Lonchocarpuscyanescens carpolobia alba and Chrysophyllum albidumare used to invoke sterility while Moranthodoa leucanthaincreases sexual vigor and Mucuna soloanei and Senna occi-dentalis are used by indigenous ladies as contraceptives Fewplant species known to be ldquopoisonousrdquo for example Ricinuscommunis and Scleria verrucosa were reported to be verypotent We also observed that some tuberous plant specieslikeColocasia esculenta andDioscorea rotundata and Jatrophagossypifolia and Musa paradisiaca are used to cure sexuallytransmitted diseases to regularize menstruation and toincrease fertilityWe further discovered that those plants with
10 ISRN Botany
high nutritive value like Colocasia esculenta Basella albaTelfairia occidentalis Glycine soja Gnetum africana Arachishypogea and Solanum lycopersicum are cultivated mainly forcommercial purposes as they are sold in nearby marketsOthers likeHibiscus senensis Moringa oleifera and Sida acutain addition to food and medicinal values have becomebeautiful ornamental plants Dracaena arborea Anacardiumoccidentale Basella alba Spathodea campanulata Alliumsativum Mucuna sloanei Ocimum basilicum Sida acutaLaportea aestuans and Trema orientalis are used to treatconstipation indigestion abdominal pain and dysenteryOur result also shows that the people use Xanthosoma sppCalotropis procera Vernonia amygdalina Ageratum cony-zoides Chromolaena odorata Newbouldia laevis Spathodeacampanulata and Adenopus breviflorus for skin diseases likewound tumor boils burns and cuts Dioscorea rotundataJatropha curcas Ricinus communis Irvingia gabonensis Aloebarteri OcimumbasilicumAzadirachta indica Baphia nitidaMitracarpus scabrum Glyphaea brevis and Trema orientalisare also used for the above purposes
Respiratory disorders like cough cold tuberculosis andasthma are cured using single herb or mixture of herbs likeCalotropis proceraDennettia tripetalaCarica papayaAlliumsativum Cymbopogon citratus Chrysophyllum albidum andZingiber officinale Our study shows that most herbs areknown to cure malaria and typhoid fever which are endemicin PortHarcourtmetropolisAnacardium spondiasDennettiatripetala Ananas comosus Adenopus breviflorus Ipomeainvolucrate Carica papaya Securinega virosa Hyptis pecti-nata Sida acutaAzarachta indicaPsidium guajavaBambusavulgarisCymbopogon citratusMorinda lucidaCitrus sinensisMurraya koenigii Capsicum annum Chrysophyllum albidumGlyphaea brevis Corchorus olitorius and Trema orientalis
4 Discussion
This is the first ethnobotanical study of Port Harcourtmetropolis in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria Our studyshows that the 83 plant species identified were useful asfood and in the treatment of different human ailmentsshowing that traditional medical practice is an importantcomponent of our everyday life Our findings are similar to[9] Reference [1] suggested the need to institutionalize thetraditional medicine in concert with orthodox medicine toachieve an effective national health care system in NigeriaThe authors maintained that an effective health cannot beachieved in Africa by orthodox medicine alone unless it hasbeen complemented with traditional medicine in support of[10]
The questionnaire and interviews gathered indicatethat most people in the Metropolis depend on traditionalmedicine for their health needs because of their poor eco-nomic conditions This is one of the major reasons whytraditional medicine has continued to thrive in both ruraland urban areas in Nigeria The utilization of medicinalplants in traditional medicine was found to be effectivecheap and practical References [11 12] noted the growinginterest on the medicinal properties of a number of common
plants The practice is fast developing due to poor economicsituation expensiveness and inadequate availability of drugsReference [13] stated that the use of plants and products inhealth care is even much higher particularly in those areaswith little or no access to modern health services Thesemedicinal plants have been underutilized in the orthodoxmedicine but have now been recognized in ethnomedicinalpreparation
Gender and age influenced the traditional knowledge ofour respondents Males within 45ndash70 years have medicinalknowledge than females This may be due to their involve-ment in trade or personal experience of using these plantsfor a very long time In addition the younger generationdoes not seem to have much trust in the traditional medicinesystem which may be attributed to increasing use of allelo-pathic medicines which are readily available and potent Ourfindings also show that the indigenous people value some ofthese herbs for medicinal purposes than as food condimentsFor instance garlic is more useful in treating fever coughconstipation asthma nervous disorder hypertension ulcerand antihelmentic than in mere seasoning of food The sameapplies to onion curry leaf ginger and scent leaf
Traditional medicinal practices are known to still be animportant component of everyday life in many regions of theworld [14ndash16] The use of plants in healthcare is even muchhigher particularly in areas with little or no access to modernhealth services [13] Reference [1] gave a comprehensivetreatise on the need to institutionalize traditional medicineinto the health scheme according to WHO guidelines [17]Most of the plants were used to treatmalaria fever underlyingthe importance of this disease in the region
Conservation of indigenous plant species of medicinalimportance is necessary as they remain source of healthand wealth There is need for closer collaboration betweenherbal medical practitioners medical doctors and otherstakeholders in medical practice to bring traditional healerscloser by engaging them in laboratory work training aswell as getting information on traditional prescriptions forspecific diseases Both traditional and orthodox medicinesshould complement each other and their integration orharmonization is necessary for quality healthcare deliveryespecially in the rural communitiesThe ethnobotany of PortHarcourt metropolis has been documented Various plantshave dual significance first as food secondly as medicinalplants and can have some active constituents for futurepharmaceutical analysis
Conflict of Interests
There is no conflict of interests as the information therein ispurely for research purposesThe authors do not support self-medication and further suggest getting advice from medicalpractitioners before taking any of these herbs
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the local informants and herbalhealers who shared their knowledge with them
ISRN Botany 11
References
[1] R N Okigbo and E CMmeka ldquoAn appraisal of phytomedicinein Africardquo KMITL Science and Technology Journal vol 6 no 2pp 83ndash94 2006
[2] D CMohana S Satish andK A Raveesha ldquoAntibacterial eval-uation of some plant extracts against some human pathogenicbacteriardquoAdvances in Biological Research vol 2 no 3-4 pp 49ndash55 2008
[3] G M Adwan B A Abu-shanab and K M Adwan ldquoIn vitroactivity of certain drugs in combination with plant extractsagainst Staphylococcus aureus infectionsrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 8 no 17 pp 4239ndash4241 2009
[4] A O Ajayi and T A Akintola ldquoEvaluation of antibacterialactivity of some medicinal plants on common enteric food-borne pathogensrdquoAfrican Journal of Microbiology Research vol4 no 4 pp 314ndash316 2010
[5] F C Akharaiyi and B Boboye ldquoAntibacterial and phytochem-ical evaluation of three medicinal plantsrdquo Journal of NaturalProducts vol 3 pp 27ndash34 2010
[6] J Hutchinson and J M Dalziel Flora of West Tropical Africavol 1 TheWhitefriars Press 1954
[7] JMDalzielTheUseful Plants ofWest Tropical Africa Appendixto Flora of West Tropical Africa Crown Agents for OverseasGovernment and Administration 1937
[8] L S Gill Ethnomedical Uses of Plants in Nigeria IbadanUniversity Press 1988
[9] A A Aiyeloja and O A Bello ldquoEthnobotanical potentialsof common herbs in Nigeria a case study of Enugu staterdquoEducational Research and Review vol 1 no 1 pp 16ndash22 2006
[10] A A Elujoba O M Odeleye and C M Ogunyemi ldquoTradi-tional medical development for medical and dental primaryHealth care delivery system in Africardquo African Journal ofTraditional Complementary andAlternativeMedicine vol 2 no1 pp 46ndash61 2005
[11] M A Belewu O A Olatunde and T A Giwa ldquoUnderutilizedmedicinal plants and spices chemical composition and phyto-chemical propertiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plant Research vol 3no 12 pp 1099ndash1103 2009
[12] I I Ijeh O I U Njokwu and E C Ekenze ldquoMedicinal evalu-ation of extracts of Xylopia aethiopica and Ocimum gratissiumrdquoJournal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences vol 26 pp44ndash47 2004
[13] M Saeed M Arshad E Ahmad E Ahmed and M IshaqueldquoEthnophytotherapies for the treatment of various diseasesby the local people of selected areas of NWFP (Pakistan)rdquoPakistan Journal of Biological Sciences vol 7 no 7 pp 1104ndash11082004
[14] R W Bussmann ldquoManteniendo el balance de naturalezay hombre La diversidad floritica Andina y su impotaniciaporla diversidad cultural-ejemplos del norte de Peru y Sur deEcuadorrdquo Amaldoa vol 13 no 1-2 pp 382ndash397 2006
[15] R W Bussmann and D Sharon ldquoTraditional medicinal plantuse in Northern Peru tracking two thousand years of healingculturerdquo Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2article 47 2006
[16] V de Feo ldquoMedicinal and magical plants in the NorthernPeruvian Andesrdquo Fitoterapia vol 63 no 5 pp 417ndash440 1992
[17] World Health Organisation The Promotion and Developmentof Traditional Medicine Technical Report Series 622 WorldHealth Organisation Geneva Switzerland 1978
Figure 1 Map of Rivers State (Nigeria) showing Port Harcourtmetropolis
Delta region Nigeria It is densely populated and home tomultinational oil and gas companies and as such witnessesthe influx of people in search of better livingThis populationincrease often stretches public facilities including hospitals(which are few) leading to alternative sources like herbalmedicine This makes the ethnobotanical studies of the areavery imperative Therefore a structured questionnaire wasadministered to different herbal medicine dealers and usersof herbal medicine located at different points in the citymdashmile 1marketmile 3market flyover area and three popularlyknown herbal companies Emiola naturalist care Yem-Keminternational herbal center and Abiola medical herbal centerall situated in Port Harcourt metropolis The herbal compa-nies selected in this study have been in practice formany yearsin the metropolis and serve as healthcare providers to manypeople in the city and partner with government during tradefair exhibitions They did not sponsor this work research orinfluence the report
The data in this study were derived from the question-naires that were administered and oral interviews grantedby the individual herbal dealers and the companies Therespondents were both men and women from ages 40 yearsand above representing the age group with good knowledgeof herbal remedies The indigenous plants collected duringthe oral interviews were identified with the aid of floras ofthe area using [6 7] and authenticated by Dr B O Green(Taxonomist) Department of Applied and EnvironmentalBiology Rivers State University of Science and TechnologyPort Harcourt Nigeria where the specimen vouchers weredeposited Ethnomedical confirmations were carried outusing [8] and a total of 150 questionnaires were administeredand a total of 83 plants species were identified in the study
3 Results
Table 1 shows the individual plant species their botanicalcommon and local (Yoruba Igbo and Hausa) names as wellas their families the use of each plant and which part(s) ofthe plant that is being used Our study shows that the plantshave different ethnomedical applications by the people asantiseptic laxatives purgative anticonvulsant expectorantsanthelmintic and sedatives in the treatment of malariarheumatism diarrhea infertility jaundice dysentery gonor-rhea fever pains respiratory problem and poultice and soforth
31 Ailment Mode of Preparation Dosage and Administrationof Some of the Common Herbs
311 Skin Diseases Malaria Fever Anaemia Diabetes andBronchitis Fresh leaves and bark of Mangifera indica areboiled together with the leaves of Papaya and neemA glassfulof themixture is taken thrice daily to treat fever anaemia anddiabetes It is also used for bathing early in the morning totreat malarial fever
312 Stomach Ache Skin Infection Diabetes Loss of Memoryand Prostate Cancer The tender part of the stem of Vernoniaamygdalina is used as chewing stick and the bitter water isswallowed daily as remedy for stomach ache Alternativelyfresh leaves are pounded in a mortar and the juice is pressedout and a pinch of salt is added to 3 tablespoons of theundiluted juice and taken as a drink 3 times daily to bringimmediate relief to stomach ache For skin infection such asringworm itching rashes and eczema the pure undilutedextract of bitter leaf is applied to the affected part daily Fordiabetes 10 handfuls of the fresh leaves are squeezed into 10liters of water a glassful is taken 4 times daily for 1 month toreduce sugar level drastically and it also repairs the pancreasIn the case of memory loss take 1 glass twice daily for at least2 months while application of the solution soothes inflamedjoints arthritis and eradicates pains
313 Malaria Fever Diabetes Stomach Ulcer and ConvulsionThe leaves of Papaya are squeezed into one liter of waterand a glassful is taken 3 times daily for 7 days to serve as agood treatment for malaria fever and jaundice Similarly thegreen leaves are squeezed into 1 liter of water one glassful istaken three times daily to treat diabetes and constipation Forintestinal ulcer unripe Papaya fruit is cut into pieces and thepeel and seeds are removed and soaked in five liters of waterfor 4 days It is sieved and 12 glass is taken 3 times daily fortwo weeks The white milky sap of unripe Papaya contains ahigh percentage of papain which is used for chronic woundsor ulcersThe dry fallen Papaya leaves are washed and groundinto powder Two tablespoonfuls of the ground powder areadded into 12 glass of palm kernel oil stirred properly andrubbed over the body to arrest high fever and convulsion
314 Anaemia Intestinal Ulcer and Heart Problem Thedried peels ofMusa paradisiaca are ground into powder one
ISRN Botany 3
Table1Ethn
obotanyof
somec
ommon
plantspecies
inPo
rtHarcourtcityN
igeria
Sno
Com
mon
Botanical
Family
Localn
ames
Use(s)
Part(s)
name
name
name
Yoruba
Ibo
Hausa
used
1Ginger
Zingiberoffi
cinale
(Rose)
Zing
iberaceae
Jinga
Chita
Ata-ile
Detoxify
liverbronchitis
corm
2Ed
ible-stemmed
vine
Cissu
squa
drangularis
(L)
Vitaceae
Ogbakiik
imdash
Daddo
rCa
riesdysm
enorrhoea
urinarydisorders
Tuberste
m
3Hibisc
usHibiscus
acetosella
Malvaceae
Akese
Dysentery
Leaves
4Ch
inesep
urBurweed
Triumfetta
rhom
boidea
(Jacaq)
Tilaceae
Odo
Yank
a-dafi
Molanganrsnako
bolobo
loGon
orrhea
LeafFlower
Fruit
5Bu
shok
raJe
wfib
ertelteria
JewsM
allow
Corchoruso
litorius
Titia
ceae
Ewedu
Arir
aaulogburu
Lalo
Vegetablebloo
dpu
rifier
Leaf
6African
stara
pple
Chrysophyllum
albidu
m(G
Don
)Sapo
taceae
Odaraudala
Agbalum
oAgw
aliba
Delicacyantin
ausea
Fruit
7Fruitedgourd
Cocciniabarteri
Cucurbita
ceae
Ewe-oju
Venerealdiseasesskin
infectionsearache
Who
leplant
8To
matoes
Solanu
mlyc
opersicum
Solanaceae
Tomati
Tomato
Tomati
VegetableVitamin
CFruit
9Pepp
erC
hili
Capsicu
mannu
umL
Solanaceae
Ataw
ewe
Ose
Tatashi
Delicacyseason
ing
Fruit
10Cu
rryleaf
Thym
usvulga
risLamiaceae
Efinrin
wew
eNch-anw
uAntibioticcarminative
Leaves
11OrangeSw
eet
Citru
ssinensis
(Linn)
Rutaceae
Osan
Or-om
aLm
u
Dysenteryfeverheadache
antim
icrobialagent
anthelmintic
stoothache
antiscorbutic
Twigsste
mbarkfruits
peel
12Brim
stone
tree
Morinda
lucid
a(Benth)
Rubiaceae
Oruwo
Eze-ogu
mdashFever
Leaves
13African
copaiba
balsa
mtre
eniger-op
alm
aaje
Daniellia
oliveri
Leguminosae
Iya
Kadaura
Ozabw
aMaje
Dysenterydiarrho
ea
toothacheurinaryinfection
astringenttoo
thache
Gum
bark
14Water
leaf
Talin
umtriangulare
(Willd)
Portulacaceae
Gbu
reNte-okain
ene
Alenyruw-a
Vegetable
Leaf
15Lemon
grass
Cymbopogoncitratus
Poaceae
Korik
o-ob
aNch-anw
umdash
Malaria
Leaf
16Hog
plum
Spondias
mom
binL
Anacardiaceae
Iyeye
Ngu-lu
ng-w
uIsada
Infertility
Fruit
17Ca
shew
nut
Anacardium
occid
entaleL
Anacardiaceae
Kaju
Sas-hu
Kanju
Cou
ghBa
rkFruit
18Mango
Mangifer
aindica
LAnacardiaceae
Mon
gora
Mango
Malaria
Leafbark
19Cocoyam
Wild
taro
Colocasia
esculen
tum
(L)Scho
ttAraceae
Kokokokof-un
kokoibile
Ede
Gwam
baAnaem
iaw
ound
srheumatism
poisonantid
ote
Tuberleaves
4 ISRN Botany
Table1Con
tinued
Sno
Com
mon
Botanical
Family
Localn
ames
Use(s)
Part(s)
name
name
name
Yoruba
Ibo
Hausa
used
20Giant
milk
weedsodo
mapple
Calotro
pisp
rocera
Ascle
peceae
Bom-ubo
mu
Tumifafiya
Measle
sLeaf
21Bitte
rleaf
Vernoniaam
ygdalin
a(D
el)
Asteraceae
Ewuro
Onu
-gbu
olug-bu
Shiwaka
Pile
lower
sugarvegetable
Leaf
22Goatw
eedflo
ssflo
wer
Ageratum
conyzoides
LCom
positae
Imi-e
suula
ujula
Ahenh
en
Wou
ndsulcerscraw-craw
digestived
isturbance
diarrhoeaem
eticskin
diseasesantipyretic
gono
rrho
easleeping
sickn
esseyew
ash
Who
leplant
leavesroo
t
23Siam
weed
Chromolaena
odorata
(Linn)
Com
positae
Akintola
Awo-lowo
Obiarakara
Antim
icrobialdysentery
headachem
alaria
fevertoothachehaem
ostatic
skin
diseases
Leaves
stem-tw
igs
24Cocon
utCo
cosn
ucifera
Arecaceae
Agbon
Aku
-beke
Mosara
Thew
ater
neutralizes
poiso
ndrug
Nut
25Pepp
erfruit
Dennettiatripetala
Ann
onaceae
Igbere
Nmi-m
imdash
Insectrepellantfevercou
gh
toothachestimulant
Fruitleaves
stemtwigs
False
thistle
leop
ardrsquos
tong
ueBe
arrsquosbreech
whitersquosg
inger
Acanthus
montanu
sAc
anthaceae
Aho
n-ekun
iru
nmuarugbo
Nyin-yiog-w
u
Syph
iliscoug
hem
etic
urethraldischarge
purgativebo
ilsanaem
ia
anthelmintic
s
Stem
-twig
leavesroo
ts
26Re
surrectio
nplant
lifep
lant
Bryophyllum
pinn
atum
Crassulaceae
Eru-od
undu
nmdash
Abom
oda
Cou
ghdiarrho
eadysentery
wou
ndsfeversedativ
es
diureticabsc-esses
antifun
galepilepsy
antim
icrobialanticancer
Leavesroo
tsleafsap
27Fertilitytre
etre
eof
life
Newb
ouldialaevis
Bign
oniaceae
Akoko
Ogiris
iAd
uruk
u
Roun
dwormsele
phantia
sis
dysenterymalaria
convulsio
ns
migrainecoug
hyello
wfever
stomachachehernia
infertilityearache
Barkleaves
root
28African
tulip
Spathodea
campanu
lata
(P
Beauv)
Bign
oniaceae
Akoko
Ogili-si
ogirisi
Aduruk
uAsth
ma
Leaves
29Pineapple
Ananas
comosus
Brom
eliaceae
Ope
oyinbo
Nkw
-aba
mdashAntihypertensionconstip
ation
Unripefruit
ISRN Botany 5
Table1Con
tinued
Sno
Com
mon
Botanical
Family
Localn
ames
Use(s)
Part(s)
name
name
name
Yoruba
Ibo
Hausa
used
30Cockrsquos
comb
Heliotrope
Heliotropium
indicum
LBo
raginaceae
Agogo-ig
unA
pari-
Igun
Ogb-eria
-kuk
oKa
lkashinkorama
Con
vulsion
scancerw
orms
rectalenem
amou
th-w
ash
Who
leplant
31African
cucumber
bitte
rgou
rdbalsam
pear
Mom
ordica
charantia
LCu
curbita
ceae
Ejinrin
wAlo-ose
Kakayi
Diabetespilesconvulsio
ns
jaun
dicesorenervou
sdisordersdiabeticrecipe
emeticn
ight
blindn
essaphrod
isiac
dysm
enorrhoeaanthelmintic
antim
icrobials
Who
leplant
seedsfruit
root
32Fluted
pumpk
inTelfaria
occid
entalis
Hoo
kF
Cucurbita
ceae
Ugu
Antianaem
icblood
tonic
Leaf
33Colocynthw
ildgourd
Citru
lluscolocynthis
(L)
Cucurbita
ceae
Egun
siEliliegw
usi
Egbsig
una
Laxativ
edigestio
nFruit
34Pawpaw
Caric
apapaya
(Linn)
Caric
aceae
Ibepe
Okw
oro-gbogbo
Gwanda
Boilpu
rgative
Latexfruit
35Ve
lvetblack
tamarid
tumbletree
Dialiu
mguineense
(Wild
)Leguminosae
Awin
Icheku
Tsam
iyar
kurm
iFevercoug
hsbronchitis
toothacheastringentdiuretic
Leavesfruit
barktwigs
36Whiteyam
Dioscoreae
cayenn
ensis
Dioscoreaceae
danzaria
Ako
isuJi-ocha
Doya
Antidiarrhea
Tubers
37Ph
ysicnu
tJatro
phacurcas
LEu
phorbiaceae
Botuje
Olulu-id
ulapalapaZ
uguOl
Ring
wormeczem
ascabies
feverguinea
wormsherpes
rectal
enem
ablacktong
uew
hitlo
wim
potenceirr
egular
mensesconvulsio
nsm
allpox
Seedleaves
stem
rootssap
38Caper
bush
Capparisthonningii
Capp
araceae
Eka-nawod
iew
onekiri
Feverheadachem
ental
disorderaph
rodisia
ccoug
hRo
ot
39African
Walnu
tTetra
carpidium
conophorum
Euop
horbiaceae
Awusaasal
Ukp
aHaw
uusa
Aphrod
isiac
Fruit
40Soya
bean
Glycinem
axLeguminosae
Ewa
Laxativ
eSeeds
41Gr
ewiasp
Tiliaceae
Ila-okolakolako
Religious
purposemystic
soup
with
okra-like
taste
Fruits
42AfricanN
ativeBu
shmango
Irvingiagabonensis
Irving
iaceae
Oro
mop
aOgb-ono
Mam
ujigoro
Con
diment
Seed
43Garlic
Alliu
msativ
umL
Alliaceae
Aayu
Ayo-ish
iTafarunu
aAntibiotic
antid
iabetic
Anti-h
ypertension
Bulb
6 ISRN Botany
Table1Con
tinued
Sno
Com
mon
Botanical
Family
Localn
ames
Use(s)
Part(s)
name
name
name
Yoruba
Ibo
Hausa
used
44Onion
Alliu
mcepa
Alabasa
Alliaceae
Alubo
saAlu-bosa
Yabasi
Antidiabetic
Bulb
45AloeWestA
frican
aloe
Aloe
barteri
Liliaceae
Aloe
Ring
wormanthelm
intic
saphrod
isiacamenorrhoea
coug
hskin
infections
astringentantitu
mou
rpile
fruitsforp
reventingsnakeb
ite
Leaves
46Scentleafmint
Ocim
umgratissim
umLamiaceae
Efinrin
nla
Nchanwu
Dadoya
Stom
achache
Leaf
47Az
adira
chta
indica
(A
Juss)
Neem
tree
Meliaceae
Don
goyaro
Og-wuakom
Maina
Boilsantim
alaria
Leaf
bark
48Moringa
oleiferaLam
Horse
radish
tree
Moringa
treeldquoN
ever
Dierdquodrum
stick
tree
Moringaceae
Ewe-ileE
weigbale
Okw
eoyeibe
zogale
Bagaaruw
armakka
Inflammatorydiseases
asthmaantip
yreticcou
gh
earacheliver
andpancreas
diseasesvenereald
iseases
anthelmintic
hysteria
diarrhoeadiureticdiseases
Leavesroo
tsste
mbark
fruit
49Persea
america
na(M
ill)
Avocadopear
Lauraceae
Igbaapo
kaUbe-beke
Antihypertension
stomachulcer
Fruit
50Plantain
Musaparadisia
caL
Musaceae
Ogede
agagba
Abrik
aOkirim
aOkamuayaba
Potent
astringent
high
iron
Unripe
fruit
51Guava
Psidium
guajavaL
Myrtaceae
Gurofa
Gova
Gwaabaa
Malaria
Leaf
52Groun
dnutpeanu
tArachish
ypogaea
Fabaceae
Egpa
Gedda
Oilas
solventantim
icrobials
insomnia
Nuts
53Cr
abrsquoseye
Abrusp
recatoriu
sPapilio
naceae
Iwerejejeojuo
logbo
Anyan
nunu
Dam
arzaya
Cou
ghLeaf
54Cam
woo
dBa
phianitid
aSterculiaceae
Uri
Decoration
Latex
55Ba
mbo
oBa
mbu
savulga
risL
Poaceae
Oparun
Atosi
Gon
orrhoeaabortifacient
anthelmintic
sem
menagogue
skin
rashes
ofHIV
AID
S
Leavesyou
ngshoo
ts
56Water
willow
Dein
bolliapinn
ata
Sapind
aceae
Ogiri-
egba
Ekusi-O
loko
Cou
ghbronchialasthma
aphrod
isiac
Leavesroo
t
57Lemon
grass
Cymbopogoncitratus
Poaceae
Korik
o-ob
aNchea
wula
Malaria
Leaf
58Water
leaf
Talin
umtriangulare
Portulacaceae
Gbu
reNte-okain
ene
Alenyruwa
Ratp
oison
vegetable
Root
Leaf
59Pepp
erchili
Capsicu
mannu
umL
Solanaceae
Ataw
ewe
Oseto
tashi
Barkon
oStim
ulant
Fruit
60Soursop
Annona
murica
taAnn
onaceae
Sawam
sop
Relaxing
nerves
Leaf
61Wild
Cassava
Jatro
phagossy
pifolia
Euph
orbiaceae
Botujepu
paB
inidi
zugu
Ake
mbo
gho
Ring
wormascaris
antitum
ourmalaria
dysenterydysm
enorrhoea
Stem
latex
ISRN Botany 7Ta
ble1Con
tinued
Sno
Com
mon
Botanical
Family
Localn
ames
Use(s)
Part(s)
name
name
name
Yoruba
Ibo
Hausa
used
62BlackMangrove
Avice
nniaafric
ana
Avicenniaceae
Ogbun
Ofun
Abortifacientdetergent
Leavesstem
twigs
63Ba
obab
Adan
soniadigitata
Bombacaceae
Ose
Igiose
kukaaku
lambali
Malariaasth
madiarrhoea
kidn
eyandbladderd
iseases
demulcentproph
ylactic
antih
istam
inicskin
diseasescariesantim
icrobial
Leavesfruit
pulpbark
64Morning
glory
Ipom
oeamauritiana
Con
volvulaceae
Atew
ogbaTanpo
poRh
eumatism
asthm
adrop
sy
Who
leplant
65Bh
adramcherula
Aervalanata
Amaranthaceae
AjeEfun
ileEw
eowo
AlhajiFu
rfurata
fatumi
Ulce
rsw
ound
ssnakeb
ite
diureticpurgativ
eanthelmintic
sore
throatkidneyandbladder
stones
Who
leplant
66Ac
alypha
Acalypha
fimbriata
Euph
orbiaceae
Jinwinini
kand
iri
Syph
ilisasthma
anthelmintic
sulcers
rheumatism
antim
icrobial
andantifun
gal
Leaves
67Ac
alypha
Acalypha
godseffi
ana
Euph
orbiaceae
Jinwinini
Skin
infection
Antim
icrobials
Leavestwigs
68Hennaplant
Laws
oniainermis
Lythraceae
Lali
Laali
Lallee
Spermatorrhoeajaun
dice
gono
rrho
ealeucorrho
ea
ulcers
menorrhagiaastr
ingentskin
diseasesm
alaria
Leaves
flowersbark
69Wild
lettu
ceLa
unaeataraxacifolia
Com
positae
Yanrin
Yamurin
Non
anbarya
Yawsfracture
managem
ent
Leaves
70Stinging
bean
Mucun
aslo
anei
Leguminosae
Ewe-ina
yerepe
werepe
Kakaraosese
Haemorrhoidsdiuretics
micturitionprob
lemsin
child
ren
skin
diseases
Seedsroots
71Cow
-hagecow-itch
plantvelvetbean
Mucun
aprurien
sLegu
minosae
Esisi
Werepe
AbbalaK
akara
Intestinalw
orms
genitourinarydiseases
Hairson
the
pods
72Devilrsquos
gutparasitic
vine
Cassy
thafiliform
isLauraceae
Omon
iginigini
omon
igelegele
sulunw
ahi
Anthelm
intic
santim
icrobials
antifun
gal
Stem
twigs
73Morinda
Morinda
morindoides
Rubiaceae
Oju-O
logbo
Feverjaun
diceasthm
adysenterycolic
emmenagoguevermifu
ge
constip
ation
Rootbark
leavesfruit
74Millet
Millettia
thonningii
Leguminosae
Ito
okeokp
aTu
burkuAjuk
wu
Fevercoug
hrespira
tory
ailm
entanthelm
intic
op
hthalm
iaRo
otsbark
75African
Lind
enMitragynainermis
Rubiaceae
Okobo
Giyeya
Dysenteryleprosyantipyretic
diureticgon
orrhoea
Bark
8 ISRN Botany
Table1Con
tinued
Sno
Com
mon
Botanical
Family
Localn
ames
Use(s)
Part(s)
name
name
name
Yoruba
Ibo
Hausa
used
76Sensitive
plant
Mim
osapu
dica
Mim
osaceae
aluro
Patanm
oGuineaw
ormsp
ileskidn
eydiseasefistulaboils
Leaves
77Bu
lletw
ood
Mim
usopsk
ummel
Sapo
taceae
Uku
Emido
Antipyreticastr
ingentm
outh
washsto
machic
Stem
bark
seeds
78Sw
ordbeanhorse
bean
Canavalia
ensiformis
Leguminosae
Ponp
ondo
sese-nla
Antibiotic
antise
ptic
Seed
79Celo
siaCe
losia
laxa
Amaranthaceae
Marugbo
sanyantan
Ajem
awofo
Mannafaa
sanyantan
Antisc
orbu
ticpurgativ
eLeaves
80Indian
chrysanthemum
Chrysanthellum
indicum
Com
positae
AbilereO
yigi
Boilsfevergon
orrhoea
jaun
diceheart-tr
ouble
insecticide
Who
leplant
81Ra
ttleb
oxrattle
pea
Crotalariaretusa
Leguminosae
Koropo
Akidimuo
saworoYara
Fevercirrho
sisliver
lesio
ns
dysenterycolicvermifu
ge
Rootseeds
juiceo
fpo
dsleaves
82Melo
n-pu
mpk
inCu
curbita
maxim
aCu
curbita
ceae
Elegede
Apala
Kabeew
aaTapewormdiuretic
taenicide
otitisutensils
Seedsfruits
83Flam
eofthe
forest
Delo
nixregia
Leguminosae
Seke
seke
ayin
Diureticanthelm
intic
sastringentleucorrho
eaLeavesbark
seedsflo
wer
ISRN Botany 9
tablespoon of the powder is mixed with four tablespoons ofhoney and licked three times daily for twoweeks for intestinalulcer Some quantity of the root and fresh leaves are boiledseparately 12 and a full glass is drank daily for 1 week tointestinal ulcer and anaemia respectively Eating of unripefruit either roasted boiled pounded or processed into flouris a good treatment for diabetes
315 Cough Malaria Fever and Repellant Decoction fromleaves of Cymbopogon citratewith onion and honey is used tocure cough taken 3 times daily for 3 days The leaf is boiledalong with other herbs to treat malaria fever by bathing withit every night for 2 days The leaf is burnt in homes to serveas repellant for mosquitoes
316 Fever and Lactation Thebark root and leaf ofMorindalucida are used in infusion or decoction for the treatment ofyellow fever and other forms of fever to be taken 12 glass 2times daily and also bathing for 3 days The very bitter leafdecoction is applied to the breast of women at weaning oftheir infants to improve lactation Twigs are used as chewingstick
317 Malaria Diabetes Dysentery MouthThrush Toothacheand Sore Gums The twig of Anacardium occidentale is usedas chewing stick for mouth thrush tooth ache and soregum Decoction of the bark is a remedy for malaria fever bydrinking 12 glass 3 times dailyThebark and leaves are boiledand a glass is taken twice daily for dysentery
318 Fibroids Cataract Gonorrhea Aphrodisiac CoughInflammatory Symptoms Toothache and Sore Throat Seedof Spondias mombin is boiled together with immature palm-nuts and 12 glass is taken thrice daily for 2 months forfibroid Fresh leaves are ground and the juice is squeezedand mixed with one teaspoonful of lime juice and applied aseye drop twice daily for cataract Fresh leaves are boiled andone glassful is drank thrice daily for gonorrhea Decoction ofleaves is used as an aphrodisiacDecoction of the bark is takenfor severe cough toothache and sore throat
319 Abdominal Pains Ulcers Skin Disease Dressing ofWound and Prophylactic Decoction of the whole plant ofAgeratum conyzoides is a remedy for abdominal pains Leafjuice is used for dressing wounds ulcers and other skindiseases Leaves are used as tonic to aid fertility because itprevents early miscarriage It is also used as prophylactic andcure for trachoma in cattle
3110 Threatened Abortion Convulsion Epilepsy Skin Infec-tions Conjunctivitis Migraine and Earache Amedium size-pot is filled with the fresh bark of Newbouldia laevis andboiled water for a long time The preparation is then used towash face and head every morning and night oral taking of12 glass of preparation twice daily for 6 days cures migraineand also stops vaginal bleeding in threatened abortion Leavesand roots are boiled together and administered for feverconvulsion and epilepsy Stem bark is used for treating skin
infections Decoction of leaves is used as an eye wash inconjunctivitis Boiled leaves extract is used to treat generalmalaria
3111 Typhoid Fever Menstrual Flow Healthy Skin PurgativeDiuretic Anthelmintic Expectorant and Abortifacient Thefruit ofAnanas comosus is cut cooked and drank for typhoidfever The unripe fruit can be used as a purgative diureticantihelmintic expectorant and abortifacient and is alsotaken to regulate and enhance menstrual flow Fruit peelis used topically for healthy skin The ripped fruit is takenregularly to recover from typhoid fever
3112 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Stomach TroublesPurgative and Fungal Infection Fruits of Citrullus colocyn-this are recommended for the treatment of stomach troublesand sexually transmitted diseases Fruit and leaf decoction isused as a purgative in man and animal Seed shell powderedand mixed with palm oil is rubbed on skin to treat fungalinfections
3113 Ringworm Scabies Eczema Sexually Transmitted Dis-eases Thrush Bleeding Wounds Toothache and Skin DiseaseThe latex of Jatropha curcas is used to treat skin disease suchas ring worm scabies and eczema Twigs are used as chewingstick to prevent tooth decay oral thrush bleeding woundsand tooth ache Roots are used to treat sexually transmitteddiseases Leaves are added to hasten fermentation of cassavaDecoction of leaves is used to sterilize umbilicus of new bornbabies
3114 Fibroid Improves Sperm Count Fertility and MenstrualFlow Seed of Tetracarpidium conophorum is used in thetreatment of fibroid Boiled seeds are eaten to improve spermcount inmen Leaf juice is used to improve fertility in womenand to regulate menstrual flow
3115 As Food Leaves of Telfairia occidentalis are of highlynutritive value as vegetable for soup and other local dishesLeaves are washed and the juice squeeze is mixed with milkand taken as a blood tonic The boiled seeds are eaten asdelicacy and source of oil Some of the plants are used as herbsfood and other uses
The knowledge of the indigenous people about contra-ceptives was one of the informal innovative discoveries inthis work In this context Ageratum conyzoides Tetracar-pidium conophorum Rhaphiostylis beninensis Lonchocarpuscyanescens carpolobia alba and Chrysophyllum albidumare used to invoke sterility while Moranthodoa leucanthaincreases sexual vigor and Mucuna soloanei and Senna occi-dentalis are used by indigenous ladies as contraceptives Fewplant species known to be ldquopoisonousrdquo for example Ricinuscommunis and Scleria verrucosa were reported to be verypotent We also observed that some tuberous plant specieslikeColocasia esculenta andDioscorea rotundata and Jatrophagossypifolia and Musa paradisiaca are used to cure sexuallytransmitted diseases to regularize menstruation and toincrease fertilityWe further discovered that those plants with
10 ISRN Botany
high nutritive value like Colocasia esculenta Basella albaTelfairia occidentalis Glycine soja Gnetum africana Arachishypogea and Solanum lycopersicum are cultivated mainly forcommercial purposes as they are sold in nearby marketsOthers likeHibiscus senensis Moringa oleifera and Sida acutain addition to food and medicinal values have becomebeautiful ornamental plants Dracaena arborea Anacardiumoccidentale Basella alba Spathodea campanulata Alliumsativum Mucuna sloanei Ocimum basilicum Sida acutaLaportea aestuans and Trema orientalis are used to treatconstipation indigestion abdominal pain and dysenteryOur result also shows that the people use Xanthosoma sppCalotropis procera Vernonia amygdalina Ageratum cony-zoides Chromolaena odorata Newbouldia laevis Spathodeacampanulata and Adenopus breviflorus for skin diseases likewound tumor boils burns and cuts Dioscorea rotundataJatropha curcas Ricinus communis Irvingia gabonensis Aloebarteri OcimumbasilicumAzadirachta indica Baphia nitidaMitracarpus scabrum Glyphaea brevis and Trema orientalisare also used for the above purposes
Respiratory disorders like cough cold tuberculosis andasthma are cured using single herb or mixture of herbs likeCalotropis proceraDennettia tripetalaCarica papayaAlliumsativum Cymbopogon citratus Chrysophyllum albidum andZingiber officinale Our study shows that most herbs areknown to cure malaria and typhoid fever which are endemicin PortHarcourtmetropolisAnacardium spondiasDennettiatripetala Ananas comosus Adenopus breviflorus Ipomeainvolucrate Carica papaya Securinega virosa Hyptis pecti-nata Sida acutaAzarachta indicaPsidium guajavaBambusavulgarisCymbopogon citratusMorinda lucidaCitrus sinensisMurraya koenigii Capsicum annum Chrysophyllum albidumGlyphaea brevis Corchorus olitorius and Trema orientalis
4 Discussion
This is the first ethnobotanical study of Port Harcourtmetropolis in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria Our studyshows that the 83 plant species identified were useful asfood and in the treatment of different human ailmentsshowing that traditional medical practice is an importantcomponent of our everyday life Our findings are similar to[9] Reference [1] suggested the need to institutionalize thetraditional medicine in concert with orthodox medicine toachieve an effective national health care system in NigeriaThe authors maintained that an effective health cannot beachieved in Africa by orthodox medicine alone unless it hasbeen complemented with traditional medicine in support of[10]
The questionnaire and interviews gathered indicatethat most people in the Metropolis depend on traditionalmedicine for their health needs because of their poor eco-nomic conditions This is one of the major reasons whytraditional medicine has continued to thrive in both ruraland urban areas in Nigeria The utilization of medicinalplants in traditional medicine was found to be effectivecheap and practical References [11 12] noted the growinginterest on the medicinal properties of a number of common
plants The practice is fast developing due to poor economicsituation expensiveness and inadequate availability of drugsReference [13] stated that the use of plants and products inhealth care is even much higher particularly in those areaswith little or no access to modern health services Thesemedicinal plants have been underutilized in the orthodoxmedicine but have now been recognized in ethnomedicinalpreparation
Gender and age influenced the traditional knowledge ofour respondents Males within 45ndash70 years have medicinalknowledge than females This may be due to their involve-ment in trade or personal experience of using these plantsfor a very long time In addition the younger generationdoes not seem to have much trust in the traditional medicinesystem which may be attributed to increasing use of allelo-pathic medicines which are readily available and potent Ourfindings also show that the indigenous people value some ofthese herbs for medicinal purposes than as food condimentsFor instance garlic is more useful in treating fever coughconstipation asthma nervous disorder hypertension ulcerand antihelmentic than in mere seasoning of food The sameapplies to onion curry leaf ginger and scent leaf
Traditional medicinal practices are known to still be animportant component of everyday life in many regions of theworld [14ndash16] The use of plants in healthcare is even muchhigher particularly in areas with little or no access to modernhealth services [13] Reference [1] gave a comprehensivetreatise on the need to institutionalize traditional medicineinto the health scheme according to WHO guidelines [17]Most of the plants were used to treatmalaria fever underlyingthe importance of this disease in the region
Conservation of indigenous plant species of medicinalimportance is necessary as they remain source of healthand wealth There is need for closer collaboration betweenherbal medical practitioners medical doctors and otherstakeholders in medical practice to bring traditional healerscloser by engaging them in laboratory work training aswell as getting information on traditional prescriptions forspecific diseases Both traditional and orthodox medicinesshould complement each other and their integration orharmonization is necessary for quality healthcare deliveryespecially in the rural communitiesThe ethnobotany of PortHarcourt metropolis has been documented Various plantshave dual significance first as food secondly as medicinalplants and can have some active constituents for futurepharmaceutical analysis
Conflict of Interests
There is no conflict of interests as the information therein ispurely for research purposesThe authors do not support self-medication and further suggest getting advice from medicalpractitioners before taking any of these herbs
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the local informants and herbalhealers who shared their knowledge with them
ISRN Botany 11
References
[1] R N Okigbo and E CMmeka ldquoAn appraisal of phytomedicinein Africardquo KMITL Science and Technology Journal vol 6 no 2pp 83ndash94 2006
[2] D CMohana S Satish andK A Raveesha ldquoAntibacterial eval-uation of some plant extracts against some human pathogenicbacteriardquoAdvances in Biological Research vol 2 no 3-4 pp 49ndash55 2008
[3] G M Adwan B A Abu-shanab and K M Adwan ldquoIn vitroactivity of certain drugs in combination with plant extractsagainst Staphylococcus aureus infectionsrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 8 no 17 pp 4239ndash4241 2009
[4] A O Ajayi and T A Akintola ldquoEvaluation of antibacterialactivity of some medicinal plants on common enteric food-borne pathogensrdquoAfrican Journal of Microbiology Research vol4 no 4 pp 314ndash316 2010
[5] F C Akharaiyi and B Boboye ldquoAntibacterial and phytochem-ical evaluation of three medicinal plantsrdquo Journal of NaturalProducts vol 3 pp 27ndash34 2010
[6] J Hutchinson and J M Dalziel Flora of West Tropical Africavol 1 TheWhitefriars Press 1954
[7] JMDalzielTheUseful Plants ofWest Tropical Africa Appendixto Flora of West Tropical Africa Crown Agents for OverseasGovernment and Administration 1937
[8] L S Gill Ethnomedical Uses of Plants in Nigeria IbadanUniversity Press 1988
[9] A A Aiyeloja and O A Bello ldquoEthnobotanical potentialsof common herbs in Nigeria a case study of Enugu staterdquoEducational Research and Review vol 1 no 1 pp 16ndash22 2006
[10] A A Elujoba O M Odeleye and C M Ogunyemi ldquoTradi-tional medical development for medical and dental primaryHealth care delivery system in Africardquo African Journal ofTraditional Complementary andAlternativeMedicine vol 2 no1 pp 46ndash61 2005
[11] M A Belewu O A Olatunde and T A Giwa ldquoUnderutilizedmedicinal plants and spices chemical composition and phyto-chemical propertiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plant Research vol 3no 12 pp 1099ndash1103 2009
[12] I I Ijeh O I U Njokwu and E C Ekenze ldquoMedicinal evalu-ation of extracts of Xylopia aethiopica and Ocimum gratissiumrdquoJournal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences vol 26 pp44ndash47 2004
[13] M Saeed M Arshad E Ahmad E Ahmed and M IshaqueldquoEthnophytotherapies for the treatment of various diseasesby the local people of selected areas of NWFP (Pakistan)rdquoPakistan Journal of Biological Sciences vol 7 no 7 pp 1104ndash11082004
[14] R W Bussmann ldquoManteniendo el balance de naturalezay hombre La diversidad floritica Andina y su impotaniciaporla diversidad cultural-ejemplos del norte de Peru y Sur deEcuadorrdquo Amaldoa vol 13 no 1-2 pp 382ndash397 2006
[15] R W Bussmann and D Sharon ldquoTraditional medicinal plantuse in Northern Peru tracking two thousand years of healingculturerdquo Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2article 47 2006
[16] V de Feo ldquoMedicinal and magical plants in the NorthernPeruvian Andesrdquo Fitoterapia vol 63 no 5 pp 417ndash440 1992
[17] World Health Organisation The Promotion and Developmentof Traditional Medicine Technical Report Series 622 WorldHealth Organisation Geneva Switzerland 1978
tablespoon of the powder is mixed with four tablespoons ofhoney and licked three times daily for twoweeks for intestinalulcer Some quantity of the root and fresh leaves are boiledseparately 12 and a full glass is drank daily for 1 week tointestinal ulcer and anaemia respectively Eating of unripefruit either roasted boiled pounded or processed into flouris a good treatment for diabetes
315 Cough Malaria Fever and Repellant Decoction fromleaves of Cymbopogon citratewith onion and honey is used tocure cough taken 3 times daily for 3 days The leaf is boiledalong with other herbs to treat malaria fever by bathing withit every night for 2 days The leaf is burnt in homes to serveas repellant for mosquitoes
316 Fever and Lactation Thebark root and leaf ofMorindalucida are used in infusion or decoction for the treatment ofyellow fever and other forms of fever to be taken 12 glass 2times daily and also bathing for 3 days The very bitter leafdecoction is applied to the breast of women at weaning oftheir infants to improve lactation Twigs are used as chewingstick
317 Malaria Diabetes Dysentery MouthThrush Toothacheand Sore Gums The twig of Anacardium occidentale is usedas chewing stick for mouth thrush tooth ache and soregum Decoction of the bark is a remedy for malaria fever bydrinking 12 glass 3 times dailyThebark and leaves are boiledand a glass is taken twice daily for dysentery
318 Fibroids Cataract Gonorrhea Aphrodisiac CoughInflammatory Symptoms Toothache and Sore Throat Seedof Spondias mombin is boiled together with immature palm-nuts and 12 glass is taken thrice daily for 2 months forfibroid Fresh leaves are ground and the juice is squeezedand mixed with one teaspoonful of lime juice and applied aseye drop twice daily for cataract Fresh leaves are boiled andone glassful is drank thrice daily for gonorrhea Decoction ofleaves is used as an aphrodisiacDecoction of the bark is takenfor severe cough toothache and sore throat
319 Abdominal Pains Ulcers Skin Disease Dressing ofWound and Prophylactic Decoction of the whole plant ofAgeratum conyzoides is a remedy for abdominal pains Leafjuice is used for dressing wounds ulcers and other skindiseases Leaves are used as tonic to aid fertility because itprevents early miscarriage It is also used as prophylactic andcure for trachoma in cattle
3110 Threatened Abortion Convulsion Epilepsy Skin Infec-tions Conjunctivitis Migraine and Earache Amedium size-pot is filled with the fresh bark of Newbouldia laevis andboiled water for a long time The preparation is then used towash face and head every morning and night oral taking of12 glass of preparation twice daily for 6 days cures migraineand also stops vaginal bleeding in threatened abortion Leavesand roots are boiled together and administered for feverconvulsion and epilepsy Stem bark is used for treating skin
infections Decoction of leaves is used as an eye wash inconjunctivitis Boiled leaves extract is used to treat generalmalaria
3111 Typhoid Fever Menstrual Flow Healthy Skin PurgativeDiuretic Anthelmintic Expectorant and Abortifacient Thefruit ofAnanas comosus is cut cooked and drank for typhoidfever The unripe fruit can be used as a purgative diureticantihelmintic expectorant and abortifacient and is alsotaken to regulate and enhance menstrual flow Fruit peelis used topically for healthy skin The ripped fruit is takenregularly to recover from typhoid fever
3112 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Stomach TroublesPurgative and Fungal Infection Fruits of Citrullus colocyn-this are recommended for the treatment of stomach troublesand sexually transmitted diseases Fruit and leaf decoction isused as a purgative in man and animal Seed shell powderedand mixed with palm oil is rubbed on skin to treat fungalinfections
3113 Ringworm Scabies Eczema Sexually Transmitted Dis-eases Thrush Bleeding Wounds Toothache and Skin DiseaseThe latex of Jatropha curcas is used to treat skin disease suchas ring worm scabies and eczema Twigs are used as chewingstick to prevent tooth decay oral thrush bleeding woundsand tooth ache Roots are used to treat sexually transmitteddiseases Leaves are added to hasten fermentation of cassavaDecoction of leaves is used to sterilize umbilicus of new bornbabies
3114 Fibroid Improves Sperm Count Fertility and MenstrualFlow Seed of Tetracarpidium conophorum is used in thetreatment of fibroid Boiled seeds are eaten to improve spermcount inmen Leaf juice is used to improve fertility in womenand to regulate menstrual flow
3115 As Food Leaves of Telfairia occidentalis are of highlynutritive value as vegetable for soup and other local dishesLeaves are washed and the juice squeeze is mixed with milkand taken as a blood tonic The boiled seeds are eaten asdelicacy and source of oil Some of the plants are used as herbsfood and other uses
The knowledge of the indigenous people about contra-ceptives was one of the informal innovative discoveries inthis work In this context Ageratum conyzoides Tetracar-pidium conophorum Rhaphiostylis beninensis Lonchocarpuscyanescens carpolobia alba and Chrysophyllum albidumare used to invoke sterility while Moranthodoa leucanthaincreases sexual vigor and Mucuna soloanei and Senna occi-dentalis are used by indigenous ladies as contraceptives Fewplant species known to be ldquopoisonousrdquo for example Ricinuscommunis and Scleria verrucosa were reported to be verypotent We also observed that some tuberous plant specieslikeColocasia esculenta andDioscorea rotundata and Jatrophagossypifolia and Musa paradisiaca are used to cure sexuallytransmitted diseases to regularize menstruation and toincrease fertilityWe further discovered that those plants with
10 ISRN Botany
high nutritive value like Colocasia esculenta Basella albaTelfairia occidentalis Glycine soja Gnetum africana Arachishypogea and Solanum lycopersicum are cultivated mainly forcommercial purposes as they are sold in nearby marketsOthers likeHibiscus senensis Moringa oleifera and Sida acutain addition to food and medicinal values have becomebeautiful ornamental plants Dracaena arborea Anacardiumoccidentale Basella alba Spathodea campanulata Alliumsativum Mucuna sloanei Ocimum basilicum Sida acutaLaportea aestuans and Trema orientalis are used to treatconstipation indigestion abdominal pain and dysenteryOur result also shows that the people use Xanthosoma sppCalotropis procera Vernonia amygdalina Ageratum cony-zoides Chromolaena odorata Newbouldia laevis Spathodeacampanulata and Adenopus breviflorus for skin diseases likewound tumor boils burns and cuts Dioscorea rotundataJatropha curcas Ricinus communis Irvingia gabonensis Aloebarteri OcimumbasilicumAzadirachta indica Baphia nitidaMitracarpus scabrum Glyphaea brevis and Trema orientalisare also used for the above purposes
Respiratory disorders like cough cold tuberculosis andasthma are cured using single herb or mixture of herbs likeCalotropis proceraDennettia tripetalaCarica papayaAlliumsativum Cymbopogon citratus Chrysophyllum albidum andZingiber officinale Our study shows that most herbs areknown to cure malaria and typhoid fever which are endemicin PortHarcourtmetropolisAnacardium spondiasDennettiatripetala Ananas comosus Adenopus breviflorus Ipomeainvolucrate Carica papaya Securinega virosa Hyptis pecti-nata Sida acutaAzarachta indicaPsidium guajavaBambusavulgarisCymbopogon citratusMorinda lucidaCitrus sinensisMurraya koenigii Capsicum annum Chrysophyllum albidumGlyphaea brevis Corchorus olitorius and Trema orientalis
4 Discussion
This is the first ethnobotanical study of Port Harcourtmetropolis in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria Our studyshows that the 83 plant species identified were useful asfood and in the treatment of different human ailmentsshowing that traditional medical practice is an importantcomponent of our everyday life Our findings are similar to[9] Reference [1] suggested the need to institutionalize thetraditional medicine in concert with orthodox medicine toachieve an effective national health care system in NigeriaThe authors maintained that an effective health cannot beachieved in Africa by orthodox medicine alone unless it hasbeen complemented with traditional medicine in support of[10]
The questionnaire and interviews gathered indicatethat most people in the Metropolis depend on traditionalmedicine for their health needs because of their poor eco-nomic conditions This is one of the major reasons whytraditional medicine has continued to thrive in both ruraland urban areas in Nigeria The utilization of medicinalplants in traditional medicine was found to be effectivecheap and practical References [11 12] noted the growinginterest on the medicinal properties of a number of common
plants The practice is fast developing due to poor economicsituation expensiveness and inadequate availability of drugsReference [13] stated that the use of plants and products inhealth care is even much higher particularly in those areaswith little or no access to modern health services Thesemedicinal plants have been underutilized in the orthodoxmedicine but have now been recognized in ethnomedicinalpreparation
Gender and age influenced the traditional knowledge ofour respondents Males within 45ndash70 years have medicinalknowledge than females This may be due to their involve-ment in trade or personal experience of using these plantsfor a very long time In addition the younger generationdoes not seem to have much trust in the traditional medicinesystem which may be attributed to increasing use of allelo-pathic medicines which are readily available and potent Ourfindings also show that the indigenous people value some ofthese herbs for medicinal purposes than as food condimentsFor instance garlic is more useful in treating fever coughconstipation asthma nervous disorder hypertension ulcerand antihelmentic than in mere seasoning of food The sameapplies to onion curry leaf ginger and scent leaf
Traditional medicinal practices are known to still be animportant component of everyday life in many regions of theworld [14ndash16] The use of plants in healthcare is even muchhigher particularly in areas with little or no access to modernhealth services [13] Reference [1] gave a comprehensivetreatise on the need to institutionalize traditional medicineinto the health scheme according to WHO guidelines [17]Most of the plants were used to treatmalaria fever underlyingthe importance of this disease in the region
Conservation of indigenous plant species of medicinalimportance is necessary as they remain source of healthand wealth There is need for closer collaboration betweenherbal medical practitioners medical doctors and otherstakeholders in medical practice to bring traditional healerscloser by engaging them in laboratory work training aswell as getting information on traditional prescriptions forspecific diseases Both traditional and orthodox medicinesshould complement each other and their integration orharmonization is necessary for quality healthcare deliveryespecially in the rural communitiesThe ethnobotany of PortHarcourt metropolis has been documented Various plantshave dual significance first as food secondly as medicinalplants and can have some active constituents for futurepharmaceutical analysis
Conflict of Interests
There is no conflict of interests as the information therein ispurely for research purposesThe authors do not support self-medication and further suggest getting advice from medicalpractitioners before taking any of these herbs
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the local informants and herbalhealers who shared their knowledge with them
ISRN Botany 11
References
[1] R N Okigbo and E CMmeka ldquoAn appraisal of phytomedicinein Africardquo KMITL Science and Technology Journal vol 6 no 2pp 83ndash94 2006
[2] D CMohana S Satish andK A Raveesha ldquoAntibacterial eval-uation of some plant extracts against some human pathogenicbacteriardquoAdvances in Biological Research vol 2 no 3-4 pp 49ndash55 2008
[3] G M Adwan B A Abu-shanab and K M Adwan ldquoIn vitroactivity of certain drugs in combination with plant extractsagainst Staphylococcus aureus infectionsrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 8 no 17 pp 4239ndash4241 2009
[4] A O Ajayi and T A Akintola ldquoEvaluation of antibacterialactivity of some medicinal plants on common enteric food-borne pathogensrdquoAfrican Journal of Microbiology Research vol4 no 4 pp 314ndash316 2010
[5] F C Akharaiyi and B Boboye ldquoAntibacterial and phytochem-ical evaluation of three medicinal plantsrdquo Journal of NaturalProducts vol 3 pp 27ndash34 2010
[6] J Hutchinson and J M Dalziel Flora of West Tropical Africavol 1 TheWhitefriars Press 1954
[7] JMDalzielTheUseful Plants ofWest Tropical Africa Appendixto Flora of West Tropical Africa Crown Agents for OverseasGovernment and Administration 1937
[8] L S Gill Ethnomedical Uses of Plants in Nigeria IbadanUniversity Press 1988
[9] A A Aiyeloja and O A Bello ldquoEthnobotanical potentialsof common herbs in Nigeria a case study of Enugu staterdquoEducational Research and Review vol 1 no 1 pp 16ndash22 2006
[10] A A Elujoba O M Odeleye and C M Ogunyemi ldquoTradi-tional medical development for medical and dental primaryHealth care delivery system in Africardquo African Journal ofTraditional Complementary andAlternativeMedicine vol 2 no1 pp 46ndash61 2005
[11] M A Belewu O A Olatunde and T A Giwa ldquoUnderutilizedmedicinal plants and spices chemical composition and phyto-chemical propertiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plant Research vol 3no 12 pp 1099ndash1103 2009
[12] I I Ijeh O I U Njokwu and E C Ekenze ldquoMedicinal evalu-ation of extracts of Xylopia aethiopica and Ocimum gratissiumrdquoJournal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences vol 26 pp44ndash47 2004
[13] M Saeed M Arshad E Ahmad E Ahmed and M IshaqueldquoEthnophytotherapies for the treatment of various diseasesby the local people of selected areas of NWFP (Pakistan)rdquoPakistan Journal of Biological Sciences vol 7 no 7 pp 1104ndash11082004
[14] R W Bussmann ldquoManteniendo el balance de naturalezay hombre La diversidad floritica Andina y su impotaniciaporla diversidad cultural-ejemplos del norte de Peru y Sur deEcuadorrdquo Amaldoa vol 13 no 1-2 pp 382ndash397 2006
[15] R W Bussmann and D Sharon ldquoTraditional medicinal plantuse in Northern Peru tracking two thousand years of healingculturerdquo Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2article 47 2006
[16] V de Feo ldquoMedicinal and magical plants in the NorthernPeruvian Andesrdquo Fitoterapia vol 63 no 5 pp 417ndash440 1992
[17] World Health Organisation The Promotion and Developmentof Traditional Medicine Technical Report Series 622 WorldHealth Organisation Geneva Switzerland 1978
tablespoon of the powder is mixed with four tablespoons ofhoney and licked three times daily for twoweeks for intestinalulcer Some quantity of the root and fresh leaves are boiledseparately 12 and a full glass is drank daily for 1 week tointestinal ulcer and anaemia respectively Eating of unripefruit either roasted boiled pounded or processed into flouris a good treatment for diabetes
315 Cough Malaria Fever and Repellant Decoction fromleaves of Cymbopogon citratewith onion and honey is used tocure cough taken 3 times daily for 3 days The leaf is boiledalong with other herbs to treat malaria fever by bathing withit every night for 2 days The leaf is burnt in homes to serveas repellant for mosquitoes
316 Fever and Lactation Thebark root and leaf ofMorindalucida are used in infusion or decoction for the treatment ofyellow fever and other forms of fever to be taken 12 glass 2times daily and also bathing for 3 days The very bitter leafdecoction is applied to the breast of women at weaning oftheir infants to improve lactation Twigs are used as chewingstick
317 Malaria Diabetes Dysentery MouthThrush Toothacheand Sore Gums The twig of Anacardium occidentale is usedas chewing stick for mouth thrush tooth ache and soregum Decoction of the bark is a remedy for malaria fever bydrinking 12 glass 3 times dailyThebark and leaves are boiledand a glass is taken twice daily for dysentery
318 Fibroids Cataract Gonorrhea Aphrodisiac CoughInflammatory Symptoms Toothache and Sore Throat Seedof Spondias mombin is boiled together with immature palm-nuts and 12 glass is taken thrice daily for 2 months forfibroid Fresh leaves are ground and the juice is squeezedand mixed with one teaspoonful of lime juice and applied aseye drop twice daily for cataract Fresh leaves are boiled andone glassful is drank thrice daily for gonorrhea Decoction ofleaves is used as an aphrodisiacDecoction of the bark is takenfor severe cough toothache and sore throat
319 Abdominal Pains Ulcers Skin Disease Dressing ofWound and Prophylactic Decoction of the whole plant ofAgeratum conyzoides is a remedy for abdominal pains Leafjuice is used for dressing wounds ulcers and other skindiseases Leaves are used as tonic to aid fertility because itprevents early miscarriage It is also used as prophylactic andcure for trachoma in cattle
3110 Threatened Abortion Convulsion Epilepsy Skin Infec-tions Conjunctivitis Migraine and Earache Amedium size-pot is filled with the fresh bark of Newbouldia laevis andboiled water for a long time The preparation is then used towash face and head every morning and night oral taking of12 glass of preparation twice daily for 6 days cures migraineand also stops vaginal bleeding in threatened abortion Leavesand roots are boiled together and administered for feverconvulsion and epilepsy Stem bark is used for treating skin
infections Decoction of leaves is used as an eye wash inconjunctivitis Boiled leaves extract is used to treat generalmalaria
3111 Typhoid Fever Menstrual Flow Healthy Skin PurgativeDiuretic Anthelmintic Expectorant and Abortifacient Thefruit ofAnanas comosus is cut cooked and drank for typhoidfever The unripe fruit can be used as a purgative diureticantihelmintic expectorant and abortifacient and is alsotaken to regulate and enhance menstrual flow Fruit peelis used topically for healthy skin The ripped fruit is takenregularly to recover from typhoid fever
3112 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Stomach TroublesPurgative and Fungal Infection Fruits of Citrullus colocyn-this are recommended for the treatment of stomach troublesand sexually transmitted diseases Fruit and leaf decoction isused as a purgative in man and animal Seed shell powderedand mixed with palm oil is rubbed on skin to treat fungalinfections
3113 Ringworm Scabies Eczema Sexually Transmitted Dis-eases Thrush Bleeding Wounds Toothache and Skin DiseaseThe latex of Jatropha curcas is used to treat skin disease suchas ring worm scabies and eczema Twigs are used as chewingstick to prevent tooth decay oral thrush bleeding woundsand tooth ache Roots are used to treat sexually transmitteddiseases Leaves are added to hasten fermentation of cassavaDecoction of leaves is used to sterilize umbilicus of new bornbabies
3114 Fibroid Improves Sperm Count Fertility and MenstrualFlow Seed of Tetracarpidium conophorum is used in thetreatment of fibroid Boiled seeds are eaten to improve spermcount inmen Leaf juice is used to improve fertility in womenand to regulate menstrual flow
3115 As Food Leaves of Telfairia occidentalis are of highlynutritive value as vegetable for soup and other local dishesLeaves are washed and the juice squeeze is mixed with milkand taken as a blood tonic The boiled seeds are eaten asdelicacy and source of oil Some of the plants are used as herbsfood and other uses
The knowledge of the indigenous people about contra-ceptives was one of the informal innovative discoveries inthis work In this context Ageratum conyzoides Tetracar-pidium conophorum Rhaphiostylis beninensis Lonchocarpuscyanescens carpolobia alba and Chrysophyllum albidumare used to invoke sterility while Moranthodoa leucanthaincreases sexual vigor and Mucuna soloanei and Senna occi-dentalis are used by indigenous ladies as contraceptives Fewplant species known to be ldquopoisonousrdquo for example Ricinuscommunis and Scleria verrucosa were reported to be verypotent We also observed that some tuberous plant specieslikeColocasia esculenta andDioscorea rotundata and Jatrophagossypifolia and Musa paradisiaca are used to cure sexuallytransmitted diseases to regularize menstruation and toincrease fertilityWe further discovered that those plants with
10 ISRN Botany
high nutritive value like Colocasia esculenta Basella albaTelfairia occidentalis Glycine soja Gnetum africana Arachishypogea and Solanum lycopersicum are cultivated mainly forcommercial purposes as they are sold in nearby marketsOthers likeHibiscus senensis Moringa oleifera and Sida acutain addition to food and medicinal values have becomebeautiful ornamental plants Dracaena arborea Anacardiumoccidentale Basella alba Spathodea campanulata Alliumsativum Mucuna sloanei Ocimum basilicum Sida acutaLaportea aestuans and Trema orientalis are used to treatconstipation indigestion abdominal pain and dysenteryOur result also shows that the people use Xanthosoma sppCalotropis procera Vernonia amygdalina Ageratum cony-zoides Chromolaena odorata Newbouldia laevis Spathodeacampanulata and Adenopus breviflorus for skin diseases likewound tumor boils burns and cuts Dioscorea rotundataJatropha curcas Ricinus communis Irvingia gabonensis Aloebarteri OcimumbasilicumAzadirachta indica Baphia nitidaMitracarpus scabrum Glyphaea brevis and Trema orientalisare also used for the above purposes
Respiratory disorders like cough cold tuberculosis andasthma are cured using single herb or mixture of herbs likeCalotropis proceraDennettia tripetalaCarica papayaAlliumsativum Cymbopogon citratus Chrysophyllum albidum andZingiber officinale Our study shows that most herbs areknown to cure malaria and typhoid fever which are endemicin PortHarcourtmetropolisAnacardium spondiasDennettiatripetala Ananas comosus Adenopus breviflorus Ipomeainvolucrate Carica papaya Securinega virosa Hyptis pecti-nata Sida acutaAzarachta indicaPsidium guajavaBambusavulgarisCymbopogon citratusMorinda lucidaCitrus sinensisMurraya koenigii Capsicum annum Chrysophyllum albidumGlyphaea brevis Corchorus olitorius and Trema orientalis
4 Discussion
This is the first ethnobotanical study of Port Harcourtmetropolis in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria Our studyshows that the 83 plant species identified were useful asfood and in the treatment of different human ailmentsshowing that traditional medical practice is an importantcomponent of our everyday life Our findings are similar to[9] Reference [1] suggested the need to institutionalize thetraditional medicine in concert with orthodox medicine toachieve an effective national health care system in NigeriaThe authors maintained that an effective health cannot beachieved in Africa by orthodox medicine alone unless it hasbeen complemented with traditional medicine in support of[10]
The questionnaire and interviews gathered indicatethat most people in the Metropolis depend on traditionalmedicine for their health needs because of their poor eco-nomic conditions This is one of the major reasons whytraditional medicine has continued to thrive in both ruraland urban areas in Nigeria The utilization of medicinalplants in traditional medicine was found to be effectivecheap and practical References [11 12] noted the growinginterest on the medicinal properties of a number of common
plants The practice is fast developing due to poor economicsituation expensiveness and inadequate availability of drugsReference [13] stated that the use of plants and products inhealth care is even much higher particularly in those areaswith little or no access to modern health services Thesemedicinal plants have been underutilized in the orthodoxmedicine but have now been recognized in ethnomedicinalpreparation
Gender and age influenced the traditional knowledge ofour respondents Males within 45ndash70 years have medicinalknowledge than females This may be due to their involve-ment in trade or personal experience of using these plantsfor a very long time In addition the younger generationdoes not seem to have much trust in the traditional medicinesystem which may be attributed to increasing use of allelo-pathic medicines which are readily available and potent Ourfindings also show that the indigenous people value some ofthese herbs for medicinal purposes than as food condimentsFor instance garlic is more useful in treating fever coughconstipation asthma nervous disorder hypertension ulcerand antihelmentic than in mere seasoning of food The sameapplies to onion curry leaf ginger and scent leaf
Traditional medicinal practices are known to still be animportant component of everyday life in many regions of theworld [14ndash16] The use of plants in healthcare is even muchhigher particularly in areas with little or no access to modernhealth services [13] Reference [1] gave a comprehensivetreatise on the need to institutionalize traditional medicineinto the health scheme according to WHO guidelines [17]Most of the plants were used to treatmalaria fever underlyingthe importance of this disease in the region
Conservation of indigenous plant species of medicinalimportance is necessary as they remain source of healthand wealth There is need for closer collaboration betweenherbal medical practitioners medical doctors and otherstakeholders in medical practice to bring traditional healerscloser by engaging them in laboratory work training aswell as getting information on traditional prescriptions forspecific diseases Both traditional and orthodox medicinesshould complement each other and their integration orharmonization is necessary for quality healthcare deliveryespecially in the rural communitiesThe ethnobotany of PortHarcourt metropolis has been documented Various plantshave dual significance first as food secondly as medicinalplants and can have some active constituents for futurepharmaceutical analysis
Conflict of Interests
There is no conflict of interests as the information therein ispurely for research purposesThe authors do not support self-medication and further suggest getting advice from medicalpractitioners before taking any of these herbs
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the local informants and herbalhealers who shared their knowledge with them
ISRN Botany 11
References
[1] R N Okigbo and E CMmeka ldquoAn appraisal of phytomedicinein Africardquo KMITL Science and Technology Journal vol 6 no 2pp 83ndash94 2006
[2] D CMohana S Satish andK A Raveesha ldquoAntibacterial eval-uation of some plant extracts against some human pathogenicbacteriardquoAdvances in Biological Research vol 2 no 3-4 pp 49ndash55 2008
[3] G M Adwan B A Abu-shanab and K M Adwan ldquoIn vitroactivity of certain drugs in combination with plant extractsagainst Staphylococcus aureus infectionsrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 8 no 17 pp 4239ndash4241 2009
[4] A O Ajayi and T A Akintola ldquoEvaluation of antibacterialactivity of some medicinal plants on common enteric food-borne pathogensrdquoAfrican Journal of Microbiology Research vol4 no 4 pp 314ndash316 2010
[5] F C Akharaiyi and B Boboye ldquoAntibacterial and phytochem-ical evaluation of three medicinal plantsrdquo Journal of NaturalProducts vol 3 pp 27ndash34 2010
[6] J Hutchinson and J M Dalziel Flora of West Tropical Africavol 1 TheWhitefriars Press 1954
[7] JMDalzielTheUseful Plants ofWest Tropical Africa Appendixto Flora of West Tropical Africa Crown Agents for OverseasGovernment and Administration 1937
[8] L S Gill Ethnomedical Uses of Plants in Nigeria IbadanUniversity Press 1988
[9] A A Aiyeloja and O A Bello ldquoEthnobotanical potentialsof common herbs in Nigeria a case study of Enugu staterdquoEducational Research and Review vol 1 no 1 pp 16ndash22 2006
[10] A A Elujoba O M Odeleye and C M Ogunyemi ldquoTradi-tional medical development for medical and dental primaryHealth care delivery system in Africardquo African Journal ofTraditional Complementary andAlternativeMedicine vol 2 no1 pp 46ndash61 2005
[11] M A Belewu O A Olatunde and T A Giwa ldquoUnderutilizedmedicinal plants and spices chemical composition and phyto-chemical propertiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plant Research vol 3no 12 pp 1099ndash1103 2009
[12] I I Ijeh O I U Njokwu and E C Ekenze ldquoMedicinal evalu-ation of extracts of Xylopia aethiopica and Ocimum gratissiumrdquoJournal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences vol 26 pp44ndash47 2004
[13] M Saeed M Arshad E Ahmad E Ahmed and M IshaqueldquoEthnophytotherapies for the treatment of various diseasesby the local people of selected areas of NWFP (Pakistan)rdquoPakistan Journal of Biological Sciences vol 7 no 7 pp 1104ndash11082004
[14] R W Bussmann ldquoManteniendo el balance de naturalezay hombre La diversidad floritica Andina y su impotaniciaporla diversidad cultural-ejemplos del norte de Peru y Sur deEcuadorrdquo Amaldoa vol 13 no 1-2 pp 382ndash397 2006
[15] R W Bussmann and D Sharon ldquoTraditional medicinal plantuse in Northern Peru tracking two thousand years of healingculturerdquo Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2article 47 2006
[16] V de Feo ldquoMedicinal and magical plants in the NorthernPeruvian Andesrdquo Fitoterapia vol 63 no 5 pp 417ndash440 1992
[17] World Health Organisation The Promotion and Developmentof Traditional Medicine Technical Report Series 622 WorldHealth Organisation Geneva Switzerland 1978
tablespoon of the powder is mixed with four tablespoons ofhoney and licked three times daily for twoweeks for intestinalulcer Some quantity of the root and fresh leaves are boiledseparately 12 and a full glass is drank daily for 1 week tointestinal ulcer and anaemia respectively Eating of unripefruit either roasted boiled pounded or processed into flouris a good treatment for diabetes
315 Cough Malaria Fever and Repellant Decoction fromleaves of Cymbopogon citratewith onion and honey is used tocure cough taken 3 times daily for 3 days The leaf is boiledalong with other herbs to treat malaria fever by bathing withit every night for 2 days The leaf is burnt in homes to serveas repellant for mosquitoes
316 Fever and Lactation Thebark root and leaf ofMorindalucida are used in infusion or decoction for the treatment ofyellow fever and other forms of fever to be taken 12 glass 2times daily and also bathing for 3 days The very bitter leafdecoction is applied to the breast of women at weaning oftheir infants to improve lactation Twigs are used as chewingstick
317 Malaria Diabetes Dysentery MouthThrush Toothacheand Sore Gums The twig of Anacardium occidentale is usedas chewing stick for mouth thrush tooth ache and soregum Decoction of the bark is a remedy for malaria fever bydrinking 12 glass 3 times dailyThebark and leaves are boiledand a glass is taken twice daily for dysentery
318 Fibroids Cataract Gonorrhea Aphrodisiac CoughInflammatory Symptoms Toothache and Sore Throat Seedof Spondias mombin is boiled together with immature palm-nuts and 12 glass is taken thrice daily for 2 months forfibroid Fresh leaves are ground and the juice is squeezedand mixed with one teaspoonful of lime juice and applied aseye drop twice daily for cataract Fresh leaves are boiled andone glassful is drank thrice daily for gonorrhea Decoction ofleaves is used as an aphrodisiacDecoction of the bark is takenfor severe cough toothache and sore throat
319 Abdominal Pains Ulcers Skin Disease Dressing ofWound and Prophylactic Decoction of the whole plant ofAgeratum conyzoides is a remedy for abdominal pains Leafjuice is used for dressing wounds ulcers and other skindiseases Leaves are used as tonic to aid fertility because itprevents early miscarriage It is also used as prophylactic andcure for trachoma in cattle
3110 Threatened Abortion Convulsion Epilepsy Skin Infec-tions Conjunctivitis Migraine and Earache Amedium size-pot is filled with the fresh bark of Newbouldia laevis andboiled water for a long time The preparation is then used towash face and head every morning and night oral taking of12 glass of preparation twice daily for 6 days cures migraineand also stops vaginal bleeding in threatened abortion Leavesand roots are boiled together and administered for feverconvulsion and epilepsy Stem bark is used for treating skin
infections Decoction of leaves is used as an eye wash inconjunctivitis Boiled leaves extract is used to treat generalmalaria
3111 Typhoid Fever Menstrual Flow Healthy Skin PurgativeDiuretic Anthelmintic Expectorant and Abortifacient Thefruit ofAnanas comosus is cut cooked and drank for typhoidfever The unripe fruit can be used as a purgative diureticantihelmintic expectorant and abortifacient and is alsotaken to regulate and enhance menstrual flow Fruit peelis used topically for healthy skin The ripped fruit is takenregularly to recover from typhoid fever
3112 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Stomach TroublesPurgative and Fungal Infection Fruits of Citrullus colocyn-this are recommended for the treatment of stomach troublesand sexually transmitted diseases Fruit and leaf decoction isused as a purgative in man and animal Seed shell powderedand mixed with palm oil is rubbed on skin to treat fungalinfections
3113 Ringworm Scabies Eczema Sexually Transmitted Dis-eases Thrush Bleeding Wounds Toothache and Skin DiseaseThe latex of Jatropha curcas is used to treat skin disease suchas ring worm scabies and eczema Twigs are used as chewingstick to prevent tooth decay oral thrush bleeding woundsand tooth ache Roots are used to treat sexually transmitteddiseases Leaves are added to hasten fermentation of cassavaDecoction of leaves is used to sterilize umbilicus of new bornbabies
3114 Fibroid Improves Sperm Count Fertility and MenstrualFlow Seed of Tetracarpidium conophorum is used in thetreatment of fibroid Boiled seeds are eaten to improve spermcount inmen Leaf juice is used to improve fertility in womenand to regulate menstrual flow
3115 As Food Leaves of Telfairia occidentalis are of highlynutritive value as vegetable for soup and other local dishesLeaves are washed and the juice squeeze is mixed with milkand taken as a blood tonic The boiled seeds are eaten asdelicacy and source of oil Some of the plants are used as herbsfood and other uses
The knowledge of the indigenous people about contra-ceptives was one of the informal innovative discoveries inthis work In this context Ageratum conyzoides Tetracar-pidium conophorum Rhaphiostylis beninensis Lonchocarpuscyanescens carpolobia alba and Chrysophyllum albidumare used to invoke sterility while Moranthodoa leucanthaincreases sexual vigor and Mucuna soloanei and Senna occi-dentalis are used by indigenous ladies as contraceptives Fewplant species known to be ldquopoisonousrdquo for example Ricinuscommunis and Scleria verrucosa were reported to be verypotent We also observed that some tuberous plant specieslikeColocasia esculenta andDioscorea rotundata and Jatrophagossypifolia and Musa paradisiaca are used to cure sexuallytransmitted diseases to regularize menstruation and toincrease fertilityWe further discovered that those plants with
10 ISRN Botany
high nutritive value like Colocasia esculenta Basella albaTelfairia occidentalis Glycine soja Gnetum africana Arachishypogea and Solanum lycopersicum are cultivated mainly forcommercial purposes as they are sold in nearby marketsOthers likeHibiscus senensis Moringa oleifera and Sida acutain addition to food and medicinal values have becomebeautiful ornamental plants Dracaena arborea Anacardiumoccidentale Basella alba Spathodea campanulata Alliumsativum Mucuna sloanei Ocimum basilicum Sida acutaLaportea aestuans and Trema orientalis are used to treatconstipation indigestion abdominal pain and dysenteryOur result also shows that the people use Xanthosoma sppCalotropis procera Vernonia amygdalina Ageratum cony-zoides Chromolaena odorata Newbouldia laevis Spathodeacampanulata and Adenopus breviflorus for skin diseases likewound tumor boils burns and cuts Dioscorea rotundataJatropha curcas Ricinus communis Irvingia gabonensis Aloebarteri OcimumbasilicumAzadirachta indica Baphia nitidaMitracarpus scabrum Glyphaea brevis and Trema orientalisare also used for the above purposes
Respiratory disorders like cough cold tuberculosis andasthma are cured using single herb or mixture of herbs likeCalotropis proceraDennettia tripetalaCarica papayaAlliumsativum Cymbopogon citratus Chrysophyllum albidum andZingiber officinale Our study shows that most herbs areknown to cure malaria and typhoid fever which are endemicin PortHarcourtmetropolisAnacardium spondiasDennettiatripetala Ananas comosus Adenopus breviflorus Ipomeainvolucrate Carica papaya Securinega virosa Hyptis pecti-nata Sida acutaAzarachta indicaPsidium guajavaBambusavulgarisCymbopogon citratusMorinda lucidaCitrus sinensisMurraya koenigii Capsicum annum Chrysophyllum albidumGlyphaea brevis Corchorus olitorius and Trema orientalis
4 Discussion
This is the first ethnobotanical study of Port Harcourtmetropolis in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria Our studyshows that the 83 plant species identified were useful asfood and in the treatment of different human ailmentsshowing that traditional medical practice is an importantcomponent of our everyday life Our findings are similar to[9] Reference [1] suggested the need to institutionalize thetraditional medicine in concert with orthodox medicine toachieve an effective national health care system in NigeriaThe authors maintained that an effective health cannot beachieved in Africa by orthodox medicine alone unless it hasbeen complemented with traditional medicine in support of[10]
The questionnaire and interviews gathered indicatethat most people in the Metropolis depend on traditionalmedicine for their health needs because of their poor eco-nomic conditions This is one of the major reasons whytraditional medicine has continued to thrive in both ruraland urban areas in Nigeria The utilization of medicinalplants in traditional medicine was found to be effectivecheap and practical References [11 12] noted the growinginterest on the medicinal properties of a number of common
plants The practice is fast developing due to poor economicsituation expensiveness and inadequate availability of drugsReference [13] stated that the use of plants and products inhealth care is even much higher particularly in those areaswith little or no access to modern health services Thesemedicinal plants have been underutilized in the orthodoxmedicine but have now been recognized in ethnomedicinalpreparation
Gender and age influenced the traditional knowledge ofour respondents Males within 45ndash70 years have medicinalknowledge than females This may be due to their involve-ment in trade or personal experience of using these plantsfor a very long time In addition the younger generationdoes not seem to have much trust in the traditional medicinesystem which may be attributed to increasing use of allelo-pathic medicines which are readily available and potent Ourfindings also show that the indigenous people value some ofthese herbs for medicinal purposes than as food condimentsFor instance garlic is more useful in treating fever coughconstipation asthma nervous disorder hypertension ulcerand antihelmentic than in mere seasoning of food The sameapplies to onion curry leaf ginger and scent leaf
Traditional medicinal practices are known to still be animportant component of everyday life in many regions of theworld [14ndash16] The use of plants in healthcare is even muchhigher particularly in areas with little or no access to modernhealth services [13] Reference [1] gave a comprehensivetreatise on the need to institutionalize traditional medicineinto the health scheme according to WHO guidelines [17]Most of the plants were used to treatmalaria fever underlyingthe importance of this disease in the region
Conservation of indigenous plant species of medicinalimportance is necessary as they remain source of healthand wealth There is need for closer collaboration betweenherbal medical practitioners medical doctors and otherstakeholders in medical practice to bring traditional healerscloser by engaging them in laboratory work training aswell as getting information on traditional prescriptions forspecific diseases Both traditional and orthodox medicinesshould complement each other and their integration orharmonization is necessary for quality healthcare deliveryespecially in the rural communitiesThe ethnobotany of PortHarcourt metropolis has been documented Various plantshave dual significance first as food secondly as medicinalplants and can have some active constituents for futurepharmaceutical analysis
Conflict of Interests
There is no conflict of interests as the information therein ispurely for research purposesThe authors do not support self-medication and further suggest getting advice from medicalpractitioners before taking any of these herbs
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the local informants and herbalhealers who shared their knowledge with them
ISRN Botany 11
References
[1] R N Okigbo and E CMmeka ldquoAn appraisal of phytomedicinein Africardquo KMITL Science and Technology Journal vol 6 no 2pp 83ndash94 2006
[2] D CMohana S Satish andK A Raveesha ldquoAntibacterial eval-uation of some plant extracts against some human pathogenicbacteriardquoAdvances in Biological Research vol 2 no 3-4 pp 49ndash55 2008
[3] G M Adwan B A Abu-shanab and K M Adwan ldquoIn vitroactivity of certain drugs in combination with plant extractsagainst Staphylococcus aureus infectionsrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 8 no 17 pp 4239ndash4241 2009
[4] A O Ajayi and T A Akintola ldquoEvaluation of antibacterialactivity of some medicinal plants on common enteric food-borne pathogensrdquoAfrican Journal of Microbiology Research vol4 no 4 pp 314ndash316 2010
[5] F C Akharaiyi and B Boboye ldquoAntibacterial and phytochem-ical evaluation of three medicinal plantsrdquo Journal of NaturalProducts vol 3 pp 27ndash34 2010
[6] J Hutchinson and J M Dalziel Flora of West Tropical Africavol 1 TheWhitefriars Press 1954
[7] JMDalzielTheUseful Plants ofWest Tropical Africa Appendixto Flora of West Tropical Africa Crown Agents for OverseasGovernment and Administration 1937
[8] L S Gill Ethnomedical Uses of Plants in Nigeria IbadanUniversity Press 1988
[9] A A Aiyeloja and O A Bello ldquoEthnobotanical potentialsof common herbs in Nigeria a case study of Enugu staterdquoEducational Research and Review vol 1 no 1 pp 16ndash22 2006
[10] A A Elujoba O M Odeleye and C M Ogunyemi ldquoTradi-tional medical development for medical and dental primaryHealth care delivery system in Africardquo African Journal ofTraditional Complementary andAlternativeMedicine vol 2 no1 pp 46ndash61 2005
[11] M A Belewu O A Olatunde and T A Giwa ldquoUnderutilizedmedicinal plants and spices chemical composition and phyto-chemical propertiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plant Research vol 3no 12 pp 1099ndash1103 2009
[12] I I Ijeh O I U Njokwu and E C Ekenze ldquoMedicinal evalu-ation of extracts of Xylopia aethiopica and Ocimum gratissiumrdquoJournal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences vol 26 pp44ndash47 2004
[13] M Saeed M Arshad E Ahmad E Ahmed and M IshaqueldquoEthnophytotherapies for the treatment of various diseasesby the local people of selected areas of NWFP (Pakistan)rdquoPakistan Journal of Biological Sciences vol 7 no 7 pp 1104ndash11082004
[14] R W Bussmann ldquoManteniendo el balance de naturalezay hombre La diversidad floritica Andina y su impotaniciaporla diversidad cultural-ejemplos del norte de Peru y Sur deEcuadorrdquo Amaldoa vol 13 no 1-2 pp 382ndash397 2006
[15] R W Bussmann and D Sharon ldquoTraditional medicinal plantuse in Northern Peru tracking two thousand years of healingculturerdquo Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2article 47 2006
[16] V de Feo ldquoMedicinal and magical plants in the NorthernPeruvian Andesrdquo Fitoterapia vol 63 no 5 pp 417ndash440 1992
[17] World Health Organisation The Promotion and Developmentof Traditional Medicine Technical Report Series 622 WorldHealth Organisation Geneva Switzerland 1978
tablespoon of the powder is mixed with four tablespoons ofhoney and licked three times daily for twoweeks for intestinalulcer Some quantity of the root and fresh leaves are boiledseparately 12 and a full glass is drank daily for 1 week tointestinal ulcer and anaemia respectively Eating of unripefruit either roasted boiled pounded or processed into flouris a good treatment for diabetes
315 Cough Malaria Fever and Repellant Decoction fromleaves of Cymbopogon citratewith onion and honey is used tocure cough taken 3 times daily for 3 days The leaf is boiledalong with other herbs to treat malaria fever by bathing withit every night for 2 days The leaf is burnt in homes to serveas repellant for mosquitoes
316 Fever and Lactation Thebark root and leaf ofMorindalucida are used in infusion or decoction for the treatment ofyellow fever and other forms of fever to be taken 12 glass 2times daily and also bathing for 3 days The very bitter leafdecoction is applied to the breast of women at weaning oftheir infants to improve lactation Twigs are used as chewingstick
317 Malaria Diabetes Dysentery MouthThrush Toothacheand Sore Gums The twig of Anacardium occidentale is usedas chewing stick for mouth thrush tooth ache and soregum Decoction of the bark is a remedy for malaria fever bydrinking 12 glass 3 times dailyThebark and leaves are boiledand a glass is taken twice daily for dysentery
318 Fibroids Cataract Gonorrhea Aphrodisiac CoughInflammatory Symptoms Toothache and Sore Throat Seedof Spondias mombin is boiled together with immature palm-nuts and 12 glass is taken thrice daily for 2 months forfibroid Fresh leaves are ground and the juice is squeezedand mixed with one teaspoonful of lime juice and applied aseye drop twice daily for cataract Fresh leaves are boiled andone glassful is drank thrice daily for gonorrhea Decoction ofleaves is used as an aphrodisiacDecoction of the bark is takenfor severe cough toothache and sore throat
319 Abdominal Pains Ulcers Skin Disease Dressing ofWound and Prophylactic Decoction of the whole plant ofAgeratum conyzoides is a remedy for abdominal pains Leafjuice is used for dressing wounds ulcers and other skindiseases Leaves are used as tonic to aid fertility because itprevents early miscarriage It is also used as prophylactic andcure for trachoma in cattle
3110 Threatened Abortion Convulsion Epilepsy Skin Infec-tions Conjunctivitis Migraine and Earache Amedium size-pot is filled with the fresh bark of Newbouldia laevis andboiled water for a long time The preparation is then used towash face and head every morning and night oral taking of12 glass of preparation twice daily for 6 days cures migraineand also stops vaginal bleeding in threatened abortion Leavesand roots are boiled together and administered for feverconvulsion and epilepsy Stem bark is used for treating skin
infections Decoction of leaves is used as an eye wash inconjunctivitis Boiled leaves extract is used to treat generalmalaria
3111 Typhoid Fever Menstrual Flow Healthy Skin PurgativeDiuretic Anthelmintic Expectorant and Abortifacient Thefruit ofAnanas comosus is cut cooked and drank for typhoidfever The unripe fruit can be used as a purgative diureticantihelmintic expectorant and abortifacient and is alsotaken to regulate and enhance menstrual flow Fruit peelis used topically for healthy skin The ripped fruit is takenregularly to recover from typhoid fever
3112 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Stomach TroublesPurgative and Fungal Infection Fruits of Citrullus colocyn-this are recommended for the treatment of stomach troublesand sexually transmitted diseases Fruit and leaf decoction isused as a purgative in man and animal Seed shell powderedand mixed with palm oil is rubbed on skin to treat fungalinfections
3113 Ringworm Scabies Eczema Sexually Transmitted Dis-eases Thrush Bleeding Wounds Toothache and Skin DiseaseThe latex of Jatropha curcas is used to treat skin disease suchas ring worm scabies and eczema Twigs are used as chewingstick to prevent tooth decay oral thrush bleeding woundsand tooth ache Roots are used to treat sexually transmitteddiseases Leaves are added to hasten fermentation of cassavaDecoction of leaves is used to sterilize umbilicus of new bornbabies
3114 Fibroid Improves Sperm Count Fertility and MenstrualFlow Seed of Tetracarpidium conophorum is used in thetreatment of fibroid Boiled seeds are eaten to improve spermcount inmen Leaf juice is used to improve fertility in womenand to regulate menstrual flow
3115 As Food Leaves of Telfairia occidentalis are of highlynutritive value as vegetable for soup and other local dishesLeaves are washed and the juice squeeze is mixed with milkand taken as a blood tonic The boiled seeds are eaten asdelicacy and source of oil Some of the plants are used as herbsfood and other uses
The knowledge of the indigenous people about contra-ceptives was one of the informal innovative discoveries inthis work In this context Ageratum conyzoides Tetracar-pidium conophorum Rhaphiostylis beninensis Lonchocarpuscyanescens carpolobia alba and Chrysophyllum albidumare used to invoke sterility while Moranthodoa leucanthaincreases sexual vigor and Mucuna soloanei and Senna occi-dentalis are used by indigenous ladies as contraceptives Fewplant species known to be ldquopoisonousrdquo for example Ricinuscommunis and Scleria verrucosa were reported to be verypotent We also observed that some tuberous plant specieslikeColocasia esculenta andDioscorea rotundata and Jatrophagossypifolia and Musa paradisiaca are used to cure sexuallytransmitted diseases to regularize menstruation and toincrease fertilityWe further discovered that those plants with
10 ISRN Botany
high nutritive value like Colocasia esculenta Basella albaTelfairia occidentalis Glycine soja Gnetum africana Arachishypogea and Solanum lycopersicum are cultivated mainly forcommercial purposes as they are sold in nearby marketsOthers likeHibiscus senensis Moringa oleifera and Sida acutain addition to food and medicinal values have becomebeautiful ornamental plants Dracaena arborea Anacardiumoccidentale Basella alba Spathodea campanulata Alliumsativum Mucuna sloanei Ocimum basilicum Sida acutaLaportea aestuans and Trema orientalis are used to treatconstipation indigestion abdominal pain and dysenteryOur result also shows that the people use Xanthosoma sppCalotropis procera Vernonia amygdalina Ageratum cony-zoides Chromolaena odorata Newbouldia laevis Spathodeacampanulata and Adenopus breviflorus for skin diseases likewound tumor boils burns and cuts Dioscorea rotundataJatropha curcas Ricinus communis Irvingia gabonensis Aloebarteri OcimumbasilicumAzadirachta indica Baphia nitidaMitracarpus scabrum Glyphaea brevis and Trema orientalisare also used for the above purposes
Respiratory disorders like cough cold tuberculosis andasthma are cured using single herb or mixture of herbs likeCalotropis proceraDennettia tripetalaCarica papayaAlliumsativum Cymbopogon citratus Chrysophyllum albidum andZingiber officinale Our study shows that most herbs areknown to cure malaria and typhoid fever which are endemicin PortHarcourtmetropolisAnacardium spondiasDennettiatripetala Ananas comosus Adenopus breviflorus Ipomeainvolucrate Carica papaya Securinega virosa Hyptis pecti-nata Sida acutaAzarachta indicaPsidium guajavaBambusavulgarisCymbopogon citratusMorinda lucidaCitrus sinensisMurraya koenigii Capsicum annum Chrysophyllum albidumGlyphaea brevis Corchorus olitorius and Trema orientalis
4 Discussion
This is the first ethnobotanical study of Port Harcourtmetropolis in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria Our studyshows that the 83 plant species identified were useful asfood and in the treatment of different human ailmentsshowing that traditional medical practice is an importantcomponent of our everyday life Our findings are similar to[9] Reference [1] suggested the need to institutionalize thetraditional medicine in concert with orthodox medicine toachieve an effective national health care system in NigeriaThe authors maintained that an effective health cannot beachieved in Africa by orthodox medicine alone unless it hasbeen complemented with traditional medicine in support of[10]
The questionnaire and interviews gathered indicatethat most people in the Metropolis depend on traditionalmedicine for their health needs because of their poor eco-nomic conditions This is one of the major reasons whytraditional medicine has continued to thrive in both ruraland urban areas in Nigeria The utilization of medicinalplants in traditional medicine was found to be effectivecheap and practical References [11 12] noted the growinginterest on the medicinal properties of a number of common
plants The practice is fast developing due to poor economicsituation expensiveness and inadequate availability of drugsReference [13] stated that the use of plants and products inhealth care is even much higher particularly in those areaswith little or no access to modern health services Thesemedicinal plants have been underutilized in the orthodoxmedicine but have now been recognized in ethnomedicinalpreparation
Gender and age influenced the traditional knowledge ofour respondents Males within 45ndash70 years have medicinalknowledge than females This may be due to their involve-ment in trade or personal experience of using these plantsfor a very long time In addition the younger generationdoes not seem to have much trust in the traditional medicinesystem which may be attributed to increasing use of allelo-pathic medicines which are readily available and potent Ourfindings also show that the indigenous people value some ofthese herbs for medicinal purposes than as food condimentsFor instance garlic is more useful in treating fever coughconstipation asthma nervous disorder hypertension ulcerand antihelmentic than in mere seasoning of food The sameapplies to onion curry leaf ginger and scent leaf
Traditional medicinal practices are known to still be animportant component of everyday life in many regions of theworld [14ndash16] The use of plants in healthcare is even muchhigher particularly in areas with little or no access to modernhealth services [13] Reference [1] gave a comprehensivetreatise on the need to institutionalize traditional medicineinto the health scheme according to WHO guidelines [17]Most of the plants were used to treatmalaria fever underlyingthe importance of this disease in the region
Conservation of indigenous plant species of medicinalimportance is necessary as they remain source of healthand wealth There is need for closer collaboration betweenherbal medical practitioners medical doctors and otherstakeholders in medical practice to bring traditional healerscloser by engaging them in laboratory work training aswell as getting information on traditional prescriptions forspecific diseases Both traditional and orthodox medicinesshould complement each other and their integration orharmonization is necessary for quality healthcare deliveryespecially in the rural communitiesThe ethnobotany of PortHarcourt metropolis has been documented Various plantshave dual significance first as food secondly as medicinalplants and can have some active constituents for futurepharmaceutical analysis
Conflict of Interests
There is no conflict of interests as the information therein ispurely for research purposesThe authors do not support self-medication and further suggest getting advice from medicalpractitioners before taking any of these herbs
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the local informants and herbalhealers who shared their knowledge with them
ISRN Botany 11
References
[1] R N Okigbo and E CMmeka ldquoAn appraisal of phytomedicinein Africardquo KMITL Science and Technology Journal vol 6 no 2pp 83ndash94 2006
[2] D CMohana S Satish andK A Raveesha ldquoAntibacterial eval-uation of some plant extracts against some human pathogenicbacteriardquoAdvances in Biological Research vol 2 no 3-4 pp 49ndash55 2008
[3] G M Adwan B A Abu-shanab and K M Adwan ldquoIn vitroactivity of certain drugs in combination with plant extractsagainst Staphylococcus aureus infectionsrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 8 no 17 pp 4239ndash4241 2009
[4] A O Ajayi and T A Akintola ldquoEvaluation of antibacterialactivity of some medicinal plants on common enteric food-borne pathogensrdquoAfrican Journal of Microbiology Research vol4 no 4 pp 314ndash316 2010
[5] F C Akharaiyi and B Boboye ldquoAntibacterial and phytochem-ical evaluation of three medicinal plantsrdquo Journal of NaturalProducts vol 3 pp 27ndash34 2010
[6] J Hutchinson and J M Dalziel Flora of West Tropical Africavol 1 TheWhitefriars Press 1954
[7] JMDalzielTheUseful Plants ofWest Tropical Africa Appendixto Flora of West Tropical Africa Crown Agents for OverseasGovernment and Administration 1937
[8] L S Gill Ethnomedical Uses of Plants in Nigeria IbadanUniversity Press 1988
[9] A A Aiyeloja and O A Bello ldquoEthnobotanical potentialsof common herbs in Nigeria a case study of Enugu staterdquoEducational Research and Review vol 1 no 1 pp 16ndash22 2006
[10] A A Elujoba O M Odeleye and C M Ogunyemi ldquoTradi-tional medical development for medical and dental primaryHealth care delivery system in Africardquo African Journal ofTraditional Complementary andAlternativeMedicine vol 2 no1 pp 46ndash61 2005
[11] M A Belewu O A Olatunde and T A Giwa ldquoUnderutilizedmedicinal plants and spices chemical composition and phyto-chemical propertiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plant Research vol 3no 12 pp 1099ndash1103 2009
[12] I I Ijeh O I U Njokwu and E C Ekenze ldquoMedicinal evalu-ation of extracts of Xylopia aethiopica and Ocimum gratissiumrdquoJournal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences vol 26 pp44ndash47 2004
[13] M Saeed M Arshad E Ahmad E Ahmed and M IshaqueldquoEthnophytotherapies for the treatment of various diseasesby the local people of selected areas of NWFP (Pakistan)rdquoPakistan Journal of Biological Sciences vol 7 no 7 pp 1104ndash11082004
[14] R W Bussmann ldquoManteniendo el balance de naturalezay hombre La diversidad floritica Andina y su impotaniciaporla diversidad cultural-ejemplos del norte de Peru y Sur deEcuadorrdquo Amaldoa vol 13 no 1-2 pp 382ndash397 2006
[15] R W Bussmann and D Sharon ldquoTraditional medicinal plantuse in Northern Peru tracking two thousand years of healingculturerdquo Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2article 47 2006
[16] V de Feo ldquoMedicinal and magical plants in the NorthernPeruvian Andesrdquo Fitoterapia vol 63 no 5 pp 417ndash440 1992
[17] World Health Organisation The Promotion and Developmentof Traditional Medicine Technical Report Series 622 WorldHealth Organisation Geneva Switzerland 1978
tablespoon of the powder is mixed with four tablespoons ofhoney and licked three times daily for twoweeks for intestinalulcer Some quantity of the root and fresh leaves are boiledseparately 12 and a full glass is drank daily for 1 week tointestinal ulcer and anaemia respectively Eating of unripefruit either roasted boiled pounded or processed into flouris a good treatment for diabetes
315 Cough Malaria Fever and Repellant Decoction fromleaves of Cymbopogon citratewith onion and honey is used tocure cough taken 3 times daily for 3 days The leaf is boiledalong with other herbs to treat malaria fever by bathing withit every night for 2 days The leaf is burnt in homes to serveas repellant for mosquitoes
316 Fever and Lactation Thebark root and leaf ofMorindalucida are used in infusion or decoction for the treatment ofyellow fever and other forms of fever to be taken 12 glass 2times daily and also bathing for 3 days The very bitter leafdecoction is applied to the breast of women at weaning oftheir infants to improve lactation Twigs are used as chewingstick
317 Malaria Diabetes Dysentery MouthThrush Toothacheand Sore Gums The twig of Anacardium occidentale is usedas chewing stick for mouth thrush tooth ache and soregum Decoction of the bark is a remedy for malaria fever bydrinking 12 glass 3 times dailyThebark and leaves are boiledand a glass is taken twice daily for dysentery
318 Fibroids Cataract Gonorrhea Aphrodisiac CoughInflammatory Symptoms Toothache and Sore Throat Seedof Spondias mombin is boiled together with immature palm-nuts and 12 glass is taken thrice daily for 2 months forfibroid Fresh leaves are ground and the juice is squeezedand mixed with one teaspoonful of lime juice and applied aseye drop twice daily for cataract Fresh leaves are boiled andone glassful is drank thrice daily for gonorrhea Decoction ofleaves is used as an aphrodisiacDecoction of the bark is takenfor severe cough toothache and sore throat
319 Abdominal Pains Ulcers Skin Disease Dressing ofWound and Prophylactic Decoction of the whole plant ofAgeratum conyzoides is a remedy for abdominal pains Leafjuice is used for dressing wounds ulcers and other skindiseases Leaves are used as tonic to aid fertility because itprevents early miscarriage It is also used as prophylactic andcure for trachoma in cattle
3110 Threatened Abortion Convulsion Epilepsy Skin Infec-tions Conjunctivitis Migraine and Earache Amedium size-pot is filled with the fresh bark of Newbouldia laevis andboiled water for a long time The preparation is then used towash face and head every morning and night oral taking of12 glass of preparation twice daily for 6 days cures migraineand also stops vaginal bleeding in threatened abortion Leavesand roots are boiled together and administered for feverconvulsion and epilepsy Stem bark is used for treating skin
infections Decoction of leaves is used as an eye wash inconjunctivitis Boiled leaves extract is used to treat generalmalaria
3111 Typhoid Fever Menstrual Flow Healthy Skin PurgativeDiuretic Anthelmintic Expectorant and Abortifacient Thefruit ofAnanas comosus is cut cooked and drank for typhoidfever The unripe fruit can be used as a purgative diureticantihelmintic expectorant and abortifacient and is alsotaken to regulate and enhance menstrual flow Fruit peelis used topically for healthy skin The ripped fruit is takenregularly to recover from typhoid fever
3112 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Stomach TroublesPurgative and Fungal Infection Fruits of Citrullus colocyn-this are recommended for the treatment of stomach troublesand sexually transmitted diseases Fruit and leaf decoction isused as a purgative in man and animal Seed shell powderedand mixed with palm oil is rubbed on skin to treat fungalinfections
3113 Ringworm Scabies Eczema Sexually Transmitted Dis-eases Thrush Bleeding Wounds Toothache and Skin DiseaseThe latex of Jatropha curcas is used to treat skin disease suchas ring worm scabies and eczema Twigs are used as chewingstick to prevent tooth decay oral thrush bleeding woundsand tooth ache Roots are used to treat sexually transmitteddiseases Leaves are added to hasten fermentation of cassavaDecoction of leaves is used to sterilize umbilicus of new bornbabies
3114 Fibroid Improves Sperm Count Fertility and MenstrualFlow Seed of Tetracarpidium conophorum is used in thetreatment of fibroid Boiled seeds are eaten to improve spermcount inmen Leaf juice is used to improve fertility in womenand to regulate menstrual flow
3115 As Food Leaves of Telfairia occidentalis are of highlynutritive value as vegetable for soup and other local dishesLeaves are washed and the juice squeeze is mixed with milkand taken as a blood tonic The boiled seeds are eaten asdelicacy and source of oil Some of the plants are used as herbsfood and other uses
The knowledge of the indigenous people about contra-ceptives was one of the informal innovative discoveries inthis work In this context Ageratum conyzoides Tetracar-pidium conophorum Rhaphiostylis beninensis Lonchocarpuscyanescens carpolobia alba and Chrysophyllum albidumare used to invoke sterility while Moranthodoa leucanthaincreases sexual vigor and Mucuna soloanei and Senna occi-dentalis are used by indigenous ladies as contraceptives Fewplant species known to be ldquopoisonousrdquo for example Ricinuscommunis and Scleria verrucosa were reported to be verypotent We also observed that some tuberous plant specieslikeColocasia esculenta andDioscorea rotundata and Jatrophagossypifolia and Musa paradisiaca are used to cure sexuallytransmitted diseases to regularize menstruation and toincrease fertilityWe further discovered that those plants with
10 ISRN Botany
high nutritive value like Colocasia esculenta Basella albaTelfairia occidentalis Glycine soja Gnetum africana Arachishypogea and Solanum lycopersicum are cultivated mainly forcommercial purposes as they are sold in nearby marketsOthers likeHibiscus senensis Moringa oleifera and Sida acutain addition to food and medicinal values have becomebeautiful ornamental plants Dracaena arborea Anacardiumoccidentale Basella alba Spathodea campanulata Alliumsativum Mucuna sloanei Ocimum basilicum Sida acutaLaportea aestuans and Trema orientalis are used to treatconstipation indigestion abdominal pain and dysenteryOur result also shows that the people use Xanthosoma sppCalotropis procera Vernonia amygdalina Ageratum cony-zoides Chromolaena odorata Newbouldia laevis Spathodeacampanulata and Adenopus breviflorus for skin diseases likewound tumor boils burns and cuts Dioscorea rotundataJatropha curcas Ricinus communis Irvingia gabonensis Aloebarteri OcimumbasilicumAzadirachta indica Baphia nitidaMitracarpus scabrum Glyphaea brevis and Trema orientalisare also used for the above purposes
Respiratory disorders like cough cold tuberculosis andasthma are cured using single herb or mixture of herbs likeCalotropis proceraDennettia tripetalaCarica papayaAlliumsativum Cymbopogon citratus Chrysophyllum albidum andZingiber officinale Our study shows that most herbs areknown to cure malaria and typhoid fever which are endemicin PortHarcourtmetropolisAnacardium spondiasDennettiatripetala Ananas comosus Adenopus breviflorus Ipomeainvolucrate Carica papaya Securinega virosa Hyptis pecti-nata Sida acutaAzarachta indicaPsidium guajavaBambusavulgarisCymbopogon citratusMorinda lucidaCitrus sinensisMurraya koenigii Capsicum annum Chrysophyllum albidumGlyphaea brevis Corchorus olitorius and Trema orientalis
4 Discussion
This is the first ethnobotanical study of Port Harcourtmetropolis in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria Our studyshows that the 83 plant species identified were useful asfood and in the treatment of different human ailmentsshowing that traditional medical practice is an importantcomponent of our everyday life Our findings are similar to[9] Reference [1] suggested the need to institutionalize thetraditional medicine in concert with orthodox medicine toachieve an effective national health care system in NigeriaThe authors maintained that an effective health cannot beachieved in Africa by orthodox medicine alone unless it hasbeen complemented with traditional medicine in support of[10]
The questionnaire and interviews gathered indicatethat most people in the Metropolis depend on traditionalmedicine for their health needs because of their poor eco-nomic conditions This is one of the major reasons whytraditional medicine has continued to thrive in both ruraland urban areas in Nigeria The utilization of medicinalplants in traditional medicine was found to be effectivecheap and practical References [11 12] noted the growinginterest on the medicinal properties of a number of common
plants The practice is fast developing due to poor economicsituation expensiveness and inadequate availability of drugsReference [13] stated that the use of plants and products inhealth care is even much higher particularly in those areaswith little or no access to modern health services Thesemedicinal plants have been underutilized in the orthodoxmedicine but have now been recognized in ethnomedicinalpreparation
Gender and age influenced the traditional knowledge ofour respondents Males within 45ndash70 years have medicinalknowledge than females This may be due to their involve-ment in trade or personal experience of using these plantsfor a very long time In addition the younger generationdoes not seem to have much trust in the traditional medicinesystem which may be attributed to increasing use of allelo-pathic medicines which are readily available and potent Ourfindings also show that the indigenous people value some ofthese herbs for medicinal purposes than as food condimentsFor instance garlic is more useful in treating fever coughconstipation asthma nervous disorder hypertension ulcerand antihelmentic than in mere seasoning of food The sameapplies to onion curry leaf ginger and scent leaf
Traditional medicinal practices are known to still be animportant component of everyday life in many regions of theworld [14ndash16] The use of plants in healthcare is even muchhigher particularly in areas with little or no access to modernhealth services [13] Reference [1] gave a comprehensivetreatise on the need to institutionalize traditional medicineinto the health scheme according to WHO guidelines [17]Most of the plants were used to treatmalaria fever underlyingthe importance of this disease in the region
Conservation of indigenous plant species of medicinalimportance is necessary as they remain source of healthand wealth There is need for closer collaboration betweenherbal medical practitioners medical doctors and otherstakeholders in medical practice to bring traditional healerscloser by engaging them in laboratory work training aswell as getting information on traditional prescriptions forspecific diseases Both traditional and orthodox medicinesshould complement each other and their integration orharmonization is necessary for quality healthcare deliveryespecially in the rural communitiesThe ethnobotany of PortHarcourt metropolis has been documented Various plantshave dual significance first as food secondly as medicinalplants and can have some active constituents for futurepharmaceutical analysis
Conflict of Interests
There is no conflict of interests as the information therein ispurely for research purposesThe authors do not support self-medication and further suggest getting advice from medicalpractitioners before taking any of these herbs
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the local informants and herbalhealers who shared their knowledge with them
ISRN Botany 11
References
[1] R N Okigbo and E CMmeka ldquoAn appraisal of phytomedicinein Africardquo KMITL Science and Technology Journal vol 6 no 2pp 83ndash94 2006
[2] D CMohana S Satish andK A Raveesha ldquoAntibacterial eval-uation of some plant extracts against some human pathogenicbacteriardquoAdvances in Biological Research vol 2 no 3-4 pp 49ndash55 2008
[3] G M Adwan B A Abu-shanab and K M Adwan ldquoIn vitroactivity of certain drugs in combination with plant extractsagainst Staphylococcus aureus infectionsrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 8 no 17 pp 4239ndash4241 2009
[4] A O Ajayi and T A Akintola ldquoEvaluation of antibacterialactivity of some medicinal plants on common enteric food-borne pathogensrdquoAfrican Journal of Microbiology Research vol4 no 4 pp 314ndash316 2010
[5] F C Akharaiyi and B Boboye ldquoAntibacterial and phytochem-ical evaluation of three medicinal plantsrdquo Journal of NaturalProducts vol 3 pp 27ndash34 2010
[6] J Hutchinson and J M Dalziel Flora of West Tropical Africavol 1 TheWhitefriars Press 1954
[7] JMDalzielTheUseful Plants ofWest Tropical Africa Appendixto Flora of West Tropical Africa Crown Agents for OverseasGovernment and Administration 1937
[8] L S Gill Ethnomedical Uses of Plants in Nigeria IbadanUniversity Press 1988
[9] A A Aiyeloja and O A Bello ldquoEthnobotanical potentialsof common herbs in Nigeria a case study of Enugu staterdquoEducational Research and Review vol 1 no 1 pp 16ndash22 2006
[10] A A Elujoba O M Odeleye and C M Ogunyemi ldquoTradi-tional medical development for medical and dental primaryHealth care delivery system in Africardquo African Journal ofTraditional Complementary andAlternativeMedicine vol 2 no1 pp 46ndash61 2005
[11] M A Belewu O A Olatunde and T A Giwa ldquoUnderutilizedmedicinal plants and spices chemical composition and phyto-chemical propertiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plant Research vol 3no 12 pp 1099ndash1103 2009
[12] I I Ijeh O I U Njokwu and E C Ekenze ldquoMedicinal evalu-ation of extracts of Xylopia aethiopica and Ocimum gratissiumrdquoJournal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences vol 26 pp44ndash47 2004
[13] M Saeed M Arshad E Ahmad E Ahmed and M IshaqueldquoEthnophytotherapies for the treatment of various diseasesby the local people of selected areas of NWFP (Pakistan)rdquoPakistan Journal of Biological Sciences vol 7 no 7 pp 1104ndash11082004
[14] R W Bussmann ldquoManteniendo el balance de naturalezay hombre La diversidad floritica Andina y su impotaniciaporla diversidad cultural-ejemplos del norte de Peru y Sur deEcuadorrdquo Amaldoa vol 13 no 1-2 pp 382ndash397 2006
[15] R W Bussmann and D Sharon ldquoTraditional medicinal plantuse in Northern Peru tracking two thousand years of healingculturerdquo Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2article 47 2006
[16] V de Feo ldquoMedicinal and magical plants in the NorthernPeruvian Andesrdquo Fitoterapia vol 63 no 5 pp 417ndash440 1992
[17] World Health Organisation The Promotion and Developmentof Traditional Medicine Technical Report Series 622 WorldHealth Organisation Geneva Switzerland 1978
tablespoon of the powder is mixed with four tablespoons ofhoney and licked three times daily for twoweeks for intestinalulcer Some quantity of the root and fresh leaves are boiledseparately 12 and a full glass is drank daily for 1 week tointestinal ulcer and anaemia respectively Eating of unripefruit either roasted boiled pounded or processed into flouris a good treatment for diabetes
315 Cough Malaria Fever and Repellant Decoction fromleaves of Cymbopogon citratewith onion and honey is used tocure cough taken 3 times daily for 3 days The leaf is boiledalong with other herbs to treat malaria fever by bathing withit every night for 2 days The leaf is burnt in homes to serveas repellant for mosquitoes
316 Fever and Lactation Thebark root and leaf ofMorindalucida are used in infusion or decoction for the treatment ofyellow fever and other forms of fever to be taken 12 glass 2times daily and also bathing for 3 days The very bitter leafdecoction is applied to the breast of women at weaning oftheir infants to improve lactation Twigs are used as chewingstick
317 Malaria Diabetes Dysentery MouthThrush Toothacheand Sore Gums The twig of Anacardium occidentale is usedas chewing stick for mouth thrush tooth ache and soregum Decoction of the bark is a remedy for malaria fever bydrinking 12 glass 3 times dailyThebark and leaves are boiledand a glass is taken twice daily for dysentery
318 Fibroids Cataract Gonorrhea Aphrodisiac CoughInflammatory Symptoms Toothache and Sore Throat Seedof Spondias mombin is boiled together with immature palm-nuts and 12 glass is taken thrice daily for 2 months forfibroid Fresh leaves are ground and the juice is squeezedand mixed with one teaspoonful of lime juice and applied aseye drop twice daily for cataract Fresh leaves are boiled andone glassful is drank thrice daily for gonorrhea Decoction ofleaves is used as an aphrodisiacDecoction of the bark is takenfor severe cough toothache and sore throat
319 Abdominal Pains Ulcers Skin Disease Dressing ofWound and Prophylactic Decoction of the whole plant ofAgeratum conyzoides is a remedy for abdominal pains Leafjuice is used for dressing wounds ulcers and other skindiseases Leaves are used as tonic to aid fertility because itprevents early miscarriage It is also used as prophylactic andcure for trachoma in cattle
3110 Threatened Abortion Convulsion Epilepsy Skin Infec-tions Conjunctivitis Migraine and Earache Amedium size-pot is filled with the fresh bark of Newbouldia laevis andboiled water for a long time The preparation is then used towash face and head every morning and night oral taking of12 glass of preparation twice daily for 6 days cures migraineand also stops vaginal bleeding in threatened abortion Leavesand roots are boiled together and administered for feverconvulsion and epilepsy Stem bark is used for treating skin
infections Decoction of leaves is used as an eye wash inconjunctivitis Boiled leaves extract is used to treat generalmalaria
3111 Typhoid Fever Menstrual Flow Healthy Skin PurgativeDiuretic Anthelmintic Expectorant and Abortifacient Thefruit ofAnanas comosus is cut cooked and drank for typhoidfever The unripe fruit can be used as a purgative diureticantihelmintic expectorant and abortifacient and is alsotaken to regulate and enhance menstrual flow Fruit peelis used topically for healthy skin The ripped fruit is takenregularly to recover from typhoid fever
3112 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Stomach TroublesPurgative and Fungal Infection Fruits of Citrullus colocyn-this are recommended for the treatment of stomach troublesand sexually transmitted diseases Fruit and leaf decoction isused as a purgative in man and animal Seed shell powderedand mixed with palm oil is rubbed on skin to treat fungalinfections
3113 Ringworm Scabies Eczema Sexually Transmitted Dis-eases Thrush Bleeding Wounds Toothache and Skin DiseaseThe latex of Jatropha curcas is used to treat skin disease suchas ring worm scabies and eczema Twigs are used as chewingstick to prevent tooth decay oral thrush bleeding woundsand tooth ache Roots are used to treat sexually transmitteddiseases Leaves are added to hasten fermentation of cassavaDecoction of leaves is used to sterilize umbilicus of new bornbabies
3114 Fibroid Improves Sperm Count Fertility and MenstrualFlow Seed of Tetracarpidium conophorum is used in thetreatment of fibroid Boiled seeds are eaten to improve spermcount inmen Leaf juice is used to improve fertility in womenand to regulate menstrual flow
3115 As Food Leaves of Telfairia occidentalis are of highlynutritive value as vegetable for soup and other local dishesLeaves are washed and the juice squeeze is mixed with milkand taken as a blood tonic The boiled seeds are eaten asdelicacy and source of oil Some of the plants are used as herbsfood and other uses
The knowledge of the indigenous people about contra-ceptives was one of the informal innovative discoveries inthis work In this context Ageratum conyzoides Tetracar-pidium conophorum Rhaphiostylis beninensis Lonchocarpuscyanescens carpolobia alba and Chrysophyllum albidumare used to invoke sterility while Moranthodoa leucanthaincreases sexual vigor and Mucuna soloanei and Senna occi-dentalis are used by indigenous ladies as contraceptives Fewplant species known to be ldquopoisonousrdquo for example Ricinuscommunis and Scleria verrucosa were reported to be verypotent We also observed that some tuberous plant specieslikeColocasia esculenta andDioscorea rotundata and Jatrophagossypifolia and Musa paradisiaca are used to cure sexuallytransmitted diseases to regularize menstruation and toincrease fertilityWe further discovered that those plants with
10 ISRN Botany
high nutritive value like Colocasia esculenta Basella albaTelfairia occidentalis Glycine soja Gnetum africana Arachishypogea and Solanum lycopersicum are cultivated mainly forcommercial purposes as they are sold in nearby marketsOthers likeHibiscus senensis Moringa oleifera and Sida acutain addition to food and medicinal values have becomebeautiful ornamental plants Dracaena arborea Anacardiumoccidentale Basella alba Spathodea campanulata Alliumsativum Mucuna sloanei Ocimum basilicum Sida acutaLaportea aestuans and Trema orientalis are used to treatconstipation indigestion abdominal pain and dysenteryOur result also shows that the people use Xanthosoma sppCalotropis procera Vernonia amygdalina Ageratum cony-zoides Chromolaena odorata Newbouldia laevis Spathodeacampanulata and Adenopus breviflorus for skin diseases likewound tumor boils burns and cuts Dioscorea rotundataJatropha curcas Ricinus communis Irvingia gabonensis Aloebarteri OcimumbasilicumAzadirachta indica Baphia nitidaMitracarpus scabrum Glyphaea brevis and Trema orientalisare also used for the above purposes
Respiratory disorders like cough cold tuberculosis andasthma are cured using single herb or mixture of herbs likeCalotropis proceraDennettia tripetalaCarica papayaAlliumsativum Cymbopogon citratus Chrysophyllum albidum andZingiber officinale Our study shows that most herbs areknown to cure malaria and typhoid fever which are endemicin PortHarcourtmetropolisAnacardium spondiasDennettiatripetala Ananas comosus Adenopus breviflorus Ipomeainvolucrate Carica papaya Securinega virosa Hyptis pecti-nata Sida acutaAzarachta indicaPsidium guajavaBambusavulgarisCymbopogon citratusMorinda lucidaCitrus sinensisMurraya koenigii Capsicum annum Chrysophyllum albidumGlyphaea brevis Corchorus olitorius and Trema orientalis
4 Discussion
This is the first ethnobotanical study of Port Harcourtmetropolis in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria Our studyshows that the 83 plant species identified were useful asfood and in the treatment of different human ailmentsshowing that traditional medical practice is an importantcomponent of our everyday life Our findings are similar to[9] Reference [1] suggested the need to institutionalize thetraditional medicine in concert with orthodox medicine toachieve an effective national health care system in NigeriaThe authors maintained that an effective health cannot beachieved in Africa by orthodox medicine alone unless it hasbeen complemented with traditional medicine in support of[10]
The questionnaire and interviews gathered indicatethat most people in the Metropolis depend on traditionalmedicine for their health needs because of their poor eco-nomic conditions This is one of the major reasons whytraditional medicine has continued to thrive in both ruraland urban areas in Nigeria The utilization of medicinalplants in traditional medicine was found to be effectivecheap and practical References [11 12] noted the growinginterest on the medicinal properties of a number of common
plants The practice is fast developing due to poor economicsituation expensiveness and inadequate availability of drugsReference [13] stated that the use of plants and products inhealth care is even much higher particularly in those areaswith little or no access to modern health services Thesemedicinal plants have been underutilized in the orthodoxmedicine but have now been recognized in ethnomedicinalpreparation
Gender and age influenced the traditional knowledge ofour respondents Males within 45ndash70 years have medicinalknowledge than females This may be due to their involve-ment in trade or personal experience of using these plantsfor a very long time In addition the younger generationdoes not seem to have much trust in the traditional medicinesystem which may be attributed to increasing use of allelo-pathic medicines which are readily available and potent Ourfindings also show that the indigenous people value some ofthese herbs for medicinal purposes than as food condimentsFor instance garlic is more useful in treating fever coughconstipation asthma nervous disorder hypertension ulcerand antihelmentic than in mere seasoning of food The sameapplies to onion curry leaf ginger and scent leaf
Traditional medicinal practices are known to still be animportant component of everyday life in many regions of theworld [14ndash16] The use of plants in healthcare is even muchhigher particularly in areas with little or no access to modernhealth services [13] Reference [1] gave a comprehensivetreatise on the need to institutionalize traditional medicineinto the health scheme according to WHO guidelines [17]Most of the plants were used to treatmalaria fever underlyingthe importance of this disease in the region
Conservation of indigenous plant species of medicinalimportance is necessary as they remain source of healthand wealth There is need for closer collaboration betweenherbal medical practitioners medical doctors and otherstakeholders in medical practice to bring traditional healerscloser by engaging them in laboratory work training aswell as getting information on traditional prescriptions forspecific diseases Both traditional and orthodox medicinesshould complement each other and their integration orharmonization is necessary for quality healthcare deliveryespecially in the rural communitiesThe ethnobotany of PortHarcourt metropolis has been documented Various plantshave dual significance first as food secondly as medicinalplants and can have some active constituents for futurepharmaceutical analysis
Conflict of Interests
There is no conflict of interests as the information therein ispurely for research purposesThe authors do not support self-medication and further suggest getting advice from medicalpractitioners before taking any of these herbs
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the local informants and herbalhealers who shared their knowledge with them
ISRN Botany 11
References
[1] R N Okigbo and E CMmeka ldquoAn appraisal of phytomedicinein Africardquo KMITL Science and Technology Journal vol 6 no 2pp 83ndash94 2006
[2] D CMohana S Satish andK A Raveesha ldquoAntibacterial eval-uation of some plant extracts against some human pathogenicbacteriardquoAdvances in Biological Research vol 2 no 3-4 pp 49ndash55 2008
[3] G M Adwan B A Abu-shanab and K M Adwan ldquoIn vitroactivity of certain drugs in combination with plant extractsagainst Staphylococcus aureus infectionsrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 8 no 17 pp 4239ndash4241 2009
[4] A O Ajayi and T A Akintola ldquoEvaluation of antibacterialactivity of some medicinal plants on common enteric food-borne pathogensrdquoAfrican Journal of Microbiology Research vol4 no 4 pp 314ndash316 2010
[5] F C Akharaiyi and B Boboye ldquoAntibacterial and phytochem-ical evaluation of three medicinal plantsrdquo Journal of NaturalProducts vol 3 pp 27ndash34 2010
[6] J Hutchinson and J M Dalziel Flora of West Tropical Africavol 1 TheWhitefriars Press 1954
[7] JMDalzielTheUseful Plants ofWest Tropical Africa Appendixto Flora of West Tropical Africa Crown Agents for OverseasGovernment and Administration 1937
[8] L S Gill Ethnomedical Uses of Plants in Nigeria IbadanUniversity Press 1988
[9] A A Aiyeloja and O A Bello ldquoEthnobotanical potentialsof common herbs in Nigeria a case study of Enugu staterdquoEducational Research and Review vol 1 no 1 pp 16ndash22 2006
[10] A A Elujoba O M Odeleye and C M Ogunyemi ldquoTradi-tional medical development for medical and dental primaryHealth care delivery system in Africardquo African Journal ofTraditional Complementary andAlternativeMedicine vol 2 no1 pp 46ndash61 2005
[11] M A Belewu O A Olatunde and T A Giwa ldquoUnderutilizedmedicinal plants and spices chemical composition and phyto-chemical propertiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plant Research vol 3no 12 pp 1099ndash1103 2009
[12] I I Ijeh O I U Njokwu and E C Ekenze ldquoMedicinal evalu-ation of extracts of Xylopia aethiopica and Ocimum gratissiumrdquoJournal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences vol 26 pp44ndash47 2004
[13] M Saeed M Arshad E Ahmad E Ahmed and M IshaqueldquoEthnophytotherapies for the treatment of various diseasesby the local people of selected areas of NWFP (Pakistan)rdquoPakistan Journal of Biological Sciences vol 7 no 7 pp 1104ndash11082004
[14] R W Bussmann ldquoManteniendo el balance de naturalezay hombre La diversidad floritica Andina y su impotaniciaporla diversidad cultural-ejemplos del norte de Peru y Sur deEcuadorrdquo Amaldoa vol 13 no 1-2 pp 382ndash397 2006
[15] R W Bussmann and D Sharon ldquoTraditional medicinal plantuse in Northern Peru tracking two thousand years of healingculturerdquo Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2article 47 2006
[16] V de Feo ldquoMedicinal and magical plants in the NorthernPeruvian Andesrdquo Fitoterapia vol 63 no 5 pp 417ndash440 1992
[17] World Health Organisation The Promotion and Developmentof Traditional Medicine Technical Report Series 622 WorldHealth Organisation Geneva Switzerland 1978
tablespoon of the powder is mixed with four tablespoons ofhoney and licked three times daily for twoweeks for intestinalulcer Some quantity of the root and fresh leaves are boiledseparately 12 and a full glass is drank daily for 1 week tointestinal ulcer and anaemia respectively Eating of unripefruit either roasted boiled pounded or processed into flouris a good treatment for diabetes
315 Cough Malaria Fever and Repellant Decoction fromleaves of Cymbopogon citratewith onion and honey is used tocure cough taken 3 times daily for 3 days The leaf is boiledalong with other herbs to treat malaria fever by bathing withit every night for 2 days The leaf is burnt in homes to serveas repellant for mosquitoes
316 Fever and Lactation Thebark root and leaf ofMorindalucida are used in infusion or decoction for the treatment ofyellow fever and other forms of fever to be taken 12 glass 2times daily and also bathing for 3 days The very bitter leafdecoction is applied to the breast of women at weaning oftheir infants to improve lactation Twigs are used as chewingstick
317 Malaria Diabetes Dysentery MouthThrush Toothacheand Sore Gums The twig of Anacardium occidentale is usedas chewing stick for mouth thrush tooth ache and soregum Decoction of the bark is a remedy for malaria fever bydrinking 12 glass 3 times dailyThebark and leaves are boiledand a glass is taken twice daily for dysentery
318 Fibroids Cataract Gonorrhea Aphrodisiac CoughInflammatory Symptoms Toothache and Sore Throat Seedof Spondias mombin is boiled together with immature palm-nuts and 12 glass is taken thrice daily for 2 months forfibroid Fresh leaves are ground and the juice is squeezedand mixed with one teaspoonful of lime juice and applied aseye drop twice daily for cataract Fresh leaves are boiled andone glassful is drank thrice daily for gonorrhea Decoction ofleaves is used as an aphrodisiacDecoction of the bark is takenfor severe cough toothache and sore throat
319 Abdominal Pains Ulcers Skin Disease Dressing ofWound and Prophylactic Decoction of the whole plant ofAgeratum conyzoides is a remedy for abdominal pains Leafjuice is used for dressing wounds ulcers and other skindiseases Leaves are used as tonic to aid fertility because itprevents early miscarriage It is also used as prophylactic andcure for trachoma in cattle
3110 Threatened Abortion Convulsion Epilepsy Skin Infec-tions Conjunctivitis Migraine and Earache Amedium size-pot is filled with the fresh bark of Newbouldia laevis andboiled water for a long time The preparation is then used towash face and head every morning and night oral taking of12 glass of preparation twice daily for 6 days cures migraineand also stops vaginal bleeding in threatened abortion Leavesand roots are boiled together and administered for feverconvulsion and epilepsy Stem bark is used for treating skin
infections Decoction of leaves is used as an eye wash inconjunctivitis Boiled leaves extract is used to treat generalmalaria
3111 Typhoid Fever Menstrual Flow Healthy Skin PurgativeDiuretic Anthelmintic Expectorant and Abortifacient Thefruit ofAnanas comosus is cut cooked and drank for typhoidfever The unripe fruit can be used as a purgative diureticantihelmintic expectorant and abortifacient and is alsotaken to regulate and enhance menstrual flow Fruit peelis used topically for healthy skin The ripped fruit is takenregularly to recover from typhoid fever
3112 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Stomach TroublesPurgative and Fungal Infection Fruits of Citrullus colocyn-this are recommended for the treatment of stomach troublesand sexually transmitted diseases Fruit and leaf decoction isused as a purgative in man and animal Seed shell powderedand mixed with palm oil is rubbed on skin to treat fungalinfections
3113 Ringworm Scabies Eczema Sexually Transmitted Dis-eases Thrush Bleeding Wounds Toothache and Skin DiseaseThe latex of Jatropha curcas is used to treat skin disease suchas ring worm scabies and eczema Twigs are used as chewingstick to prevent tooth decay oral thrush bleeding woundsand tooth ache Roots are used to treat sexually transmitteddiseases Leaves are added to hasten fermentation of cassavaDecoction of leaves is used to sterilize umbilicus of new bornbabies
3114 Fibroid Improves Sperm Count Fertility and MenstrualFlow Seed of Tetracarpidium conophorum is used in thetreatment of fibroid Boiled seeds are eaten to improve spermcount inmen Leaf juice is used to improve fertility in womenand to regulate menstrual flow
3115 As Food Leaves of Telfairia occidentalis are of highlynutritive value as vegetable for soup and other local dishesLeaves are washed and the juice squeeze is mixed with milkand taken as a blood tonic The boiled seeds are eaten asdelicacy and source of oil Some of the plants are used as herbsfood and other uses
The knowledge of the indigenous people about contra-ceptives was one of the informal innovative discoveries inthis work In this context Ageratum conyzoides Tetracar-pidium conophorum Rhaphiostylis beninensis Lonchocarpuscyanescens carpolobia alba and Chrysophyllum albidumare used to invoke sterility while Moranthodoa leucanthaincreases sexual vigor and Mucuna soloanei and Senna occi-dentalis are used by indigenous ladies as contraceptives Fewplant species known to be ldquopoisonousrdquo for example Ricinuscommunis and Scleria verrucosa were reported to be verypotent We also observed that some tuberous plant specieslikeColocasia esculenta andDioscorea rotundata and Jatrophagossypifolia and Musa paradisiaca are used to cure sexuallytransmitted diseases to regularize menstruation and toincrease fertilityWe further discovered that those plants with
10 ISRN Botany
high nutritive value like Colocasia esculenta Basella albaTelfairia occidentalis Glycine soja Gnetum africana Arachishypogea and Solanum lycopersicum are cultivated mainly forcommercial purposes as they are sold in nearby marketsOthers likeHibiscus senensis Moringa oleifera and Sida acutain addition to food and medicinal values have becomebeautiful ornamental plants Dracaena arborea Anacardiumoccidentale Basella alba Spathodea campanulata Alliumsativum Mucuna sloanei Ocimum basilicum Sida acutaLaportea aestuans and Trema orientalis are used to treatconstipation indigestion abdominal pain and dysenteryOur result also shows that the people use Xanthosoma sppCalotropis procera Vernonia amygdalina Ageratum cony-zoides Chromolaena odorata Newbouldia laevis Spathodeacampanulata and Adenopus breviflorus for skin diseases likewound tumor boils burns and cuts Dioscorea rotundataJatropha curcas Ricinus communis Irvingia gabonensis Aloebarteri OcimumbasilicumAzadirachta indica Baphia nitidaMitracarpus scabrum Glyphaea brevis and Trema orientalisare also used for the above purposes
Respiratory disorders like cough cold tuberculosis andasthma are cured using single herb or mixture of herbs likeCalotropis proceraDennettia tripetalaCarica papayaAlliumsativum Cymbopogon citratus Chrysophyllum albidum andZingiber officinale Our study shows that most herbs areknown to cure malaria and typhoid fever which are endemicin PortHarcourtmetropolisAnacardium spondiasDennettiatripetala Ananas comosus Adenopus breviflorus Ipomeainvolucrate Carica papaya Securinega virosa Hyptis pecti-nata Sida acutaAzarachta indicaPsidium guajavaBambusavulgarisCymbopogon citratusMorinda lucidaCitrus sinensisMurraya koenigii Capsicum annum Chrysophyllum albidumGlyphaea brevis Corchorus olitorius and Trema orientalis
4 Discussion
This is the first ethnobotanical study of Port Harcourtmetropolis in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria Our studyshows that the 83 plant species identified were useful asfood and in the treatment of different human ailmentsshowing that traditional medical practice is an importantcomponent of our everyday life Our findings are similar to[9] Reference [1] suggested the need to institutionalize thetraditional medicine in concert with orthodox medicine toachieve an effective national health care system in NigeriaThe authors maintained that an effective health cannot beachieved in Africa by orthodox medicine alone unless it hasbeen complemented with traditional medicine in support of[10]
The questionnaire and interviews gathered indicatethat most people in the Metropolis depend on traditionalmedicine for their health needs because of their poor eco-nomic conditions This is one of the major reasons whytraditional medicine has continued to thrive in both ruraland urban areas in Nigeria The utilization of medicinalplants in traditional medicine was found to be effectivecheap and practical References [11 12] noted the growinginterest on the medicinal properties of a number of common
plants The practice is fast developing due to poor economicsituation expensiveness and inadequate availability of drugsReference [13] stated that the use of plants and products inhealth care is even much higher particularly in those areaswith little or no access to modern health services Thesemedicinal plants have been underutilized in the orthodoxmedicine but have now been recognized in ethnomedicinalpreparation
Gender and age influenced the traditional knowledge ofour respondents Males within 45ndash70 years have medicinalknowledge than females This may be due to their involve-ment in trade or personal experience of using these plantsfor a very long time In addition the younger generationdoes not seem to have much trust in the traditional medicinesystem which may be attributed to increasing use of allelo-pathic medicines which are readily available and potent Ourfindings also show that the indigenous people value some ofthese herbs for medicinal purposes than as food condimentsFor instance garlic is more useful in treating fever coughconstipation asthma nervous disorder hypertension ulcerand antihelmentic than in mere seasoning of food The sameapplies to onion curry leaf ginger and scent leaf
Traditional medicinal practices are known to still be animportant component of everyday life in many regions of theworld [14ndash16] The use of plants in healthcare is even muchhigher particularly in areas with little or no access to modernhealth services [13] Reference [1] gave a comprehensivetreatise on the need to institutionalize traditional medicineinto the health scheme according to WHO guidelines [17]Most of the plants were used to treatmalaria fever underlyingthe importance of this disease in the region
Conservation of indigenous plant species of medicinalimportance is necessary as they remain source of healthand wealth There is need for closer collaboration betweenherbal medical practitioners medical doctors and otherstakeholders in medical practice to bring traditional healerscloser by engaging them in laboratory work training aswell as getting information on traditional prescriptions forspecific diseases Both traditional and orthodox medicinesshould complement each other and their integration orharmonization is necessary for quality healthcare deliveryespecially in the rural communitiesThe ethnobotany of PortHarcourt metropolis has been documented Various plantshave dual significance first as food secondly as medicinalplants and can have some active constituents for futurepharmaceutical analysis
Conflict of Interests
There is no conflict of interests as the information therein ispurely for research purposesThe authors do not support self-medication and further suggest getting advice from medicalpractitioners before taking any of these herbs
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the local informants and herbalhealers who shared their knowledge with them
ISRN Botany 11
References
[1] R N Okigbo and E CMmeka ldquoAn appraisal of phytomedicinein Africardquo KMITL Science and Technology Journal vol 6 no 2pp 83ndash94 2006
[2] D CMohana S Satish andK A Raveesha ldquoAntibacterial eval-uation of some plant extracts against some human pathogenicbacteriardquoAdvances in Biological Research vol 2 no 3-4 pp 49ndash55 2008
[3] G M Adwan B A Abu-shanab and K M Adwan ldquoIn vitroactivity of certain drugs in combination with plant extractsagainst Staphylococcus aureus infectionsrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 8 no 17 pp 4239ndash4241 2009
[4] A O Ajayi and T A Akintola ldquoEvaluation of antibacterialactivity of some medicinal plants on common enteric food-borne pathogensrdquoAfrican Journal of Microbiology Research vol4 no 4 pp 314ndash316 2010
[5] F C Akharaiyi and B Boboye ldquoAntibacterial and phytochem-ical evaluation of three medicinal plantsrdquo Journal of NaturalProducts vol 3 pp 27ndash34 2010
[6] J Hutchinson and J M Dalziel Flora of West Tropical Africavol 1 TheWhitefriars Press 1954
[7] JMDalzielTheUseful Plants ofWest Tropical Africa Appendixto Flora of West Tropical Africa Crown Agents for OverseasGovernment and Administration 1937
[8] L S Gill Ethnomedical Uses of Plants in Nigeria IbadanUniversity Press 1988
[9] A A Aiyeloja and O A Bello ldquoEthnobotanical potentialsof common herbs in Nigeria a case study of Enugu staterdquoEducational Research and Review vol 1 no 1 pp 16ndash22 2006
[10] A A Elujoba O M Odeleye and C M Ogunyemi ldquoTradi-tional medical development for medical and dental primaryHealth care delivery system in Africardquo African Journal ofTraditional Complementary andAlternativeMedicine vol 2 no1 pp 46ndash61 2005
[11] M A Belewu O A Olatunde and T A Giwa ldquoUnderutilizedmedicinal plants and spices chemical composition and phyto-chemical propertiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plant Research vol 3no 12 pp 1099ndash1103 2009
[12] I I Ijeh O I U Njokwu and E C Ekenze ldquoMedicinal evalu-ation of extracts of Xylopia aethiopica and Ocimum gratissiumrdquoJournal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences vol 26 pp44ndash47 2004
[13] M Saeed M Arshad E Ahmad E Ahmed and M IshaqueldquoEthnophytotherapies for the treatment of various diseasesby the local people of selected areas of NWFP (Pakistan)rdquoPakistan Journal of Biological Sciences vol 7 no 7 pp 1104ndash11082004
[14] R W Bussmann ldquoManteniendo el balance de naturalezay hombre La diversidad floritica Andina y su impotaniciaporla diversidad cultural-ejemplos del norte de Peru y Sur deEcuadorrdquo Amaldoa vol 13 no 1-2 pp 382ndash397 2006
[15] R W Bussmann and D Sharon ldquoTraditional medicinal plantuse in Northern Peru tracking two thousand years of healingculturerdquo Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2article 47 2006
[16] V de Feo ldquoMedicinal and magical plants in the NorthernPeruvian Andesrdquo Fitoterapia vol 63 no 5 pp 417ndash440 1992
[17] World Health Organisation The Promotion and Developmentof Traditional Medicine Technical Report Series 622 WorldHealth Organisation Geneva Switzerland 1978
high nutritive value like Colocasia esculenta Basella albaTelfairia occidentalis Glycine soja Gnetum africana Arachishypogea and Solanum lycopersicum are cultivated mainly forcommercial purposes as they are sold in nearby marketsOthers likeHibiscus senensis Moringa oleifera and Sida acutain addition to food and medicinal values have becomebeautiful ornamental plants Dracaena arborea Anacardiumoccidentale Basella alba Spathodea campanulata Alliumsativum Mucuna sloanei Ocimum basilicum Sida acutaLaportea aestuans and Trema orientalis are used to treatconstipation indigestion abdominal pain and dysenteryOur result also shows that the people use Xanthosoma sppCalotropis procera Vernonia amygdalina Ageratum cony-zoides Chromolaena odorata Newbouldia laevis Spathodeacampanulata and Adenopus breviflorus for skin diseases likewound tumor boils burns and cuts Dioscorea rotundataJatropha curcas Ricinus communis Irvingia gabonensis Aloebarteri OcimumbasilicumAzadirachta indica Baphia nitidaMitracarpus scabrum Glyphaea brevis and Trema orientalisare also used for the above purposes
Respiratory disorders like cough cold tuberculosis andasthma are cured using single herb or mixture of herbs likeCalotropis proceraDennettia tripetalaCarica papayaAlliumsativum Cymbopogon citratus Chrysophyllum albidum andZingiber officinale Our study shows that most herbs areknown to cure malaria and typhoid fever which are endemicin PortHarcourtmetropolisAnacardium spondiasDennettiatripetala Ananas comosus Adenopus breviflorus Ipomeainvolucrate Carica papaya Securinega virosa Hyptis pecti-nata Sida acutaAzarachta indicaPsidium guajavaBambusavulgarisCymbopogon citratusMorinda lucidaCitrus sinensisMurraya koenigii Capsicum annum Chrysophyllum albidumGlyphaea brevis Corchorus olitorius and Trema orientalis
4 Discussion
This is the first ethnobotanical study of Port Harcourtmetropolis in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria Our studyshows that the 83 plant species identified were useful asfood and in the treatment of different human ailmentsshowing that traditional medical practice is an importantcomponent of our everyday life Our findings are similar to[9] Reference [1] suggested the need to institutionalize thetraditional medicine in concert with orthodox medicine toachieve an effective national health care system in NigeriaThe authors maintained that an effective health cannot beachieved in Africa by orthodox medicine alone unless it hasbeen complemented with traditional medicine in support of[10]
The questionnaire and interviews gathered indicatethat most people in the Metropolis depend on traditionalmedicine for their health needs because of their poor eco-nomic conditions This is one of the major reasons whytraditional medicine has continued to thrive in both ruraland urban areas in Nigeria The utilization of medicinalplants in traditional medicine was found to be effectivecheap and practical References [11 12] noted the growinginterest on the medicinal properties of a number of common
plants The practice is fast developing due to poor economicsituation expensiveness and inadequate availability of drugsReference [13] stated that the use of plants and products inhealth care is even much higher particularly in those areaswith little or no access to modern health services Thesemedicinal plants have been underutilized in the orthodoxmedicine but have now been recognized in ethnomedicinalpreparation
Gender and age influenced the traditional knowledge ofour respondents Males within 45ndash70 years have medicinalknowledge than females This may be due to their involve-ment in trade or personal experience of using these plantsfor a very long time In addition the younger generationdoes not seem to have much trust in the traditional medicinesystem which may be attributed to increasing use of allelo-pathic medicines which are readily available and potent Ourfindings also show that the indigenous people value some ofthese herbs for medicinal purposes than as food condimentsFor instance garlic is more useful in treating fever coughconstipation asthma nervous disorder hypertension ulcerand antihelmentic than in mere seasoning of food The sameapplies to onion curry leaf ginger and scent leaf
Traditional medicinal practices are known to still be animportant component of everyday life in many regions of theworld [14ndash16] The use of plants in healthcare is even muchhigher particularly in areas with little or no access to modernhealth services [13] Reference [1] gave a comprehensivetreatise on the need to institutionalize traditional medicineinto the health scheme according to WHO guidelines [17]Most of the plants were used to treatmalaria fever underlyingthe importance of this disease in the region
Conservation of indigenous plant species of medicinalimportance is necessary as they remain source of healthand wealth There is need for closer collaboration betweenherbal medical practitioners medical doctors and otherstakeholders in medical practice to bring traditional healerscloser by engaging them in laboratory work training aswell as getting information on traditional prescriptions forspecific diseases Both traditional and orthodox medicinesshould complement each other and their integration orharmonization is necessary for quality healthcare deliveryespecially in the rural communitiesThe ethnobotany of PortHarcourt metropolis has been documented Various plantshave dual significance first as food secondly as medicinalplants and can have some active constituents for futurepharmaceutical analysis
Conflict of Interests
There is no conflict of interests as the information therein ispurely for research purposesThe authors do not support self-medication and further suggest getting advice from medicalpractitioners before taking any of these herbs
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the local informants and herbalhealers who shared their knowledge with them
ISRN Botany 11
References
[1] R N Okigbo and E CMmeka ldquoAn appraisal of phytomedicinein Africardquo KMITL Science and Technology Journal vol 6 no 2pp 83ndash94 2006
[2] D CMohana S Satish andK A Raveesha ldquoAntibacterial eval-uation of some plant extracts against some human pathogenicbacteriardquoAdvances in Biological Research vol 2 no 3-4 pp 49ndash55 2008
[3] G M Adwan B A Abu-shanab and K M Adwan ldquoIn vitroactivity of certain drugs in combination with plant extractsagainst Staphylococcus aureus infectionsrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 8 no 17 pp 4239ndash4241 2009
[4] A O Ajayi and T A Akintola ldquoEvaluation of antibacterialactivity of some medicinal plants on common enteric food-borne pathogensrdquoAfrican Journal of Microbiology Research vol4 no 4 pp 314ndash316 2010
[5] F C Akharaiyi and B Boboye ldquoAntibacterial and phytochem-ical evaluation of three medicinal plantsrdquo Journal of NaturalProducts vol 3 pp 27ndash34 2010
[6] J Hutchinson and J M Dalziel Flora of West Tropical Africavol 1 TheWhitefriars Press 1954
[7] JMDalzielTheUseful Plants ofWest Tropical Africa Appendixto Flora of West Tropical Africa Crown Agents for OverseasGovernment and Administration 1937
[8] L S Gill Ethnomedical Uses of Plants in Nigeria IbadanUniversity Press 1988
[9] A A Aiyeloja and O A Bello ldquoEthnobotanical potentialsof common herbs in Nigeria a case study of Enugu staterdquoEducational Research and Review vol 1 no 1 pp 16ndash22 2006
[10] A A Elujoba O M Odeleye and C M Ogunyemi ldquoTradi-tional medical development for medical and dental primaryHealth care delivery system in Africardquo African Journal ofTraditional Complementary andAlternativeMedicine vol 2 no1 pp 46ndash61 2005
[11] M A Belewu O A Olatunde and T A Giwa ldquoUnderutilizedmedicinal plants and spices chemical composition and phyto-chemical propertiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plant Research vol 3no 12 pp 1099ndash1103 2009
[12] I I Ijeh O I U Njokwu and E C Ekenze ldquoMedicinal evalu-ation of extracts of Xylopia aethiopica and Ocimum gratissiumrdquoJournal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences vol 26 pp44ndash47 2004
[13] M Saeed M Arshad E Ahmad E Ahmed and M IshaqueldquoEthnophytotherapies for the treatment of various diseasesby the local people of selected areas of NWFP (Pakistan)rdquoPakistan Journal of Biological Sciences vol 7 no 7 pp 1104ndash11082004
[14] R W Bussmann ldquoManteniendo el balance de naturalezay hombre La diversidad floritica Andina y su impotaniciaporla diversidad cultural-ejemplos del norte de Peru y Sur deEcuadorrdquo Amaldoa vol 13 no 1-2 pp 382ndash397 2006
[15] R W Bussmann and D Sharon ldquoTraditional medicinal plantuse in Northern Peru tracking two thousand years of healingculturerdquo Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2article 47 2006
[16] V de Feo ldquoMedicinal and magical plants in the NorthernPeruvian Andesrdquo Fitoterapia vol 63 no 5 pp 417ndash440 1992
[17] World Health Organisation The Promotion and Developmentof Traditional Medicine Technical Report Series 622 WorldHealth Organisation Geneva Switzerland 1978
[1] R N Okigbo and E CMmeka ldquoAn appraisal of phytomedicinein Africardquo KMITL Science and Technology Journal vol 6 no 2pp 83ndash94 2006
[2] D CMohana S Satish andK A Raveesha ldquoAntibacterial eval-uation of some plant extracts against some human pathogenicbacteriardquoAdvances in Biological Research vol 2 no 3-4 pp 49ndash55 2008
[3] G M Adwan B A Abu-shanab and K M Adwan ldquoIn vitroactivity of certain drugs in combination with plant extractsagainst Staphylococcus aureus infectionsrdquo African Journal ofBiotechnology vol 8 no 17 pp 4239ndash4241 2009
[4] A O Ajayi and T A Akintola ldquoEvaluation of antibacterialactivity of some medicinal plants on common enteric food-borne pathogensrdquoAfrican Journal of Microbiology Research vol4 no 4 pp 314ndash316 2010
[5] F C Akharaiyi and B Boboye ldquoAntibacterial and phytochem-ical evaluation of three medicinal plantsrdquo Journal of NaturalProducts vol 3 pp 27ndash34 2010
[6] J Hutchinson and J M Dalziel Flora of West Tropical Africavol 1 TheWhitefriars Press 1954
[7] JMDalzielTheUseful Plants ofWest Tropical Africa Appendixto Flora of West Tropical Africa Crown Agents for OverseasGovernment and Administration 1937
[8] L S Gill Ethnomedical Uses of Plants in Nigeria IbadanUniversity Press 1988
[9] A A Aiyeloja and O A Bello ldquoEthnobotanical potentialsof common herbs in Nigeria a case study of Enugu staterdquoEducational Research and Review vol 1 no 1 pp 16ndash22 2006
[10] A A Elujoba O M Odeleye and C M Ogunyemi ldquoTradi-tional medical development for medical and dental primaryHealth care delivery system in Africardquo African Journal ofTraditional Complementary andAlternativeMedicine vol 2 no1 pp 46ndash61 2005
[11] M A Belewu O A Olatunde and T A Giwa ldquoUnderutilizedmedicinal plants and spices chemical composition and phyto-chemical propertiesrdquo Journal of Medicinal Plant Research vol 3no 12 pp 1099ndash1103 2009
[12] I I Ijeh O I U Njokwu and E C Ekenze ldquoMedicinal evalu-ation of extracts of Xylopia aethiopica and Ocimum gratissiumrdquoJournal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Sciences vol 26 pp44ndash47 2004
[13] M Saeed M Arshad E Ahmad E Ahmed and M IshaqueldquoEthnophytotherapies for the treatment of various diseasesby the local people of selected areas of NWFP (Pakistan)rdquoPakistan Journal of Biological Sciences vol 7 no 7 pp 1104ndash11082004
[14] R W Bussmann ldquoManteniendo el balance de naturalezay hombre La diversidad floritica Andina y su impotaniciaporla diversidad cultural-ejemplos del norte de Peru y Sur deEcuadorrdquo Amaldoa vol 13 no 1-2 pp 382ndash397 2006
[15] R W Bussmann and D Sharon ldquoTraditional medicinal plantuse in Northern Peru tracking two thousand years of healingculturerdquo Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol 2article 47 2006
[16] V de Feo ldquoMedicinal and magical plants in the NorthernPeruvian Andesrdquo Fitoterapia vol 63 no 5 pp 417ndash440 1992
[17] World Health Organisation The Promotion and Developmentof Traditional Medicine Technical Report Series 622 WorldHealth Organisation Geneva Switzerland 1978
